soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1
teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking
powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 _teaspoonful of baking
soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be
used to leaven 1 cupful of flour_.
_Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity
of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour
or flour or meal_ other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened
with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and
flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2
teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the
amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will
leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of
the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2
teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with
"acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to
leaven 1 cupful of flour (_i.e._ 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used.
Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls
of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of
flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour
(_i.e._ 1 teaspoonful) should be used.
SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs)
2 cupfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful baking powder
7/8 teaspoonful baking soda
1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour
milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix
thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.
CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES
1 cupful corn-meal
2 cupfuls water
3 tablespoonfuls fat
1 cupful sour milk
1 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking
soda
(with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2
teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn-
meal is
contained in the recipe (see _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick
Breads_).]
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82]
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add
the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop
at once on a hot griddle.
FRUIT SIRUP
Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a
generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a
strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water.
Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of
sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce
for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.
Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and
used in the same way.
QUESTIONS
If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how
should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.
Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes
(without eggs).
In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder,
upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what
ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your
answers.
What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other
ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the
other ingredients?
LESSON CXIV
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN
BREADS
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Instead of using prepared
baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous
lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough
baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and
the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:
(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> water + carbon dioxide gas +
neutral substance.
(_b_) Baking soda + cream of tartar --> water + carbon dioxide gas +
a neutral substance.
If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction
occurs:
(_c_) Baking soda + molasses --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral
substance.
It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and
baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 _teaspoonfuls of cream of
tartar with _1/2_ teaspoonful of baking soda._ These quantities of
materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2
_teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _2/3_ teaspoonful of baking
soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal
other than wheat._
In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with
mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of
flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of
baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of
flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the
necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much
of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid"
food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to
neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to
neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe
calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour
milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material)
will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will
neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar
(_i.e._ 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the
remainder of the baking soda.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.--A quick bread
mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If
the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should
be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed
mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold
should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled
more than two thirds full.
A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a
kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter
device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to
the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more _boiling_
water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed
directly in the water.
At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread
is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires
more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).
PLAIN BROWN BREAD
2 cupfuls graham flour
2/3 cupful white flour
3/4 cupful brown sugar
2/3 teaspoonful salt
1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar
2 cupfuls sour milk
Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl.
Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan,
and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking
powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4
hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds
and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
BOSTON BROWN BREAD
1/4 cupful sugar
1 cupful corn-meal
2 cupfuls graham flour
3/4 teaspoonful salt
2 teaspoonfuls baking soda
2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar
2 cupfuls sour milk
1/2 cupful molasses
Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses,
sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix
well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove
from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.
If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water
before adding to the other ingredients.
1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above
recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.
BUTTER BALLS
Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water.
Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then
in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of
the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the
other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle
over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.
QUESTIONS
What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the
gas formed in each mixture?
How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe
containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful
molasses?
Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread
recipes.
Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture
should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds
full?
Why should _boiling_ water be used to replenish the water in steaming
kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick
bread mixtures?
Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a
cloth?
What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before
using?
Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?
LESSON CXV
FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES
LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate
fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the
required consistency of flour mixtures, _i.e._ the approximate
proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of
leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.
In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the
quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The
following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for
quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk
BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses
FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.
When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2
teaspoonful for each egg.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.
FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda
to 1 cupful of flour.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR
AND BAKING SODA
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda
to 1 cupful of flour.
Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of
salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.
In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick
breads that contain little or no sugar:
FLOUR AND SALT
1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour
FLOUR AND FAT
1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour
While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should
remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When
recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring
material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.
WAFFLES
2 cupfuls flour
3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 to 2 eggs
1 1/2 cupfuls milk
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of
baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should
be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated
slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may
be used for this purpose.
Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and
brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.
Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional
leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.
How many waffles does the given recipe make?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXVI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS
HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates,
fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that
these foodstuffs either (_a_) "burned" (_i.e._ united with
oxygen) and produced energy, (_b_) built the body, or (_c_)
aided in regulating body processes.
All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of
digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see _Solution and
Digestion_); they are then further altered, _i.e._ split to their
end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The
blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood
also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the
air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs
that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel
materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when
oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body
builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue.
The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for
building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other
materials needed for building muscle.
Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other
than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the
body.
HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body
could be compared to an automobile, _i.e._ the "burning" of the fuel
foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy
that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the _fuel value_ of
that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat
is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although
ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure
their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the
nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats,
and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous
nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence,
the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see
"Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman,
Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. _If the quantity of heat that is
produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the
quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body._
Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in
temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The
heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a _Calorie_, or a definite
quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of
temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote
86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the
Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by
the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course
will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in
keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will
enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The
following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the
Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of
water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the
temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of
heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four
degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, _i.e._ the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat
that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from
60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water through about 4 degrees F.
The Calorie, [Footnote 87: _I.e._ greater Calorie, distinguished from
the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, _is
approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound (pint) of water through_ 4 degrees F. If one pint of water
were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four
degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have
been applied to the water (see Figure 82).
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked
with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced
by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those
given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and
Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143,
"Physiological Fuel Values."]
1 gram protein yields 4 Calories
1 gram fat yields 9 Calories
1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories
Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become:
1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories
1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories
1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories
[Illustration: FIGURE 82.--ILLUSTRATING THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REPRESENTED BY
ONE CALORIE.]
In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their
composition. For such data _United States Department of Agriculture_
Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.
_Flour_.--The fuel content of flour is (see _United States
Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses
Average):
10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates.
Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of
fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.
[Illustration: FIGURE 83.--COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF
FOODS.]
The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The
carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.
Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =)
100.98.
_Butter_.--The fuel content of butter is (see _United States
Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):
1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.
1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and
no carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.
The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.
Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is
(1.13+216.75=) 217.88.
_Sugar_.--The fuel content of sugar is (see _United States
Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent
protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.
1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1
ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.
HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.--For
practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found
more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value
instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred
Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in
the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This
weight is termed a _standard portion_ or a _100-Calorie portion_
(see Figures 83 and 84).
From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the
quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.
If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and _x_ represents the
number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then
_x_/1=100/100.98 or _x_=0.99, the number of ounces of flour
which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of flour.
If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and _x_ represents the
number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then
_x_/1=100/217.88 or _x_=0.45, the number of ounces of butter
which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of butter.
[Illustration: FIGURE 84--100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS. a, banana, b,
butter, c, eggs d, meat; e, bread.]
If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of
ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/113 or
_x_=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100
Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--It is
possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several
food materials. To do this one must know or find:
(_a_) Recipe for food.
(_b_) Weight and measure of combustible food materials.
(_c_) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the
combustible
foodstuffs.
The recipe for one loaf of bread is:
1 cupful water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful sugar
3 1/2 cupfuls flour
1/2 tablespoonful butter
1/4 cake compressed yeast
1/4 cupful water
By weighing and measuring one finds:
1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls
1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls
1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls
Then,
1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce
1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce
3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces
(From data of _How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured_.)
1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories
1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories
3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories
1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories
For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated
in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a
recipe, or a "made" food.
The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the
following manner:
Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100
Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of
homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6
) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.
QUESTIONS
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.
Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.
Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the
butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.
Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then
weigh these portions.
Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard
portion?
Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is
computed?
Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.
Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.
NOTE.--Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient
in recording the results of these calculations.
LESSON CXVII
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods.
Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost
of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the
menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the meal without a maid.
[Illustration: FORM A: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS]