1662. Different copulatives are sometimes combined, as follows.
1663. (1.) The affirmative copulatives #et# and #-que# are sometimes
combined, particularly in abridged sentences: as,
#et Epamīnōndās praeclārē cecinisse dīcitur, Themistoclēsque est habitus
indoctior#, _TD._ 1, 4, _Epaminondas in the first place is said to have
played beautifully, and Themistocles was not considered exactly an
educated man_. This combination is used by Cicero rarely, by Horace in
the satires, and rarely by late writers.
1664. The sequence #-que . . . et# is rare in old Latin, and not used by
Caesar, Vergil, or Horace. #-que . . . atque# is first used by
Lucretius, then by Vergil, Ovid, Livy, and Tacitus.
1665. (2.) Affirmative and negative copulatives are sometimes combined.
Thus #neque# or #nec# combined with #et#, in the sequences #neque . . .
et# and #et . . . neque#, which is rare in old Latin, is common in
Cicero: as,
#nec mīror et gaudeō#, _Fam._ 10, 1, 4, _in the first place I am not
surprised, and in the second place I feel glad_; #neque . . . et nōn#,
however, is rare. #patēbat via et certa neque longa#, _Ph._ 11, 4,
_there lay a road open at once plain and not long_. #neque . . . -que#
begins with Cicero, but is rare (1655), #neque . . . ac# begins with
Tacitus.
1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by
combination of asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives: as,
#rēgem Rhamsēn Libyā Aethiopiā Mēdīsque et Persīs et Bactriānō ac Scythā
potītum#, 2, 60, _that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia
and the Medes and Persians, and the Bactrian and Scythian_.
(_b._) DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but disconnect the
meaning. They are #aut#, #vel#, #sīve# or #seu#, #-ve#, and #an#, _or_.
Of these conjunctions, #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often placed before
two or more members of a sentence in the sense of _either . . . or_. And
in poetry, #-ve . . . -ve# sometimes occurs.
1668. (1.) #aut#, _or_, sometimes _or even_, _or at least_, is used
between two members which are to be represented as essentially different
in meaning, and of which one excludes the other: as,
#hīc vincendum aut moriendum, mīlitēs, est#, L. 21, 43, 5, _here you
must conquer, my men, or die_. #hōrae mōmentō cita mors venit aut
victōria laeta#, H. _S._ 1, 1, 7, _within an hour’s brief turn comes
speedy death or victory glad_. #aut vīvam aut moriar#, T. _Ph._ 483,
_I shall either live or die_. #sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē
frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae#, J. 5, 22, _when stars blink
faint, or even at the time when round rolls slow Boötes’ frigid wain_.
#quā rē vī aut clam agendum est#, _Att._ 10, 12, 5 [10, 12b, 2], _so we
must use force, or at any rate secrecy_. Sometimes #aut# connects
kindred ideas: as, #equī ictī aut vulnerātī cōnsternābantur#, L. 21, 33,
6, _the horses kept getting frantic from being hit or wounded_.
1669. #aut#, in the sense of _otherwise_, _or else_, sometimes
introduces a statement of what necessarily follows, if something else is
not done: as,
#audendum est aliquid ūniversīs, aut omnia singulīs patienda#, L. 6, 18,
7, _you must make some bold dash collectively, or else you must suffer
every thing individually_. #vel# is also occasionally used in this
sense.
1670. (2.) #vel#, _or_, introduces an alternative as a matter of choice
or preference, and often relates merely to the selection of an
expression: as,
#eius modī coniūnctiōnem tēctōrum oppidum vel urbem appellāvērunt#,
_RP._ 1, 41, _such a collection of dwelling-houses they called, well,
a town or a city, whichever you please_. #vel imperātōre vel mīlite mē
ūtiminī#, S. _C._ 20, 16, _use me as your generalissimo or as a private,
whichever you will_. #Catilīnam ex urbe vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel
ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus#, _C._ 2, 1, _we have--what
shall I say?--driven Catiline out of town, or allowed him to go out, or,
when he was going out of his own accord, wished him a pleasant journey_.
