percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure
75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains
the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more
water? Which contains the more nutriment?
Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXXIV
FOOD REQUIREMENT
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.--One hears much concerning working efficiency,
_i.e._ the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest
type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and
quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his
working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious
consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is
produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So
sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be
supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.
Since foods furnish the body with energy, _the energy which the body
spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed_. If the
body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy,
measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of
combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in
Calories.
Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the
quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many
factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food
requirements or _dietary standards_. Some of these factors are: (1)
weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.
(1) _Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy
Requirement_.--In general the quantity of food required increases with
the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight
increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in
height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short,
fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather
than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food
requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is
generally based upon body weight.
(2) _Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement_.--From the
previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise,
even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been
found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the
functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the
energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is
furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an
important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an
individual should use.
The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who
sits quietly at his employment.
The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions
of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and
Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]
Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour
Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour
Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour
Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour
Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour
Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour
From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of
different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a
bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories
9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories
4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per
hour) 400 Calories
3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories
-------------
2330 Calories
The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as
excavating, is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories
8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories
1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories
7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories
-------------
4990 Calories
Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141,
Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:
Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day
Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day
Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day
Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day
Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day
Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day
The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman
in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See
"Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:
At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day
Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day
Milliners Teachers
Bookkeepers Seamstresses
Stenographers Machine operatives
Occupations involving standing, walking,
or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day
Cooks in family groups Chamber maids
General housekeepers Waitresses
Occupations developing muscular
strength 2500-3000 Calories per day
Laundresses Cooks for large groups
(3) _Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement._--Young children,
_i.e._ those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much
food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not
proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child
requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only
to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An
aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old
person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the
activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the
adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of
Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.]
gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to
seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen,
food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age.
Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for
all ages above seventeen:
Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day
Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day
Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day
Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day
Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day
Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day
Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day
The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is
greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater
restlessness or muscular activity of the boy.
DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.--If a person's energy requirement were 2500
Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef
steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and
would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all
the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the
question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by
each of these foodstuffs?
Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious
results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal
disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other
hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment.
Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much
difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there
should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the
demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes
in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use
of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the
total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.
Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.--Although protein may furnish the
body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its
more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and
fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the
protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There
should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the
body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the
growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that
"flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food.
But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can
be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a
generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines.
With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for
body-building.
For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the
carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total
Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the
requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is
varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in
satisfactory proportion.
DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.--Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it
cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be
measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of
certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein.
A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the
fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral
materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing
phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.
THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.--The appetite is the most common
measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an
index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and
weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food
requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet
have normal body functions.
There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead
to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely
essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be
due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and
quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home-
keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and
usefulness of the members of the family.
WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.--It has been found that the diet
of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D.
Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and
boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining
whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If
the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be
malnourished.
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS
HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
INCHES YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS
39 34 35 36
40 36 37 38
41 38 39 40
42 40 41 42 43
43 42 42 43 44
44 44 45 45 46
45 46 47 47 48 49
46 48 48 49 50 51
47 49 50 51 52 53
48 51 52 53 54 55 56
49 53 54 55 56 57 58
50 56 57 58 59 60 61
51 59 60 61 62 63 64
52 62 63 64 65 66 67
53 66 67 68 68 69 70
54 68 69 70 71 72 73
55 72 73 74 75 76 77
56 76 77 78 79 80 81
57 81 82 83 84 85 86
58 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
59 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 98
60 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 106
61 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111
62 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 115
63 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 119
64 115 117 118 119 120 121 122
65 117 119 120 122 123 124 125
66 119 121 122 124 126 127 128
67 124 126 127 128 129 130
68 126 128 130 132 133 134
69 129 131 133 135 136 137
70 134 136 138 139 140
71 138 140 142 143 144
72 145 147 148 149
ABOUT WHAT A GIRL SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH
Age Age
5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz
8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz
11 to 14 12 oz.
Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the
usual indoor clothes
CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
156 Fifth Avenue, New York
Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_. Prepared by _Dr. Thomas
D.
Wood_.
