THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION (1893−96)
In many respects this expedition is unique. It was planned by Dr. Nansen
after careful consideration of many scientific facts connected with the
Polar Sea, and although his theories and conclusions were opposed by
many of the leading authorities of the day, the expedition was carried
out almost to the letter.
The _Jeannette_ expedition had a very important bearing on that of Dr.
Nansen. In 1884, Professor Mohn published a paper in which it was stated
that various articles which must have come from the wreck of the
_Jeannette_ had been found on the south-west coast of Greenland. He
believed that they must have drifted on a floe right across the Polar
Sea. These articles included a list of provisions signed by De Long, the
commander of the _Jeannette_; an MS. list of the _Jeannette’s_ boats;
and a pair of oilskin breeches marked “Louis Noros,” the name of one of
the _Jeannette’s_ crew who was saved.
It occurred to Dr. Nansen that a ship might be allowed to be frozen in
the ice and to drift as the articles from the _Jeannette_ must have
done. This idea was propounded in an address before the Christiania
Geographical Society on 18th February 1890.
In this address Dr. Nansen brought forward various evidences in support
of the theory that a current flows across or near the North Pole from
Bering Sea on the one side to the Atlantic Ocean on the other. A
“throwing-stick” used by the Alaskan Eskimo in hurling their bird-darts
had been found among the drift-timber on the west coast of Greenland. It
was also known that the driftwood that is carried down by the polar
current along the east coast of Greenland and up the west coast consists
largely of wood from the coast of Siberia.
After discussing the various possible routes by which this drift might
take place, Dr. Nansen came to the conclusion that a current flows at
some point between the Pole and Franz-Josef Land from the Siberian
Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland.
Nansen’s plan was to build a ship as strong as possible, so as to enable
it to withstand the pressure of the ice. The sides were to slope
sufficiently to prevent the ice, when it presses together, from getting
firm hold of the hull, as was the case with the _Jeannette_ and other
vessels. Nansen’s idea was that the ice, instead of nipping the ship,
must raise it out of the water.
The _Fram_ was built on the principles suggested by Nansen: its sides
were from 24 to 28 inches in thickness, of solid water-tight wood. The
inside of the ship was also shored up and strengthened in every possible
way. The equipment was of the best, and special attention was devoted to
the commissariat; most of the provisions were soldered down in tins, as
a protection against damp.
The members of the expedition numbered thirteen. Several places were
visited in passing up the coast of Norway, and the party received a
great reception. Norway was left at Vardo; and about four days
afterwards, on the 27th July 1893, ice was met with.
It was Nansen’s intention to pass through Yugor Strait and make his way
along the coast until he reached the New Siberian Islands, and then up
the west coast of these as far as possible before he allowed the _Fram_
to be frozen in.
At Khabarova, Yugor Strait, thirty-four dogs which had been sent there
by previous arrangement were obtained. Some days were spent here in
making repairs, shifting coal, etc. A ship loaded with coal was to meet
the _Fram_ here, but turned up two days late, having been delayed by
ice. The _Fram_ left Khabarova on 5th August, and after careful
navigation in a fog, succeeded in passing through the Yugor Strait into
the Kara Sea. Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Asia, was
reached on the 10th September. On the 12th September two walruses were
shot and secured. On the 18th September the course was shaped
northwards, to the west of the New Siberian Islands, and the _Fram_ had
a straight run until the 20th September, when it was stopped by ice near
latitude 78°. The edge of the ice was now followed towards the
north-west, and about 78½° was reached. On the 24th September they found
that the ship was being frozen in. An observation taken on the 29th gave
latitude 79° 5′. By 8th November they had drifted as far south as 77°
43′; on the 19th November they were north to 78° 27′; and on the 23rd
November they reached 79° 11′, which was the highest yet reached. On the
27th November an altitude of Jupiter was taken, and the latitude found
to be 78° 36′, from which it was believed that a mistake had been made
on the 23rd. By the end of the year they were not much farther north;
sometimes the drift was one way and sometimes the other. Several bears
made their appearance and were shot; foxes were also seen.
As early as 15th January 1894, Nansen began to speculate about the
possibility of leaving the ship and making a sledge-journey over the ice
towards the Pole, but he decided to first wait and see the result of the
drift. On one point Nansen’s calculations had proved incorrect: he had
presupposed a shallow Polar Sea in which all currents would have a
strong influence. Instead of this, it was found in latitude 79° that
with a line of 1000 fathoms the bottom could not be reached. The
greatest depth hitherto found in these regions was 80 fathoms.
It was not until the 1st of February 1894 that the 80th degree of
latitude was reached. On the 6th of April a remarkable event took place,
which had been looked forward to with lively interest. It was an eclipse
of the sun. Hansen, who had charge of the astronomical observations,
calculated that the eclipse would begin at 12.56. It really was seen to
begin 7½ seconds later than the time calculated. This proved the
chronometers to be in excellent order. Four bears made their appearance
on 8th April; none had been seen during the three previous months. The
81st degree of latitude was reached about 17th May 1894, and the 82nd
not until the 31st October 1894.
On the 5th of November a curious incident happened, and is worth
mentioning. One of the young dogs was heard howling fearfully on deck.
