contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing
through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances
are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well
water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking
purposes unless boiled.
EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of
water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes
which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What
does water contain which is driven off by heat?
EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water
of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface
of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until
bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is
indicated by the larger bubbles?
HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is
_simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off,
water is _boiling_.
[Illustration: FIGURE 19--SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.]
The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness
can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling,
_i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air
with it.
TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan
(see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and
sold as tea.
In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest
leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence
are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves
make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are
choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.
Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are
either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is
that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not.
Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance
called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with
digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown
by the following:
EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea
in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes,
then strain the infusion.
(_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black.
(_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage.
To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the
tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present.
Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity
of tannin?
By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the
beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from
green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more
stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not
dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture
of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor
of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in
various countries have different flavors.
Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by
adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not
reach this country.
MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen,
enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never
be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in
tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea
leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.
Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and
stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially
draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are
allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is
drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water
over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.
TEA (proportion for one cupful)
1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves
1 cupful freshly boiled water
Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and
add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the
teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea
leaves.
Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20)
for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the
leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the
surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots
may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.
The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If
the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are
loosely folded.
Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The
latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.
In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be
utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to
it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a
finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar
does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments
10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.--TEA-BALL
TEAPOT.]
Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some
tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating
material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons,
and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.
TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE
Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the
cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the
oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.
If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface
spread with cheese.
QUESTIONS
By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?
How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?
Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7
and 8.)
Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain.
Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?
From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black
teas. From what countries do they come?
How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a
pound?
Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the
quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.
LESSON VIII
WATER AND BEVERAGES (B)
WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such
as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain
water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the
needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.
When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of
water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in
beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water
drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown
that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it
has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are
not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.
WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many
different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one
substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which
foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_
[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of
the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a
scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food
principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain
several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.
[Illustration: Figure 21--Coffee Berries.]
Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall
study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body.
As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating
foodstuff._
USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing
agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most
important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium
for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling.
Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as
in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can
be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for
example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during
cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.
COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in
tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or
berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed
from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans,
are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due
to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and
the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a
port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee
grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of
coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not
used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of
coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.
Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and
therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be
extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through
it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid
is extracted by long boiling.
Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased
ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly
covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In
this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.
BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)
1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee
2 tablespoonfuls cold water
Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white
1 cup boiling water
(1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls
of
ground coffee.)
Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the
cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more
than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful
of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the
spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second
tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper
may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a
warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.
Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee
CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the
coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear
coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other
desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary.
The spout needs special care in cleaning.
FILTERED COFFEE
2/3 cupful finely ground coffee
5 cupfuls freshly boiled water
(For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is
used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a
muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is
poured through the ground coffee.)
Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the
bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or
perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot.
Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly
boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage
may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken,
however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear
cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_"
or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1
cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Manning, Bowman Co_ FIGURE 22.--COFFEE
PERCOLATOR.]
Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure
22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot
and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee.
The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the
percolator. Follow the directions that come with it.
OATMEAL COOKIES
1 egg
1/2 cupful sugar
3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil
2 tablespoonfuls sour milk
1 cupful rolled oats
1 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful baking soda
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 cupful raisins
Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat
is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the
sour milk and rolled oats.
Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt,
baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first
mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little
flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the
mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate
oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.
These cookies may be served with coffee.
QUESTIONS
How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?
When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then
explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.
Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after
the coffee is boiled?
Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?
In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why?
In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.
How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping
tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.
What is the average price per pound of coffee?
RELATED WORK
LESSON IX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most
insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely
to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is
thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best
training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she
is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her
share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school
activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.
Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function
in the home than by the educative process called the _project_.
Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion
in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole-
hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_.
In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the
needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils'
mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon
tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to
become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of
the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in
the home.
In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary
to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can
doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can
contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which
will be performed in a "hearty" manner.
Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For
successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a
project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the
activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the
project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of
the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in
a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work
should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the
teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory
results.
The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:
Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project
Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X,
Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W.
Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The
Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]
WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to
fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an
unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home
duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy
home membership."
APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way
of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods
learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies
or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert
in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will
be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your
achievements will bring to the entire household.
Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will
doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad
to have your cooperation in housekeeping.
Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a
determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects."
To secure successful results, your home work must be done
_thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_
way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home
project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also
instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:
(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining
table.
(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other
things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or
other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal
is being served.
In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a
_determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your
mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your
work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a
week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have
given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you
will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have
made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future.
You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought
as you worked.
You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of
home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes,
it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if
possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their
cost.
Suggestions for Home Projects:
Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the
evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in
Lessons I to V once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as
possible.
(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note
the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency
methods strive to lessen the time.
(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped
dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the
members of your home will find them most palatable.
LESSON X
AFTERNOON TEA
PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or
having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged
that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit
with your teacher and classmates.
In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the
day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a
number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to
entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant
time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to
serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of
serving them must also be considered.
The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small
portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and
accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu.
Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.
The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or
Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut
Sweetmeats
From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream),
sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats
follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.
COCONUT SWEETMEATS
1/4 cupful powdered sugar
l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 egg white
Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff.
Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.
Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture
by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375
degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan,
place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.
SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the
kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the
guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the
presence of the guests.
When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and
napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the
pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of
guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household
usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest
and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and
places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is
then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes
and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a
small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers,
sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty
baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take
them from the plates with their fingers.
Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests
have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also
replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the
materials and dishes needed.
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
LESSON XI
FRESH VEGETABLES (A)