LESSON CXVIII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal Griddle Cakes
Fruit Sirup
Coffee
_or_
Butterscotch Apples
Gingerbread
Tea
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or
Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.
If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a
week.
Calculate the cost of these breads.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by
using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking
soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.
(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet
milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.
DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
LESSON CXX
FINE AND COARSE FLOURS--MUFFINS
DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.--Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and
graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of
bran (cellulose).
As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard
covering of cellulose (see _Cellulose_). Cereals also contain a germ
from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the
germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat
(erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham
[Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham
advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing
it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain.
The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called
_bran_, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of
the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the
protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a
mixture of inferior flour and bran.
THE MILLING OF FLOUR.--In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are
passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and
separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of
times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more
thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are
they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour
consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called
_middlings_). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains
more of the outer coats. In general, the term _patent_ is applied to
flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer
coats is called _baker's_ or family flour. Patent flour contains more
starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein
than does patent flour. The terms _patent_ and _baker's_ vary in
meaning, however, in different localities.
[Illustration: _From Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No.
103._ FIGURE 85.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT GRAIN SHOWING BRAN
(outer coatings), FLOURY PART (interior of grain), AND GERM (base of
grain).]
VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.--Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours
contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that
breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material.
But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse
flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of
protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.
The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine
flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a
valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and
Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and
p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or
bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition,"
E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are
more beneficial than fine flour products.
PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.--The per cent of nutrients in a
food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield.
The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain
as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole
wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the
system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are
thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body
as they will when in the form of meal.
In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for
some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others.
In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors
determine the nutritive value of a food: (_a_) per cent of nutrients,
(_b_) form of nutrients, and (_c_) personal digestive
characteristics.
DROP BATTERS.--All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are
somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, _two
parts of flour to one part of moisture_. Compare the Plain Muffin
recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the
quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while
popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.
PLAIN MUFFINS
2 cupfuls flour
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1 egg
1 cupful milk
Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the
fat, add it to the egg mixture.
Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the
other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered
muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.
_Whole wheat_ flour may be substituted for fine white flour.
For _graham_ muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful
of graham flour.
1 1/8 cupfuls of _sour milk_ may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet
milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and
decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.
_Molasses_ may be substituted for sugar.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What
determines the quantity of baking powder?
Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What
ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?
If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should
the empty cups be protected while in the oven?
How many muffins will the recipes above make?
From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of
"entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which
probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy
(see _Value of Coarse Flour_).
Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade
of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein?
Which, the more carbohydrates?
What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?
What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent
flour?
How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?
In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased
for home use? What is the price per pound of each?
LESSON CXXI
COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS--MUFFINS
SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.--A resourceful worker in foods
is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her
available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one
to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize
all materials, allowing none to waste.
During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations
were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It
was found that _the substitution should be based upon the relative
weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals_ rather than upon
their relative measures.
By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same
quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.
For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:
l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour
5/6 cupful buckwheat flour
1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal
1 scant cupful peanut flour
7/8 cupful rice flour
1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats
1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground
in food chopper
1/3 cupful tapioca flour
7/8 cupful soy-bean flour
3/4 cupful potato flour
1 cupful rye flour
Although _yeast breads_ are not so satisfactory if made
_entirely_ of a grain other than wheat, _quick breads of desirable
grain and texture may be made without wheat_. It has been found,
however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more
satisfactory results than a single substitute.
When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of
substitutes are suggested by the _United States Department of
Agriculture, States Relation Service_.
Rolled oats (ground) _or_
Barley flour _or_
Buckwheat flour _or_
Peanut flour _or_
Soy-bean flour
and
Corn flour _or_
Corn-meal _or_
Rice flour _or_
Potato flour _or_
Sweet potato flour
Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein
which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in
the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a
satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials
together.
By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other
ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding
materials together.
When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in
_Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_) it is advisable to
increase the quantity of _baking powder_,--1/2 _teaspoonful for
each cupful of the substitute_ used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are
substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased
to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.--In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used
of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well
with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a
culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any
other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,--tender but firm
enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger
than those made with other cereals.
Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that
of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we
have favored it more than other cereals.
COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.--Make a comparative study of the
composition of the following:
_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.--From _U.S. Department of
Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of
wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains
the more ash?
Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in
corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic
property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the
latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best
to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing
corn breads.
It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and
it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a
difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow
and of white corn-meal.
_Wheat Flour and Oatmeal_.--From _U.S. Department of
Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of
wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash?
Which contains the more carbohydrates?
Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals
commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in
order to make it palatable.
_Wheat Flour and Rice_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_,
Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all
analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice
(average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein
and ash?
Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common
cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.
Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the
polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94:
Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02;
fat, 1.96;
carbohydrates, 76.98;
ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other
grains.
_Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye._--From _U. S. Department
of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition
of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of
fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in
buckwheat and in rye.
CORN MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour
2/3 cupful corn-meal
4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1/3 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
1 1/4 cupfuls milk
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at
400 F.
_Rye meal_ may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.
RICE MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour
3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
2/3 cupful milk
1/2 cupful cooked rice
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients
(through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour
mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a
hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.
OATMEAL MUFFINS
Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful
rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the
rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool.
Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4
teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
QUESTIONS
Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see
_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_).
Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain
Muffins. Account for the difference.
From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the
uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?
By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?
Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate
the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see
_Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values_).
LESSON CXXII
BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS
QUICK LOAF BREADS.--The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers
a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder
or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time.
The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are
about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather
than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and
in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the
making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.
If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat,
baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such
grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the
addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast
breads.
A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,--about
300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise
sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the
temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results
by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in
the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven
of proper temperature.
WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD
3 cupfuls whole wheat flour
3 tablespoonfuls sugar
2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
7/8 teaspoonful baking soda
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
1 egg
1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled
bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3
1/4 teaspoonfuls.
_Peanut Bread_ may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If
commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.
PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD
1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour
1 cupful pastry flour
3/8 cupful sugar
5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking)
1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk)
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone,
and cut in pieces or chop them.
Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put
the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the
latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then
proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in
a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
_Raisins_ or _dates_ may be used instead of prunes. These fruits
may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used
uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead
of 1 cupful liquid.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.
Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins
are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.
Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a
recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used.
Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made,
what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?
LESSON CXXIII
EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS--CREAM PUFFS
DRIED EGGS.--Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in
price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save
these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or
desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not
injurious. Their food value is high.
It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p.
108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that
desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes,
and salad dressings. _Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg
for each egg desired_. To this amount of powder, _add 3
tablespoonfuls of water_. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30
to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which
resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.
Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute
powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These
usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little
nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their
food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of
nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.
THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.--In all the quick
bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten
together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be
inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately.
It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a
delicate bread is desired.
The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because
some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs
used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.
It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some
of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be
separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet,
should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a
quick bread.
CREAM PUFF BATTER.--The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked
before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the
flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great
extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same
manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added
to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin
tins or gem pans.
The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening
Popovers, _i.e._ by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.
CREAM PUFFS
1/2 cupful water
3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil
1 tablespoonful butter
5/8 cupful flour
1/4 teaspoonful salt
2 eggs
Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all
of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the
ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of
the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the
fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be
successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a
time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled
baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325
degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with
Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.
Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad
mixture.
CREAM FILLING
1 cupful flour
3/4 cupful sugar
2 cupfuls scalded milk
1/2 tablespoonful butter
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the
mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat.
Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return
to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the
salt. Cool, and add flavoring.
For economy the butter may be omitted.
_Chocolate Filling_ may be made by following the recipe for Cream
Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by
cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as
directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.
QUESTIONS
Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind
of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do
you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready
to bake?
From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers
before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.
By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced
into the mixture?
Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?
What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?
In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before
cooking (see Experiment 24)?
Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather
than directly over the flame.
How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it
necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?
What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as
the flour mixture?
Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.