It was found to have touched an iron bolt with its tongue, and was
frozen fast to it. The poor beast was straining to get free, with its
tongue stretched out so far that it looked like a thin rope proceeding
out of its throat. The bolt was heated by means of the hand, and the
puppy then managed to get the tongue free.
On 16th November, Nansen elaborated his plan for the sledge-journey
towards the Pole in the spring of 1895. He made his calculations from
the 83rd degree of latitude, and he expected that the _Fram_ would reach
a higher latitude than this. The distance to the Pole from this latitude
is 483 English miles. Nansen thought it reasonable to expect that this
distance could be covered in fifty days, which would give about 9½ miles
a day. The expedition was to consist of twenty-eight dogs, and two men,
with 2100 lb. of provisions and equipments. Nansen calculated that in
fifty days the dogs would consume 1400 lb. of pemmican, allowing a pound
a day for each dog. Two pounds of provisions daily for each man was
allowed. In returning, he intended to make for either the Seven Islands,
north of Spitzbergen, or Cape Fligely in Franz-Josef Land, according to
circumstances. Setting out on the 1st of March, he expected to reach the
Pole at the end of April, and have about 500 lb. of provisions left for
the return journey. This would not allow anything for the dogs, so it
was intended to kill some to feed the others. Allowing for the gradual
reduction of weight on the return journey, Nansen calculated that Cape
Fligely should be reached about the 1st of June. From here he would
decide whether to return along the north-west coast of Franz-Josef Land
by Gillis Land towards North-East Island and Spitzbergen, or south
through Austria Sound towards the south coast of Franz-Josef Land, and
thence to Novaya Zemlya or Spitzbergen.
Nansen decided that Johansen should be his companion. He was a
lieutenant in the Reserve, and was so eager to go in the _Fram_ that, as
no other post could be found for him, he accepted that of stoker. He
afterwards assisted Hansen in taking scientific observations.
On 20th November, Nansen delivered an address to the whole ship’s
company, in which he announced his determination to make the
sledge-journey. Preparations were now made in earnest. During the summer
Nansen had already begun to make a kayak, the frame of which was of
bamboo carefully lashed together. When completed, the framework weighed
16 lb. It was afterwards covered with sail-cloth, when the whole boat
weighed 30 lb. It was 12 feet long, 28 inches wide in the middle, and 12
inches deep. Another kayak was made with a depth of 15 inches. These
kayaks were chiefly intended for crossing over channels and open spaces
in the ice, and coasting along possible land. They were essentially like
Eskimo kayaks, full-decked, save for an aperture in the middle for a man
to sit in. This aperture was encircled by a wooden ring, after the
Eskimo fashion, over which the lower part of the seal-skin jacket could
be adjusted so that the junction between boat and jacket was
water-tight. Besides this aperture in the middle, there were small
trap-doors fore and aft in the deck, for the convenience of stowing
provisions. Two sledges were made about the same length as the kayaks.
On 12th December 1894 it was found that the _Fram_ had attained a higher
latitude than had ever before been reached by a ship, the observation
giving 82° 30′. A great feast was held in its honour.
On the 3rd of January 1895 the _Fram_ received such an alarming pressure
from the ice that all preparations had to be made in case the ship would
have to be abandoned. By the 6th of January the ice became quiet, and
the danger was over. On this day the latitude was found to be 83° 34′,
so that the expedition had now reached the most northern latitude; the
record of Lockwood had been beaten.
Preparations for the long sledge-journey were now hastened. Bolsters
filled with pemmican and dried-liver pie were made to fit the sledges
and form a bed on which the kayaks were to rest. These bolsters when
filled weighed from 100 to 120 lb. each. Three sledge-sails were made of
very light calico, and were about 7 feet 2 inches broad by 4 feet 4
inches long; they were made so that two of them might be laced together
and used as one sail for a double sledge.
On 26th February, Nansen and Johansen left the ship along with five of
their companions who were to accompany them a short distance. During the
first day, however, one of the sledges broke down seriously, and the
whole party returned to the ship, so that all the sledges might be
strengthened.
On 28th February a start was again made, with six sledges instead of
four. A broad board was fitted lengthwise to the sledge, underneath the
cross-bars, so as to protect them against projecting pieces of ice. They
had not proceeded far from the ship when Nansen came to the conclusion
that the load was too heavy, and several sacks with food for the dogs
were left behind. On the 3rd of March, Nansen again decided to return to
the ship. The progress made with six sledges was unsatisfactory, and the
cold was severe.
On the 14th of March they left the _Fram_ for the third and last time.