#vel# is often followed by #etiam#, #potius#, or #dīcam#. From Tacitus
on, #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of #aut#: as, #vincendum vel
cadendum esse#, Ta. 14, 35, _they must do or die_ (1668).
1671. #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of _if you will_, _even_, or
_perhaps_, especially before superlatives, or in the sense of _for
instance_: as,
#huius domus est vel optima Messānae, nōtissima quidem certē#, _V._ 4,
3, _this gentleman’s house is perhaps the finest in all Messana, at any
rate the best known_. #amant tēd omnēs mulierēs, neque iniūriā: vel
illae, quae here palliō mē reprehendērunt#, Pl. _MG._ 58, _the girls all
idolize you, well they may; for instance those that buttonholed me
yesterday_.
1672. (3.) #sīve# or #seu#, _or_, used as a disjunctive conjunction,
denotes a distinction which is not essential, or the speaker’s
uncertainty as to some matter of detail; when used once only, it is
chiefly in corrections, often with #potius#, _rather_, added; as,
#is Ascanius urbem mātrī seu novercae relīquit#, L. 1, 3, 3, _said
Ascanius left the city to his mother, or his stepmother, if you prefer_.
#dīxit Pompēius, sīve voluit#, _QFr._ 2, 3, 2, _Pompey made a speech, or
rather attempted to make one_.
1673. #sīve# is often repeated in the sense of _either_, or _no matter
whether . . . or_: as,
#ita sīve cāsū sīve cōnsiliō deōrum, quae pars calamitātem populō Rōmānō
intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit#, 1, 12, 6, _thus, no matter
whether from chance or through special providence, the part which had
done damage to Rome was the first to pay penalty in full_.
1674. (4.) #-ve# rarely connects main sentences, usually only the less
important parts of the sentence, or, oftener still, subordinate
sentences: as,
#cūr timeam dubitemve locum dēfendere?# J. 1, 103, _why should I fear or
hesitate to stand my ground?_ #Appius ad mē bis terve litterās mīserat#,
_Att._ 6, 1, 2, _Appius had written me two or three times_. With #nē# it
forms #nēve# or #neu#, which is used as a continuation of #nē# or #ut#:
see 1581; 1586; 1947.
1675. (5.) The interrogative particle #an# sometimes becomes a
disjunctive conjunction, _or_, _or possibly_, _or perhaps_: as,
#Simōnidēs an quis alius#, _Fin._ 2, 104, _Simonides or possibly
somebody else_. Common in Cicero, though not so in his speeches, and in
Livy, commonest in Tacitus.
[Erratum:
1667 ... #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often
#sīve#. are]
(_c._) ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but contrast the
meaning. They are #autem#, _on the other hand_, #sed#, #vērum#,
#cēterum#, _but_, #vērō#, _but_, _indeed_, #at#, _but_, #tamen#, #nihilō
minus#, _nevertheless_.
Of these conjunctions, #autem# and #vērō# are put after one word, or
sometimes after two closely connected words; #tamen# is put either at
the beginning, or after an emphatic word.
1677. (1.) #autem#, _again_, _on the other hand_, _however_, simply
continues the discourse by a statement appended to the preceding,
without setting it aside: as,
#hōrum prīncipibus pecūniās, cīvitātī autem imperium tōtīus prōvinciae
pollicētur#, 7, 64, 8, _to the chieftains of this nation on the one hand
he promises moneys, and to the community on the other hand the hegemony
of the whole province_. The opposition in a sentence introduced by
#autem#, _again_, is often so weak that a copulative, _and_, might be
used: as, #ille quī Dī̆ogenem adulēscēns, post autem Panaetium
audierat#, _Fin._ 2, 24, _the man who in his early youth had sat at the
feet of Diogenes, and afterwards of Panaetius_. #autem# is oftenest used
in philosophical or didactic discourse, less frequently in history,
oratory, or poetry.