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS
HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs
39 35 36 37
40 37 38 39
41 39 40 41
42 41 42 43 44
43 43 44 45 46
44 45 46 46 47
45 47 47 48 48 49
46 48 49 50 50 51
47 51 52 52 53 54
48 53 54 55 55 56 57
49 55 56 57 58 58 59
50 58 59 60 60 61 62
51 60 61 62 63 64 65
52 62 63 64 65 67 68
53 66 67 68 69 70 71
54 69 70 71 72 73 74
55 73 74 75 76 77 78
56 77 78 79 80 81 82
57 81 82 83 84 85 86
58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91
59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97
60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102
61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110
62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116
63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119
64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122
65 120 122 123 124 125 126
66 125 126 127 128 129 130
67 130 131 132 133 134 135
68 134 135 136 137 138 139
69 138 139 140 141 142 143
70 142 144 145 146 147
71 147 149 150 151 153
72 152 154 155 156 157
73 157 159 160 161 162
74 162 164 165 166 167
75 169 170 171 172
76 174 175 176 177
ABOUT WHAT A BOY SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH
AGE AGE
5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz
8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz
Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_ Prepared by
_Dr Thomas D Wood_
Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The
rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the
correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the
home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining
whether the proper amount is being eaten.
QUESTIONS
Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family.
Compute your own energy requirement from this table.
Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the
normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under
weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to
increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight.
How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your
age?
LESSON CXXV
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a
meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.
Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25
cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements
stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of
serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful
to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes
of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix),
regarding service with and without a maid.]
LESSON CXXVI
REVIEW--MEAL COOKING
MENU
Potato Soup
Lettuce Salad with French Dressing
Muffins
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXXVII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or
baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to
mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time
you prepare them.
(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,--
such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds
of flours or meals.
DIVISION TWELVE
QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS
LESSON CXXVIII
METHOD OF MIXING FAT IN QUICK BREADS--DROP BISCUIT
MIXING FAT.--What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick
breads (see previous lessons on _Batters_)?
In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly.
Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and
stirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick bread
mixture is thin, _i.e._ a batter.
When the quick bread is a stiff mixture, _i.e._ a dough, this method
of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has been
found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat,
provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs by
working it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knife
or with the fingers. (In which method of mixing--with the knife or with
the fingers--can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?)
If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into the
flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients
between the palms of the hands.
SOFT DOUGHS.--Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a
spoon. A soft dough contains approximately _three parts of flour to one
part of moisture_. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft dough
mixture.
DROP BISCUITS
2 cupfuls flour
4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Milk or water, about 3/4 cupful
Mix the dry ingredients; then work the fat into the mixture with the tips
of the fingers, or cut it in thoroughly with a knife. With a knife mix the
liquid with the dry ingredients. The mixture is of proper consistency when
it may be dropped from the spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls on
an oiled pan, or into oiled muffin tins. Bake in a hot oven (475 degrees
F.) from 12 to 15 minutes.
FRUIT PUDDING
Place sliced fruit--fresh, canned, or dried--in an oiled baking-dish.
Cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture, made by using the ingredients in
the same proportion as for Drop Biscuits. Two or three times as much fat
as the given quantity may be used. Bake until the fruit is tender and the
batter is firm and brown, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. Serve with cream
or fruit sauce. Plain cream may be used, or the cream may be whipped, or
sweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla.
WHIPPED CREAM SAUCE
1 cupful whipped cream
1 egg white
1/3 cupful powdered sugar
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Chill the cream; add the unbeaten egg; then beat with an egg beater (for
method of whipping cream see Lesson XLVIII). Add the sugar and vanilla.
QUESTIONS
Explain why the fat in Drop Biscuit is not added in the same manner as in
pour batters.
If the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients, why rub the
ingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms of
the hands?
Compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard or
vegetable fat with those made with butter.
Why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding?
Mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the pudding
and tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time of
baking.
Why does the quantity of liquid given in Drop Biscuits vary (see _Pour
Batter_ and _Gluten_)?
Why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it
(see _Whipping Cream_)?