As regards clothing, Nansen had on the upper part of the body two
woollen shirts; outside these a camel’s-hair coat, and last of all a
thick rough jersey. Instead of the jersey, Johansen wore an “anorak” of
thick homespun, provided with a hood. On the legs they had, next the
skin, woollen drawers, and over these knickerbockers and loose gaiters
of close Norwegian homespun. To protect them from wind and fine-driven
snow, they wore a suit made of a thin, close kind of cotton canvas, and
consisting of an upper garment to pull over the head, provided with a
hood, and a lower one in the shape of a pair of wide overalls. Instead
of wearing long stockings, Nansen preferred to use loose stocking-legs
and socks, as these were more easily dried on the chest when asleep at
night. For travelling over snow in a low temperature, Nansen recommends
Finn shoes. They are warm and strong, are always flexible, and very easy
to put on and take off. They must, however, be made of the skin of the
hind-legs of the reindeer buck. In milder weather they had leather boots
of the “komager” type, made of under-tanned ox-hide, with soles of the
skin of the blue seal. Inside the Finn shoes they used “sennegraes,” or
sedge grass, which absorbs moisture and keeps the feet dry.
On their hands they wore ordinary woollen mittens, and above these large
gloves of wolf-skin, neither of them having divisions for the fingers.
On their heads they wore felt hats, which shaded the eyes from the
dazzling light, and were not so pervious to the wind as an ordinary
woollen cap would be. Outside the hat they generally had one or two
hoods of cloth.
To sleep in, they used a double bag of adult reindeer-skin.
In Nansen’s opinion, a tent should always be carried. He thinks that the
inconsiderable increase in weight is more than compensated for by the
extra comfort. The tent used was square at the base and pointed at the
top, and was pitched by means of a snowshoe-staff which served the
purpose of a tent-pole. The walls were kept down by pegs, and then
banked carefully round with snow to exclude wind and draughts. At first
Nansen tried a tent with a canvas floor attached, but found that snow
and moisture collected on this and added much to the weight. The whole
tent weighed a little over 3 lb.
The cooking apparatus consisted of two boilers and a vessel for melting
snow or ice. A Swedish gas-petroleum lamp, known as “The Primus,” in
which the heat turns the petroleum into gas before it is consumed, was
used for heating. Nansen used petroleum because it generates more heat
in comparison with its weight than alcohol. He took with him 4 gallons,
and this enabled them to cook two hot meals a day and melt an abundance
of water during 120 days.
Several pairs of snow-shoes were taken. Their firearms consisted of two
double-barrelled guns, each having a shot-barrel of 20 bore, and a
barrel for ball of about 360 calibre; and the ammunition amounted to
about 180 rifle-cartridges and 150 shot-cartridges.
The instruments were: a small theodolite, a pocket sextant and
artificial horizon, a light azimuth compass and two other compasses, two
aneroid barometers, two minimum spirit-thermometers, three quicksilver
sling-thermometers, an aluminium telescope, and a photographic camera.
As regards provisions, the chief article was pemmican, but there was
also a good supply of butter, calf’s liver, albuminous flour,
wheat-flour, whey-powder, cornflour, sugar, vril-food, chocolate,
oatmeal, white bread, aleuronate bread, fish-flour, dried potatoes,
cocoa, a “special food” made of pea-flour, meat-powder, fat, etc., and a
few others. An important point as regards provisions is that the food
should be in a condition to be eaten without cooking, in case the fuel
be lost or used up.
During the first week the travelling was good, from 9 to as many as 20
miles being covered daily. On the 22nd of March the latitude was found
to be 85° 9′. From this time onward the ice was bad. The temperature at
first was very low, frequently more than 40° below zero. On 29th March
the latitude was found to be 85° 30′, although Nansen expected that he
had reached 86°. This probably indicated that the ice was drifting
southwards. On 30th March, when one of the sledges was going over a
crack in the ice, all the dogs fell in, and had to be hauled out. The
next sledge fell in, and had to be unloaded before it could be got out.
Next day Johansen in crossing a lane went through the edge of the ice,
wetting both legs, which soon became covered with a mass of ice.
A great deal had always to be done before starting off on the day’s
journey. The breakfast had to be cooked; sometimes a sledge had to be
relashed; a hole would be found in a fish-flour sack which had to be
sewed up; and the dogs’ traces had to be disentangled with great
difficulty. On the 1st April they kept on the move so long that it was
too late to wind up their chronometers. Johansen’s had stopped
altogether, but Nansen’s was still ticking. The ice was now becoming
worse and worse, and Nansen began to have doubts as to the wisdom of
going northwards much longer.
On the 3rd April the second dog was killed as food for the others.
Nansen now calculated that the distance to Franz-Josef Land was three
times as far as the distance they had come. He saw that it was
impossible to reach the Pole or its immediate vicinity over the ice they
were encountering, with the dogs they had. He now wished that the number
of dogs had been much greater. On 4th April the latitude was 86° 3′. On
the 8th April, Nansen finally decided to return and shape his course for
Cape Fligely, in Franz-Josef Land, about 450 miles distant. The latitude
of the farthest north point was found to be 86° 13.6′, and the longitude
about 95° E.
During the first few days on the return journey they met with
comparatively level ice, much to their surprise; but they soon began to
meet more open lanes. On the 12th April they had the misfortune to let
their chronometers run down. This was the cause of much worry
afterwards. On 16th April, Nansen calculated that they were 60 miles on
their way home. The temperature had now risen to about 15° below zero,
and they considered this mild. A dog had to be killed every few days in
order to feed the others. They considered this slaughtering of the
faithful animals a horrible affair, but it was an absolute necessity.