1678. #autem# is often used in questions: as, #metuō crēdere :: crēdere
autem?# Pl. _Ps._ 304, _I am afraid to trust :: trust, do you say?_
1679. (2.) #sed# or #set#, and #vērum#, _but_, are used either in
restriction, or, after a negative, in direct opposition: as,
#vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere#, Pl. _Am._ 835,
_I tell the truth, but all in vain, since you are bent not to believe_.
#nōn ego erus tibī, sed servos sum#, Pl. _Cap._ 241, _I am not your
master, but your slave_.
1680. #nōn modo#, or #nōn sōlum#, _not only_, _not alone_, is followed
by #sed etiam# or #vērum etiam#, _but also_, by #sed . . . quoque#, _but
... as well_, or sometimes by #sed# or #vērum# alone: as,
#quī nōn sōlum interfuit hīs rēbus, sed etiam praefuit#, _Fam._ 1, 8, 1,
_who has not had a hand only in these matters, but complete charge_.
#quī omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum, sed praefuit#, _Fam._ 1, 6,
1. #nōn tantum# is sometimes used by Livy, and once or twice by Cicero,
but not by Caesar or Sallust, for #nōn modo#. Livy and Tacitus sometimes
omit #sed# or #vērum#.
1681. #nōn modo# has sometimes the meaning of #nōn dīcam#: as, #nōn modo
ad certam mortem, sed in magnum vītae discrīmen#, _Sest._ 45, _I won’t
say to certain death, but to great risk of life_.
1682. #nōn modo# or #nōn sōlum#, when attended by another negative, may
also be followed by #sed nē . . . quidem#, _but not even_, or #sed vix#,
_but hardly_: as,
#nōn modo tibī̆ nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem factum tuum#,
_Sull._ 50, _so far from being angry with you I do not even criticise
your action_. When both members have the same predicate, usually placed
last, the negation in #nē . . . quidem# or #vix# usually applies to the
first member also: as, #tālis vir nōn modo facere, sed nē cōgitāre
quidem quicquam audēbit, quod nōn audeat praedicāre#, _Off._ 3, 77,
_a man of this kind will not only not venture to do, but not even to
conceive anything which he would not venture to trumpet to the world_,
or _will not venture to conceive, much less do_.
1683. (3.) #cēterum# is sometimes used in the sense of #sed#, in
Terence, Sallust, and Livy. Sometimes also in the sense of #sed rē
vērā#, in Sallust and Tacitus, to contrast reality with pretence.
1684. (4.) #vērō#, _but_, _indeed_, introduces an emphatic contrast or a
climax: as,
#sed sunt haec leviōra, illa vērō gravia atque magna#, _Pl._ 86,
_however, all this is less important, but the following is weighty and
great_. #scīmus mūsicēn nostrīs mōribus abesse ā prīncipis persōnā,
saltāre vērō etiam in vitiīs pōnī#, N. 15, 1, 2, _we know that,
according to our Roman code of ethics, music is not in keeping with the
character of an eminent man, and as to dancing, why that is classed
among vices_. In Plautus, #vērō# is only used as an adverb; its use as
an adversative conjunction begins with Terence. In the historians,
#vērō# is often equivalent to #autem#.
1685. (5.) #at#, _but_, denotes emphatic lively opposition, an
objection, or a contrast: as,
#brevis ā nātūrā nōbīs vīta data est; at memoria bene redditae vītae
sempiterna#, _Ph._ 14, 32, _a short life hath been given by nature unto
man; but the memory of a life laid down in a good cause endureth for
ever_. #at# is often used before a word indicating a person or a place,
to shift the scene, especially in history. In law language, #ast#
sometimes occurs, and #ast# is also sometimes used, generally for the
metre, in Vergil, Horace, and late poetry.
1686. (6.) #tamen#, #nihilō minus#, _nevertheless_.
