consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral
matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term
"ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of
substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and
cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the
same kind of ash.
The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The
substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral
matter or ash.
Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a
few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral
substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes
forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been
heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment
salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused
with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances
besides common salt.
USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body.
It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and
many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps
to build the body.
Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in
perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also
contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the
body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the
regulation of body processes.
Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building
the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_.
Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.
FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of
the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots
of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may
be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels
sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes,
cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.
Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed
most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.
In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_.
The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins
and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and
celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much
cellulose.
Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the
value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be
too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved
vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body
grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).
Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable
constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all
the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that
the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many
of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water
in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off
water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss
of nutriment.
Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables.
Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.
A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the
saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:
1. Cooking in water with their skins.
2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after
cooking for sauces and soups.
3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained
away after cooking.
4. Cooking in steam.
5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.
COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should
be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water
should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept
boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water
wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.
The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_.
When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock
should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.
Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.
BEETS
Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as
not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the
beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking
Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient
cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover
with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into
slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter.
A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.
Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White
Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.
Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and
placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.
SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS
2 cupfuls sliced onions
2 cupfuls tomatoes
1 tablespoonful fat
Salt and pepper
1 cupful bread crumbs
Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is
drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions,
however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the
sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish
put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and
pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.
Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle
these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400
degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.
BROILED TOMATOES
Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them
(with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the
range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until
the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of
tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
QUESTIONS
Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain
considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11,
explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.
State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces
before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on
beets during cooking.
Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why
it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with
a fork.
What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?
Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and
tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.
What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after
parboiling them?
LESSON XII
FRESH VEGETABLES (B)
FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain
foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste
of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may
be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.
There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to
prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate
their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by
a thorough knowledge of the subject.
Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why
certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully,
you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously
considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing
experience.
TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state
just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time
varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a
vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables,
especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long
cooking.
For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a
food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking
a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time
table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the
most reliable test.
TABLE
Asparagus 15-20 minutes
Beets (young) 45-60 minutes
Beets (old) 3-4 hours
Cabbage 15-30 minutes
Carrots 30-60 minutes
Cauliflower 20-30 minutes
Celery 20-45 minutes
Green Corn 12-20 minutes
Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes
Onions 30-45 minutes
Parsnips 30-45 minutes
Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes
Potatoes 25-30 minutes
Spinach 15-30 minutes
Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes
String Beans 1-3 hours
Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes
Turnips 30-45 minutes
PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it
should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new
potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the
valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.
Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material
covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a
turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)
MASHED TURNIPS
6 medium turnips
Salt and pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of
a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or
knitting needle.
Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough
salt and pepper to season. Serve hot.
BUTTERED CARROTS
4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and
add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a
small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and
seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining
water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.
Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may
be cooked in the same way.
(Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.)
QUESTIONS
Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible?
What is the exception to this rule?
How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?
Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is
moisture not added to mashed turnips?
What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in
water?
Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large
amount?
What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of
these vegetables in a pound?
LESSON XIII
FRESH FRUITS
FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family"
(p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much
money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should
no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.
Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,--
the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits,
especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges,
and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in
constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they
are constipating.
A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and
fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy.
Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation
and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral
matter.
KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This
classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered
vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are
termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but
because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as
such.
Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This
distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits
contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried
fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less
sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This
classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be
considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in
ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.
WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a
practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most
cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.
The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is
desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a
less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh
flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is
cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a
mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to
fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of
the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup
if it is desired to preserve its shape.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces,
and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking.
For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.
We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for
paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by
the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is
disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all
fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.
The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This
can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering)
_temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used
on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits.
Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.
FRUIT SAUCES
Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is
tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press
through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the
sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of
cooked fruit.
If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding
spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding
cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.
STEWED FRUITS
Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1
cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook
_gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the
fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of
proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.
Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe
fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.
COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit
and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of
Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and
appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?
At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit?
Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should
sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool?
Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)
What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after
cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two
precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means,
other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked
fruit?
RHUBARB SAUCE
Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top
of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring
occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful
of cooked rhubarb.
The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in
a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb.
Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add
sugar as directed above.
QUESTIONS
How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a
pound?
What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?
For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions
for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list
of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen,
_The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note
at the end of Lesson VI.
RELATED WORK
LESSON XIV
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is
to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that
its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods
are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product
is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in
individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal"
lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook
enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory
period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch
room.]
Scalloped Corn
Baked Apple
Tea
Outside Preparation of Lesson.
(_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.
(_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.
(_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions
regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.
(_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.
(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in
the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be
ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_.
Preparation of Lesson in Class.
(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work
independently.
(_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more
persons as the time permits.
(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible.
(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.
(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary.
(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.
(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be
ready for serving.
(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and
serving without a maid.
(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of
the failure and its remedy.
LESSON XV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal
daily.
Cook fruit at least once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.
(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as
possible.
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
LESSON XVI
SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR
ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this
machine gives it energy or the power to move.
The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human
machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power
to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary
and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind
of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood
are examples of the latter kind.
At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not
only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the
body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel
foods.
There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the
first one to be considered.
EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold
water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does
the sugar separate from the water?
EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with
Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If
you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you
have the water?
EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a
teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in
Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?
Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar
quickly, how would you prepare it?
THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since
dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see
_Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar
would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a
chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too
concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is
slightly more complex.
Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude
that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to
other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much
dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the
stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true
when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty.
Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce
digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and
either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other
foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.
SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a
number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two
groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or
_glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or
_cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar.
The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade
names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A
discussion of these follows:
(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or
sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then
purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by
crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely
ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.
Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.