On the 21st April they came across an immense piece of timber sticking
out of the ice. Nansen believed it to be Siberian larch. Johansen marked
it “F. N., H. J., 85° 30′ N.” On the 25th April fox-tracks which were
fresh were seen in the snow. This discovery raised the question whether
land could be near, but the weather was so thick that it might have been
near and could not be seen.
Open water in the form of lanes in the ice now became more frequent, but
Nansen was still reluctant to use the kayaks. There were several large
holes in them which would require to be repaired, and in the present
condition of the ice Nansen believed that it would be difficult to
protect the bows of the kayaks from being cut, and in the event of water
getting in, ice would immediately form, and to remove it would be
impossible.
On 3rd May the dogs had been reduced to sixteen. Two days later the
latitude was found to be 84° 31′, and longitude 66° 15′ E. This was not
so far south as Nansen expected, but farther west.
In some places the snow was very deep among the rough ice, and as the
snow-shoes had frequently to be taken off for the purpose of helping the
sledges over difficulties, Nansen regretted that he had not also Indian
snow-shoes, which would have been of more use in such circumstances.
On the 14th May, during a storm, the opportunity was taken to remove the
load from one of the sledges which was not now required. An attempt was
made to use the wood of the sledge as fuel, but after burning nearly the
whole of it and succeeding in obtaining only one pot of boiling water,
they gave it up as a failure, and went back to the “Primus.”
They had for some time been expecting to see land daily, but there was
still no appearance of it. The open lanes of water were causing more and
more trouble. On the 17th May a school of narwhals was seen in one of
them, but none was obtained. On the 19th May the first bear-tracks were
seen. On the 25th the latitude was found to be 82° 52′, and yet there
was no land in sight. Payer had supposed Petermann Land to be in
latitude 83°.
The first bird was seen on 29th May, and seals made their appearance
soon afterwards. On the last day of May only seven dogs remained. On the
2nd of June it was found that it was necessary to make use of the
kayaks, and preparations were made to put them in proper order. The
covers were patched and the frames relashed. It was not until the 8th of
June that everything was ready for a fresh start, and then it was found
that all the lanes had closed, so that the kayaks were not yet required.
For the first time the temperature rose above the freezing-point on 6th
June.
The travelling was now extremely difficult, and they had to be satisfied
with journeys of 1 and 2 miles daily. Sometimes it was found that they
had drifted about as far northward as they had travelled southward, and
it became a serious question whether they were likely to reach land.
Although about the latitude of Cape Fligely, there was no appearance of
land, and Nansen was in great difficulty over his longitude, due to the
time when the chronometers ran down. He calculated and recalculated his
observations without making the matter any more clear. Sometimes he
thought he might be east of Cape Fligely, and sometimes that he might be
to the west.
About the middle of June, three months after they left the _Fram_, they
began to see signs of returning life. Little auks were numerous, more
bear-tracks were seen, and on the 22nd June they were fortunate enough
to kill a seal. This seal was one of the large bearded variety (_Phoca
barbata_), and supplied sufficient food and fuel to last a month.
The killing of the seal furnished a very exciting incident. It was on
the first occasion that the kayaks were used. They had just crossed a
pool, and Nansen had hauled one of the sledges half-way on to the ice
when the seal appeared and was shot by Johansen. Nansen seized a harpoon
and threw it deep into the fat back of the seal. Meanwhile the sledge,
which had been drawn partly on to the ice, slid down again, and the
kayaks with Johansen and the dogs were set adrift. He tried to drag the
sledge up on to the kayak, but failed. The sledge gradually heeled the
kayaks over until one side of Johansen’s was in the water. The cooker
which was on the deck fell off and drifted away; the snow-shoes
followed. Nansen meanwhile was holding on to the seal, but had to let go
and assist in preventing the kayak from sinking. In the end, the lost
articles were rescued, and the seal hauled on to the ice. They had
previously reduced their rations and fuel to a minimum, but now they
feasted on seal’s flesh and blubber. It was decided to remain here some
time, to see if the ice would open to allow the kayaks to be used. About
this time they abandoned everything that was not absolutely necessary,
so as to lighten the load as much as possible—even the sleeping-bag was
left behind.
From this camp they first saw land without being aware of what it was.
While still waiting at this camp, a bear with two cubs put in an
appearance, and after a difficult chase over ice and lanes, all three
were shot. This fortunate occurrence supplied an abundance of food.
Nansen and his companion remained at this place, which was named
“Longing Camp,” until the 22nd July. A great deal of meat had to be left
behind, and a good many articles, such as a hammer, Finn shoes, a
frying-pan, sail-cloth, etc. In place of these articles, some flesh from
the seal and bear was carried.
Land was first detected on 23rd July. It had been observed before, but
the snow-fields were mistaken for clouds. It had long been expected, and
now it gave the travellers great joy.
On 29th July, Nansen began to suffer from lumbago, probably caused by
sleeping on the bare ice. It gave him severe pain during several days.
When land was first seen, Johansen expressed the opinion that it would
be reached next day. Due, however, chiefly to the drift, the journey
occupied thirteen days.