#accūsātus capitis absolvitur, multātur tamen pecūniā#, N. 4, 2, 6, _he
is accused on a capital charge and acquitted, but is nevertheless fined
in a sum of money_. #minus dolendum fuit rē nōn perfectā, sed poeniendum
certē nihilō minus#, _Mil._ 19, _there was less occasion for sorrow
because the thing was not done, but certainly none the less for
punishment_.
[Erratum:
1677 ... 7, 64, 8
7. 64, 8]
(2.) OTHER WORDS AS CONNECTIVES.
1687. Instead of a conjunction, other words are often used as
connectives: as, #pars . . . pars#, #aliī . . . aliī#; adverbs of order
or time: as, #prīmum#, _first_, or #prīmō#, _at first_ #... deinde . . .
tum#, &c.; and particularly adverbs in pairs: as, #modo . . . modo#,
#tum . . . tum#, less frequently #quā . . . quā#, #simul . . . simul#:
as,
#multitūdō pars prōcurrit in viās, pars in vestibulīs stat, pars ex
tēctīs prōspectant#, L. 24, 21, 8, _part of the throng runs out into the
streets, others stand in the fore-courts, others gaze from the
house-tops_. #prōferēbant aliī purpuram, tūs aliī, gemmās aliī#, _V._ 5,
146, _they produced some of them purple, others frankincense, others
precious stones_. #prīmō pecūniae, deinde imperī cupīdō crēvit#, S. _C._
10, 3, _at first a love of money waxed strong, then of power_. #tum hoc
mihī̆ probābilius, tum illud vidētur#, _Ac._ 2, 134, _one minute this
seems to me more likely, and another minute that_.
1688. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by words denoting
inference or cause, such as #ergō#, #igitur#, #itaque#, _therefore_;
#nam#, #namque#, #enim#, _for_, #etenim#, _for you see_: as,
#adfectus animī in bonō virō laudābilis, et vīta igitur laudābilis bonī
virī, et honesta ergō, quoniam laudābilis#, _TD._ 5, 47, _the
disposition in a good man is praiseworthy, and the life therefore of a
good man is praiseworthy, and virtuous accordingly, seeing it is
praiseworthy_. Of these words, #nam#, #namque#, and #itaque# are usually
put first in the sentence; #enim# and #igitur#, usually after one word,
rarely after two. But in Plautus regularly, and generally in Terence,
#enim# has the meaning of _indeed_, _verily_, _truly_, _depend upon it_,
and may stand at the beginning.
1689. In Plautus, the combination #ergō igitur# occurs, and in Terence
and Livy, #itaque ergō#: as, #itaque ergō cōnsulibus diēs dicta est#, L.
3, 31, 5, _accordingly then a day was set for the trial of the consuls_.
1690. The interrogative #quippe#, _why?_ losing its interrogative
meaning, is also used as a coordinating word, _why_, or _for_: as, #hōc
genus omne maestum ac sollicitum est cantōris morte Tigellī: quippe
benignus erat#, H. _S._ 1, 2, 2, _such worthies all are sad, are
woebegone over Tigellius the minstrel’s death; why he was generosity
itself_.
1691. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by pronominal words, such
as #hinc#, #inde#, _hence_, #eō#, #ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#, _so_,
_on that account_, &c.: as,
#nocte perveniēbant; eō custōdiās hostium fallēbant#, L. 23, 19, 10,
_they got there in the night; in that way they eluded the enemy’s
pickets_. But #eō# and #ideō# are not used thus by Cicero, Caesar, or
Sallust, or #idcircō# and #proptereā# by Cicero or Caesar.
1692. In animated rhetorical discourse any word repeated with emphasis
may serve as a copulative; this is called _Anaphora_: as,
#mīles in forum, mīles in cūriam comitābātur#, Ta. 1, 7, _soldiers went
with him to the forum, soldiers to the senate chamber_. #ēreptī estis ex
interitū, ēreptī sine sanguine, sine exercitū, sine dīmicātiōne#, _C._
3, 23, _you are rescued from death, rescued without bloodshed, without
an army, without a struggle_.
[Erratum:
1687 ... #tum . . . tum#, less frequently
, invisible]