LESSON CXXIX
QUANTITY OF FAT IN QUICK BREADS--SHORT CAKE
"Shortening."--The tenderness of a quick bread is an important
consideration. It is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread. Oil
and water do not mix (see Experiment 35). Hence when much fat is used in a
quick bread, particles of dough or batter, which contain both fat and
moisture, do not adhere firmly. Quick bread containing much fat becomes
tender, that is, it crumbles readily.
In preparing modified biscuit mixtures,--short cakes, fruit dumplings,
etc.,--in which the quantity of fat is increased, make very careful
comparisons between the "rich" or "short" breads and those containing the
standard quantity of fat. In making observations, note the following:
(_a_) ease or difficulty in removing from the pan without
breaking,
(_b_) tenderness or toughness,
(_c_) difference in flavor.
FRUIT SHORT CAKE
Make a biscuit mixture, containing two or three times the quantity of fat
used in biscuit mixture. Place one half of the mixture in an oiled cake
pan, then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute.
Add the remainder of the mixture and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20
minutes. Remove from the pan, and place on a cake cooler for a few
minutes. Split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits.
Place uncrushed fruits on the top, and serve with plain cream or Whipped
Cream or Fruit Sauce; or cover the cake with a meringue, garnish with
whole fruit, and serve with a Soft Custard Sauce.
1/4 cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of Short Cake.
QUESTIONS
What general statement can you make with regard to the effect of
increasing the fat in quick breads?
Knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread, when the quantity of
fat is increased, state the effect of adding too much fat.
What is the purpose of using _melted_ butter or substitute in the
Short Cake mixture?
Mention some fruits, or fruit combinations, that would be palatable in a
Short Cake.
How many persons can be served with a Short Cake made with 2 cupfuls of
flour?
LESSON CXXX
"CUT" BISCUIT
USE OF THE ROLLING PIN.--When dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits,
it needs to be a little stiffer than for Drop Biscuits. It should,
however, be a soft dough. Biscuit dough should not be pressed down with a
rolling motion, but should be deftly and gently "patted" out with several
successive "touches" with the rolling pin.
In using the rolling pin for stiff doughs, when more pressure should be
exerted, the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke.
BAKING POWDER BISCUITS
2 cupfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
4 teaspoonfuls baking powder
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Milk or water, about 2/3 cupful
Mix as in drop biscuits, using less milk, so that the dough is just stiff
enough to roll out. Roll gently to 1/2 inch thickness on a slightly
floured board, and cut into small biscuits. If any dry flour clings to the
top of the biscuits, moisten it with a little milk or water. Place on a
slightly oiled pan, and bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15
minutes. Serve hot. They may be placed on a folded napkin or doily.
APPLE DUMPLINGS
Make Baking Powder Biscuit dough. Roll until 1/4 inch thick and cut into
pieces. Place an apple (cored and pared) in the center of each piece. Fold
the dough over the fruit and bake (375 degrees F.) or steam for 1/2 hour,
or until the apples are soft. The dumplings may be browned in the oven
after steaming.
Rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for Apple Dumplings. Other fruits
may be used instead of apples.
FRUIT ROLLS
Make a biscuit mixture, using 4 tablespoonfuls of fat instead of 2
tablespoonfuls, as given in the recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits. Gently
roll to 1/4 inch thickness, and spread the following ingredients over it:
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon
Fruit
For the fruit use:
1/2 cupful dried currants, or
1/3 cupful raisins and 2 tablespoonfuls citron, or
2 cupfuls chopped apples
Roll as jelly roll, then cut into pieces 3/4 inch thick and place (cut
side down) on buttered tins. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) 15 to 30
minutes. If apples are used, serve the roll with cream and sugar as a
dessert. If the dried fruits are used, serve the roll in place of a hot
bread or cake.
QUESTIONS
Compare recipes for "drop" and "cut" biscuits. How do they differ?
Why should biscuits be "patted" out rather than rolled out with the
rolling pin?
If dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting, what is the
result after baking? How can this be remedied?
How can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking to
the dough?
Why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily?
Write a recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits, using 3 cupfuls of flour as the
basis.
How many apples of medium size are required for Apple Dumplings, when 2
cupfuls of flour are used?
Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking Powder
Biscuits?
How should citron be cut for use in cooking?