On the 4th of August, Johansen nearly lost his life. They had reached a
lane, and were preparing to launch the kayaks, when Nansen heard
Johansen cry to him to take the gun. On looking round to see what was
the matter, he saw an enormous bear standing over Johansen, who was on
his back. Nansen tried to seize his gun, but his kayak slipped into the
water, and it took some little time to pull it out again and to reach
the gun, which was in its case on the fore-deck. Luckily one of the dogs
came to the rescue, and the bear turned its attentions to it. This
enabled Johansen to wriggle himself out of its grasp, and the next
moment Nansen fired, and the bear dropped dead.
At last, on the 6th of August, open water was reached. For some time the
dogs had been reduced to two in number, and now that open water had been
gained, Nansen could not see how the two dogs could be taken farther. He
was sorry to part with them; they had been faithful and enduring, and
had followed him the whole journey through. A cartridge was sacrificed
on each.
The two kayaks were lashed together, and the sledges placed on deck, one
in front and one behind. Before going far, the wind rose sufficiently to
enable a sail to be used, and soon the margin of a glacier was reached.
This was from 50 to 60 feet in height, and landing was therefore
impossible. The margin of the glacier was followed towards the west, and
it was found necessary to land on a drifting floe in order to obtain
sleep. Next day, when they turned out, they found the ice packed around
them; but fortunately the open water was not far off to the west, and
they reached it without much difficulty. Birds were now plentiful, and
it was with great satisfaction that they observed the signs of
animal-life, and knew that they could obtain food. Later on they
discovered that the land they were coasting along consisted of islands.
The first three Nansen named “Eva’s Island,” “Liv’s Island,” and
“Adelaide’s Island” respectively. South of these the land had probably
been seen by Payer.
On the 11th of August, while Nansen was on a hummock inspecting the
waters ahead, a huge monster of a walrus came up near the kayaks. No
notice was taken of it, but it came up snorting, sometimes on one side
and sometimes on the other, and threatened to thrust its tusks into the
frail kayaks. Ultimately Johansen shot it through the eye, and with a
terrific bellow it rolled over and disappeared. Not long afterwards,
Johansen’s kayak received a violent shock from another walrus, which was
shot dead through the forehead by Nansen. With great difficulty, they
managed to cut a hole in the thick skin, and obtained some walrus-meat
and blubber.
On the 12th of August it was decided to cut off the ends of the sledges,
so as to be able to use the kayaks singly. This was done, and better
headway was made; but frequently the channel closed, and the sledges had
to be hauled over the ice. On the 14th of August an iceberg some 50 to
60 feet in height was seen, and this was the highest met with off
Franz-Josef Land. On this day they had bare land under their feet for
the first time in two years. The Arctic poppy was here in flower. The
imperfections of Payer’s map at this point greatly confused Nansen, and
he was not yet certain whether the land reached was part of Franz-Josef
Land. A sound to the west, which he at first supposed to be Rawlinson’s
Sound, did not at all agree with the description given by Payer. Nothing
was to be seen of Dove Glacier, which was supposed to bound the Sound on
one side. Nansen reasoned that if they were in Rawlinson’s Sound they
must have traversed the glacier and Wilczek Land without seeing any
trace of either, for they had travelled westwards a good half-degree
south of Cape Buda-Pesth. Nansen, therefore, was inclined to believe
that the land was new, and must be to the west of Franz-Josef Land. But
the next puzzle was that if this was the case, the new land must be very
far to the west, for nothing had been seen of Oscar’s Land. For the
present the question was left in a state of doubt.
When they rounded the headland to the west, they were delighted to find
open water as far as they could see, and that the land was trending
south-west. Their hopes of getting home now ran high, but soon
afterwards a storm delayed them four days and three nights, and the ice
packed close along the coast. This, at one blow, destroyed all hope of
getting home that year. While camping during the storm, a bear came to
the tent and was shot by Nansen. As food was becoming scarce, this was a
fortunate occurrence.
From the 24th of August till 6th December there was a gap in Nansen’s
diary. On the latter date he began to fill up the blank.
After being stopped by the storm, and then drifted out to sea on the
ice, they sailed for a whole day in open water in their kayaks. On the
following day the weather became stormy, and they were obliged to land.
Scarcely had they reached the shore when a bear was seen and promptly
shot. Walruses were also seen in great numbers. After feasting on the
bear’s flesh, they lay down to sleep, but were awakened during the night
by a peculiar sound outside the tent. This was found to be caused by a
she-bear and her young one, but as Nansen thought they had already
sufficient food for the present, they were allowed to escape. Next day
the ice had again been driven against the shore, and as they could not
proceed they decided to make themselves more comfortable by building a
temporary hut of stone. The roof was made of the silk tent spread over
snow-shoes and bamboo rods, and the doorway was closed with their coats.
Daylight could be seen between the stones on all sides, but yet they
considered it comfortable. The way south was still blocked on the
following day, which was the 28th of August, and Nansen finally resolved
on remaining here during the winter. He was afraid that if he went much
farther south he might not have sufficient time to build a house and
obtain food. He therefore decided to begin at once and lay in stores
while game was yet plentiful. They first decided to attack the walruses,
and as they were emptying the kayaks in order to be prepared, a she-bear
and her cub were seen coming along the edge of the ice, and both were
shot. This was a good beginning. Next day they tried their luck at
walrus-hunting. A walrus was soon found, but nine cartridges had to be
expended before the monster was killed, and then, before they could get
near enough to use a harpoon, it sank and disappeared. They returned to
the shore very much crestfallen.
