TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by
dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two
experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat
thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter.
Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20
minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following
questions:
What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With
what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a
part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was
made porous.
EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat
Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8
cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64.
Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of
moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be
leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the
mixture?
Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In
most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using
lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being
moistened and heated.
EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful
of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it
carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour
measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour
before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before
measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?
[NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]
In preparing all quick bread mixtures, _pastry flour_ (see _Wheat
Flour_) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually
any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is
added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other
materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but
should be stirred.
OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are
equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more
satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do
not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a
thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does
not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven,
the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By
making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove
very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a
thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is
provided with a glass door.
[Illustration: Courtesy of the _National Stove Co_ FIGURE 81--OVEN
HEAT REGULATOR]
A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached
to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven,
but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature
wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner
lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed
in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened
or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased
or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant,
_i.e._ at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens,
_i.e._ ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow
little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and
kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with
clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off
automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a
certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated
walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."
A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means
of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided
with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained
so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated.
The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of
250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the
Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5
minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven;
place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F.,
450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550
degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.
Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From
Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven
Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers
College, Columbia University.]
1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.
2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread,
plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf
cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.
3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and
Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat
after the first ten minutes.
4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the
first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."
Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (_a_) note the
number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a
light brown or to a golden brown; (_b_) note the number of "counts"
(one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.
POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (_a_) Quick
Breads and (_b_) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much
shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided
into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture
in the batter. A _pour batter_ is the thinnest quick bread mixture.
It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite
proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different
flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials
varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture.
Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.
POPOVERS
1 egg
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful milk
1 cupful flour
1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)
Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all
the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a
Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a
hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be
used instead of iron pans.
Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may
be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a
pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple,
peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.
QUESTIONS
What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that
helps to lighten the Popovers?
What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when
they are heated quickly?
What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many
Popovers will the given recipe make?
LESSON CX
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD
Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined
ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often
introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the
following:
EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of
sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any
change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What
kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see
Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of
baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?
EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk.
[Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the
end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes
place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an _acid_ is
present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of
baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper.
When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an _alkaline_ substance is
present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.
Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and
heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the
saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color,
carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again.
If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus
does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue
litmus paper changes color a _neutral_ substance is present, i.e. a
substance neither acid nor alkaline.
When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction.
Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A _chemical
change_ has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely
different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan;
another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is
water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change
always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain
food mixtures are cooked and digested.
EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the
contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of
baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction--
acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was
the first quantity? Explain.
If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour
milk is used, some _unneutralized_ soda will remain in the mixture.
This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive
quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.
Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the _approximate_ proportion of
baking soda to sour milk is: _1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1
cupful of thick sour milk._
The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper
amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:
1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote
79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water
+ carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.
1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon
dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."
SPIDER CORN BREAD
3/4 cupful corn-meal
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda
1/4 cupful flour
1 egg
1 tablespoonful sugar
1 cupful sour milk
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk,
then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well
blended.
Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the
corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked,
usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.
TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually
sufficiently baked: (_a_) when it is a golden brown in color;
(_b_) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (_c_) when the
crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or
(_d_) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting
needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary
to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a
very thick layer.
QUESTIONS
Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain
their action.
Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2
teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.
What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?
How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?
LESSON CXI
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD
EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of
baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it
with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat.
What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the
action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain
how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.
EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully
measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may
be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its
intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16
teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the
soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue
litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the
litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor
pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,--acid, alkaline,
or neutral,--is present? What change has taken place in the materials
placed in the saucepan?
This experiment shows that the _approximate_ proportion of baking
soda to molasses is:
1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda to_ 1 _cupful of molasses_.
This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:
1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> neutral material +
carbon dioxide gas + water.
GINGERBREAD
2 cupfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
3/4 teaspoonful baking soda
1 teaspoonful cinnamon
2 teaspoonfuls ginger
1/8 teaspoonful cloves
1 egg
1 cupful thick sour milk
1/2 cupful molasses
1/2 cupful sugar
2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing
bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt
it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry
ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a
shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees
F.) 20 minutes or longer (see _Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick
Bread_)
_Gingerbread without Eggs_ may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe
above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
_Water Gingerbread_ may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water
for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4
teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
QUESTIONS
Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain
their action.
What is the price per quart of molasses?
How many persons does this recipe serve?
LESSON CXII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES
EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND
BAKING SODA.--Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper.
Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?
Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of
tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1
teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes
place? What substance is being formed?
EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND
BAKING SODA.--Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with
the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,--
hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before
or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the
temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick
bread mixtures?
EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.--Add about 1
teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the
effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of
Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do
you infer this baking powder contains?
(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)
EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.--Filter the contents of the tube
used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of
tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper.
What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?
COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.--Baking powder consists of
(_a_) baking soda,
(_b_) a substance having an acid reaction,
(_c_) a starchy material.
The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some
powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium
acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They
are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum
baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material.
Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction,
such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid
phosphate.
The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent
the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.
The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its
composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.
EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
BAKING POWDERS.--Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each
of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful
of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate
baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and
phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that
chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts
the longest time?
DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Although there has been much
discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over
another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little
harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain
types is slower than that of others, _i.e._ the formation of the gas
continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react
very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still
in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is
well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can
can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is
much greater than that of others.
QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.--Since baking powder contains
both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a
quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the
quantity of flour and eggs. _When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of
baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour._ When eggs are
added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened
1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
_Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1
cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._
SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.--The general rules for mixing
quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the
egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most
housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result
satisfactory.
The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in
the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of
baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change
from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than
to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After
mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as
well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency
of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin,
"pasty," and coarse grained.
A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are
mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to
oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain
one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake
batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each
baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.
Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot
griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen,
when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes
should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after
baking.
PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES
2 cupfuls flour
1 egg
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 1/2 cupfuls milk
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
3 tablespoonfuls fat
Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More
or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given
quantity may be required.
1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired,
one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup
(see _Sirup_).
BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES
1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs
1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk
3 tablespoonfuls fat
1 to 2 eggs
1/2 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
3 teaspoonfuls baking powder
Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in
the order given.
1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. _Rice
Griddle Cakes_ are especially pleasing.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.
What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder?
Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate
baking powder?
What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How
should baking powder be stored?
What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too
thick?
What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?
How should griddle cakes be served?
LESSON CXIII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK
GRIDDLE CAKES
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Some housekeepers maintain
that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of
sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light
and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain
as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain
eggs. If _the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour_
and _no eggs are present_, it is often desirable to add leavening
materials other than sour milk and baking soda.
From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of
baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon
dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists
of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance
for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and
baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures,
especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no
eggs. This involves a double reaction:
(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> neutral material + carbon dioxide
gas + water.
(_b_) Baking powder (moistened and heated) --> neutral material +
carbon dioxide gas + water.