much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.
(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid
and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its
sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per
cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as
granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency
is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for
sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is
needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn
sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.
(_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane
sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as
lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain
lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for
children.
One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for
children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar
refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It
also differs in flavor.
Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and
has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too
strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses
or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under
various trade names may be purchased.
(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited
supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral
matter as is molasses.
(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are
prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a
distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains
approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71
per cent.
PEANUT CANDY
2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_
1 cupful granulated sugar _and_
1 cupful corn sirup (dark)
3/4 cupful chopped peanuts
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar
is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and
stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup.
If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and
cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.
Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in
as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_
pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.
_Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of
peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are
used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.
CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to
granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This
brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called
_caramelization_.
When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting
point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of
granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of
temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature,
hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.
NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of
an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of
Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated,
the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields
more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn
sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural
is expelled.
In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water,
hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn
sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.
EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the
candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand
for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it
dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical
application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan
in which sugar has been caramelized?
QUESTIONS
Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?
What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?
Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and
that made with granulated sugar and sirup.
Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled
peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?
Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?
What is the advantage of heating the pan?
Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after
adding the peanuts?
Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of
peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.)
From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion,
absorption, and assimilation of foods.
LESSON XVII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)
DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has
been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they
are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh
fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and
ash.
Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They
are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most
dried fruit is sugar.
Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets
for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than
candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as
explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the
concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of
Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is
another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits
contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its
laxative effect.
The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were
formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served
in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining
them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts
containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked
without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured
by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as
apricots, apples, and rhubarb.
Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long
distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their
high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver).
Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This
is an advantageous factor in carrying them.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place
it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water
over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak
for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering
temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender,
remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir
carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.
PRUNES
Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add
about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar
may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.
APRICOTS
Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2
cupful of sugar.
TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need
only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined
for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is
desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.
Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins
in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins
are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.
If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are
soft, drain and press out the seeds.
TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little
washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before
using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer,
shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands.
Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If
the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or
in a "cool" oven.
MIXED FRUIT SAUCE
1/2 pound dried apricots
1 pint water
1 cupful raisins
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 lemon,--juice
1 orange,--juice and grated rind
5/8 cupful sugar
Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the
other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the
apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until
dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.
QUESTIONS
Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.
Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight
and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due?
What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What
does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)
What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?
What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?
Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that
obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the
difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.
State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked
Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.
LESSON XVIII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)
DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as
accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often
with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs.
These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be
added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and
nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are
unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.
PRUNE PUDDING
1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped
1/2 cupful sugar
1 cupful chopped nuts
1/2 cupful milk or prune water
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted
3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the
baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes,
or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped
cream.
DATE PUDDING
1/2 cupful sugar
1 egg
2 tablespoonfuls milk
1/3 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces
1 cupful California walnuts, chopped
Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to
the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in
a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or
cold with plain or whipped cream.
QUESTIONS
How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked
prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.)
What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?
How many will the above recipes serve?
What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding
surrounded with hot water during baking?
LESSON XIX
CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE
STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the
body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition
and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs
from sugar.
EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,--
corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca,
potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?
If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture
of iodine is added to it.
From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the
starchy foods belong.
EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful
of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What
happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set
the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch
soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar
does this experiment show?
EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch
and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn
the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the
test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by
heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and
water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble,
like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term
indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?
EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube
containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten
minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked
starch change when cooled?
EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the
microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a
drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.
CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As
previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and
their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material
found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.
EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping
teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it.
Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese-
cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a
saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by
holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the
cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common
material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this
substance?
The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23)
contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of
the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose:
(_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework;
(_c_) in the covering of the starch grains.
[Illustration: From _Household Chemistry_, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure
23.--Grains of Starch. _a_, potato starch; _b_, corn-starch.
(Much magnified.)]
Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain
fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in
the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food.
Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it
softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose
are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in
contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food
and separate cellulose fibers.
Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:
(_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a
paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor.
Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an
energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and
furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the
digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract,
and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste
material.
CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have
somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are
grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and
cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is
one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the
carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other
foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than
any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as
carbohydrate-rich foods.
CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for
food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye,
and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and
breakfast foods are prepared.
Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per
cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the
body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have
an important place in man's diet.
At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1)
the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The
ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that
require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an
accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in
cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.
Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are
doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are
steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home
kitchen than the uncooked grains.
All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable,
the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the
method of preparing the cereal for market.
Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is
usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a
rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2
hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked
cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are
also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure
greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that
require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and
need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling
salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then
place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one
teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The
quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is
particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is
a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and
economically.
Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods
require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the
water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done,
the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of
water is evaporated.
Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the
top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be
prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.
Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.
ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler
at least 1 1/2 hours.
CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA
3 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at
least 1/2 hour.
A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned,
stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be
used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.
QUESTIONS
How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of
cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals
should be added _slowly_ to the boiling water.
Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance
and quantity?
Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?
What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or
Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?
What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?
Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and
uncooked cereals.
LESSON XX
CEREALS: RICE (A)
POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one
white and pearly in appearance called _polished_ rice, and the other,
gray or brown and lusterless called _unpolished_ rice. In preparing
rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is
cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further
treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is
subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of
purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the
unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a
certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those
inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of
polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by
giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired
by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It
requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water
before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.
TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water
from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.
RICE (cooked over boiling water)
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful rice
Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to
the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot
water, _i.e._ in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually
about 45 minutes).
The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and
cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called
_Steamed Rice_.
Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS
[Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The
large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the
jar]
BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson
for the following lesson.]
3 quarts boiling water
1 cupful rice
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the
rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil _rapidly_
for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or
strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with
salt.
Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for
preparing Cheese Sauce for class work.