They now found two walruses lying asleep on the shore-ice, and stole
cautiously up to them. Nansen fired at the back of the neck of one, and
killed it with the first shot. The other one was struck too far forward
in the head, and required three bullets to kill it. They had now to skin
them, but as there was a danger of being sent adrift, the wind having
risen, Nansen took the wise precaution of bringing up the kayaks and
sledges. It was as well he did so, for while they were busily engaged
skinning the animals, the wind rose rapidly, and they suddenly
discovered that the ice had broken off and that they were adrift. They
hurriedly cut off as much walrus-flesh as possible and flung it into the
kayaks, but it was a hard pull to reach the shore in the storm.
Meanwhile the ice on which the bodies of the walruses were, drifted out
to sea and disappeared. During the following night they were again
awakened by a bear outside the hut. It was a she-bear with two large
cubs. The mother was shot, but the cubs took to the water, where they
reached a piece of floating ice. Nansen decided to go out in the kayaks
after the cubs. When they went to get the kayaks, they found that the
bears had been at the walrus-meat and devoured every piece of fat and
blubber on it. One of the kayaks was thrown half into the water, and the
other high up among the stones, but fortunately they were still
seaworthy. The kayaks were launched, and the cubs chased to land, where
they were shot. Three bears in one day was good work, and to add to
their satisfaction, the sunken walrus shot on the previous day was found
floating at the edge of the ice. It was towed into a place of safety in
a creek and made fast. After skinning the bears and covering up the
flesh, they turned in for sleep, as they had obtained little the two
previous nights. On the 2nd September they set to work on the skinning
of the walrus. Another walrus, evidently curious to see what was going
on, came into the channel where the dead walrus was lying, and
approached right up to the edge of the ice where Nansen and Johansen
stood. Its curiosity cost it its life, and there were now two walruses
to skin instead of one. This work was far from agreeable: they had to
lie on the animals and cut down as far as they could reach below the
water, and they were soon saturated from head to foot with blubber and
oil and blood. To make matters worse, they had no chance of changing
their clothes during the winter; but it was a work of necessity, as the
walrus-blubber was needed for fuel.
On 7th September the building of the permanent winter-hut was commenced.
Stones were quarried from among the débris at the foot of a cliff near
by, and part of a sledge-runner had to do duty as a pick. A spade was
made out of a shoulder-blade of a walrus tied to a piece of a broken
snowshoe-staff. The walls were built of stone, with moss and earth
between, and were finished in one week. They were scarcely 3 feet in
height, but an equal distance had been dug into the ground, so that the
hut was high enough to stand in. The forming of the roof was the
greatest difficulty. However, a piece of driftwood had been found on the
shore, and after a day’s work Johansen succeeded in cutting it in two
with a small axe. These formed the ridge-piece, and walrus-hides formed
the rest. In one corner of the hut a little hearth was made to cook
upon, and above this a round hole was cut in the walrus-hide. A
smoke-board was made of a bear-skin. The hearth had not been used long
before it was found necessary to build a chimney. This was erected on
the roof, and as the only materials were ice and snow, it was not
altogether free from the drawback of sometimes dripping down on the
hearth. Lamps were made by turning up the corners of some sheets of
German silver. These were then filled with crushed blubber, and wicks
were made from bandages. They gave a good light, but assisted very
little in raising the temperature. A sleeping-shelf made of stone was
erected along the back wall of the hut, but although bear-skins were
spread on this it always remained hard and uncomfortable. The door
consisted of an opening at one corner of the wall, which led into a
short passage, dug out in the ground, and then roofed over with blocks
of ice. The inner opening was covered with a bear-skin, and another skin
was laid over the outer opening. The hut was 10 feet long and 6 feet
wide. The cooking was very simple: it consisted in boiling bear’s flesh
and soup in the morning, and frying steak in the evening. Large
quantities were consumed at every meal, and yet they never tired of it,
and had always good appetites.
While building the hut an anxious look-out was kept for bears, as none
had been seen for some time, and too little meat had yet been obtained
to last during the winter. On the 23rd September one was found beside a
walrus-hide which had been put in water to thaw. Soon afterwards a
second bear was seen gnawing at the hides on the roof of the hut. Both
were shot. On the 24th September two more walruses were shot, and from
these they obtained all the blubber they now required. On the 26th
September a bear was seen out on the ice, but when Nansen approached it
made off. He fired twice at long range, the second shot wounding the
animal. It leaped and struck the ice, and finally broke through into the
water. It then made desperate efforts to regain the ice, but the ice
always broke under its weight, and ultimately it died in the water.
Nansen and Johansen by means of a rope attempted to haul the bear up on
to the ice, but they found the weight beyond their powers, and the ice
always gave way. By making a narrow crack sufficient to allow the rope
to pass, they dragged the bear under the ice to the shore, where they
made a hole and managed to draw it out. After skinning the animal, they
carried as much of the meat as they could to the hut. When they neared
the place where their blubber was heaped, they were astonished to see
three bears tearing at it—a she-bear and two young ones. The mother was
killed, but the two young ones escaped. On the morning of 28th September
a large bear was found sleeping on the blubber-heap, and was shot. It
had eaten an enormous quantity of the blubber, and had also killed the
two young bears which escaped.
The foxes caused a good deal of trouble during the winter. They stole
everything they could move. Pieces of bamboo, steel-wire, harpoons and
harpoon-lines, a collection of geological specimens, a ball of twine,
and lastly a thermometer, were all carried off.
On the 15th of October they saw the sun for the last time above a ridge
to the south. The last bear was shot on the 21st October, and no more
were seen until the spring.
The life during the winter was very monotonous. It consisted chiefly of
cooking and eating, and taking a little exercise when weather permitted.
On Christmas Eve preparations were made to celebrate Christmas, but
these preparations were of a very limited character. Johansen turned his
shirts and put the outside one next the skin. Nansen did likewise, and
washed himself in a quarter of a cup of warm water, using a dirty pair
of drawers as sponge and towel. For supper they ate a small portion of
the provisions they had preserved for the journey south in the spring.
Only on this occasion and on New Year’s Eve were these provisions
touched during the winter.
Birds again made their appearance on 25th February, and a bear was shot
on 8th March. This bear came in good time; the supply of oil was running
low, and they could only afford to cook once a day. Another bear was
shot on 2nd April, and as they now had a considerable quantity of
blubber and meat, preparations were made for the journey south. But a
great deal required to be done. New clothes had to be made out of
blankets; the windclothes had to be patched; the “komager” had to be
soled; and socks and gloves had to be made out of bear-skin. Then a
light sleeping-bag of bear-skin had also to be made. The hut was
therefore suddenly transformed into a tailor’s and shoemaker’s workroom.
Thread was obtained by unravelling the cotton canvas of some
provision-bags.
Nansen was as pleased as a child with a new dress when on 12th May he
was able to put on his blanket-trousers, strengthened inside and out
with pieces of an old pair of drawers and of a shirt.
The stores which had been buried at the beginning of the winter were now
dug up, and greatly to Nansen’s disappointment it was found that several
articles had been spoiled by the damp of the previous autumn. The flour
had got mildewed; the chocolate had been dissolved by the damp; the
pemmican was uneatable. There remained a limited quantity of fish-flour,
some aleuronate flour, and some half-moulded bread, which they carefully
boiled in train-oil, partly to dry it, and partly to render it more
nutritious by impregnating it with fat. They also cut up as much raw
bear’s flesh and blubber as they could carry. Train-oil took the place
of petroleum as fuel. They still had 100 rifle-cartridges and 110
smallshot-cartridges, and their rifles were in good condition.
The hut was left on 19th May, after a short record of the journey had
been deposited in a brass tube plugged at each end and hung by a wire to
the roof. During the first few days they made short marches, until they
again became accustomed to the work. On 22nd May they had to shelter
from a snowstorm, and on the 23rd the weather was still bad, and they
only went a short distance. On the 24th, Nansen narrowly escaped being
drowned. While Johansen was busy with his kayak, Nansen pushed ahead to
look for a camping-ground, but suddenly the ice gave way, and he found
himself lying in a broad crack which had been concealed in the snow. He
tried to get out again, but his snow-shoes were firmly fastened, and he
was also tied by the harness to the sledge, so that he could not turn
round. Fortunately, he had been able, when falling, to dig his
pike-staff into the ice on the opposite side of the crack, and he held
himself up by that, and lay waiting for Johansen to come up. The latter,
however, had not noticed the accident, and was still busy at his sledge
and kayak. Meanwhile the water was creeping farther and farther up
Nansen’s body, and he began to shout for help. At last he was observed
by Johansen, who arrived just in time to prevent Nansen from going
completely under the water. In future the snow-shoes were not firmly
attached when the ice was thought to be dangerous. From the 26th to the
28th May they were weather-bound, and after advancing a short distance
on the latter date, they had again to take shelter until the 3rd of
June. As provisions were now getting low, a walrus was shot, and a
supply of meat and blubber thus obtained. On the 4th June they were able
to launch their kayaks for the first time, and made great progress. On
the 6th they had again to take to the ice, but as there was a strong
north wind and the surface was favourable they were able to make good
use of the sledge-sail. On the 8th they were stopped by a furious storm,
and next day they had to make a long détour westwards in order to avoid
treacherous ice. On the 12th they were able to sail all day long. In the
evening they felt their legs stiff with sitting in the kayak all day,
and they landed on the edge of the ice so that they might stretch them a
little. They then wished to ascend a hummock, so that a view might be
obtained over the water. After the kayaks, which were lashed together,
had been moored by means of one of the braces, they ascended a hummock
close by, and had been standing only a short time when Johansen raised
the cry that the kayaks were adrift. A rush was made to the edge of the
ice, but the kayaks were already a little way off and were drifting
quickly. The position was a terrible one, for all they possessed was on
board the kayaks. Nansen at once threw off some of his clothing, handed
his watch to Johansen, and sprang into the icy water. He knew that if
the kayaks were lost it meant death to him and his companion. At first
it seemed more than doubtful whether he could manage to regain them.
When he got tired, he turned over and swam on his back. At length he
gained a little on the kayaks, and he redoubled his exertions. By this
time Nansen felt his limbs gradually stiffening and losing all feeling.
His strokes became more and more feeble, but the distance from the
kayaks became shorter, and at last he was able to grasp a snow-shoe
which lay across the sterns. He now tried to pull himself up, but his
body was so stiff with cold that this seemed an impossibility. After a
little, he managed to swing one leg up on to the edge of the sledge
which lay on the deck, and then raised the rest of his body. They were
saved! With some difficulty he paddled the kayaks back to Johansen, who
confessed that these were the worst moments he had ever lived through.
Johansen now pulled off Nansen’s wet clothes, put on the few dry ones
they had in reserve, spread the sleeping-bag upon the ice, and covered
Nansen with the sail and everything he could find to keep out the cold.
Next day Nansen was all right again, and in the evening the journey was
continued.
On 14th June great herds of walruses were met, and as meat and blubber
were at a low ebb, a young one was shot. Two days afterwards, a walrus
nearly turned the tables on them. It came up close beside Nansen’s
kayak, threw itself on the edge of it, took hold farther over the deck
with one fore-flipper, and tried to upset the frail craft. Nansen struck
at its head with the paddle, while it in turn struck at the kayak with
its tusks. It was only when the deck was almost under water that it
suddenly disappeared. Nansen was congratulating himself on his fortunate
escape, when he noticed his legs getting wet, and he had only time to
run the kayak on a sunken ledge of ice when it sank. It was as well that
the ice was near at hand, or the result would have been serious.
In the afternoon of the 17th June, Nansen had ascended a hummock to have
a look at the land beyond. Flocks of auks were flying to and fro making
a confused noise, and as Nansen listened, a sound suddenly reached his
ear, so like the barking of a dog that he started. He waited for some
time, listening intently, till the barking began again and there was no
room for doubt. He shouted to Johansen that he heard dogs. Johansen
started up from the bag where he lay sleeping, and tumbled out of the
tent. He tried to hear the sound, but could only make out the noise of
the birds. Nansen, however, was convinced that he heard dogs, and he
prepared to make for the land, leaving Johansen to stay behind with the
kayaks, so that there might be no risk of their drifting away again. He
had not gone far when he observed tracks which were probably those of a
dog. Then he again heard the yelping of a dog more distinctly than ever.
It was with a strange mixture of feelings that he made his way towards
land. Suddenly he thought he heard a shout from a human voice, and he
ran up on to a hummock and hallooed with all his might. Soon he heard
another shout, and saw a dark form moving among the hummocks. It was a
dog, and farther off was seen a man. Nansen approached quickly and waved
his hat; the man did the same. Nansen heard him speak to the dog, and
recognised that the language was English. As he drew nearer, Nansen
thought he recognised Mr. Jackson, whom he had once seen. They extended
a hand to one another, with a hearty “How do you do?” Explanations
quickly followed, and Nansen was led to Jackson’s hut at Cape Flora.
Here he received a royal welcome from the members of the
Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. Men were immediately sent to Johansen’s
assistance, and his reception at the hut was scarcely less hospitable
than Nansen’s. Their feelings may be imagined when they were able to
throw off their dirty oily rags and have a hot bath, and to be able to
put on clean clothes. To add to Nansen’s delight, Jackson had a packet
of letters for him, and these contained only good news.
It is an interesting fact that Nansen when he arrived at Cape Flora
weighed no less than 22 lb. more than when he left the _Fram_, and
Johansen weighed 13 lb. more. Bear’s flesh had evidently agreed with
them.
On a comparison of Nansen’s chronometers being made, it was found that
they were not so far out as had been anticipated. They were about 26
minutes wrong, making a difference of 6½° in longitude.
The _Windward_, which was to bring supplies and take home some of
Jackson’s party, arrived on the 26th July. By this time Nansen and
Johansen began to fear that the vessel could not get through the ice and
that they would have to spend another winter in the Arctic regions. News
soon arrived that all was well at home, and that nothing had been heard
of the _Fram_.
The _Windward_ left Cape Flora on 7th August, and reached Vardo, in
Norway, on the 13th. Nansen and Johansen immediately set out for the
telegraph-station, and soon the news of their arrival spread over the
civilised world.
On the 17th August, Nansen arrived at Hammerfest. On the 20th August,
while still here, he received a telegram from Sverdrup announcing the
arrival of the _Fram_ in Norway. This filled the cup of rejoicing to
overflowing. Next day the _Fram_ was joined in Tromsö harbour, and again
they were all together, well satisfied with their success.
* * * * *
We may now return to the voyage of the _Fram_ after the departure of
Nansen and Johansen on their sledging expedition. It then lay in 84° 4′
N. latitude, and 102° E. longitude.
Sverdrup, after carting away a great pressure-ridge from the port side
of the vessel, made various preparations for a sledge-journey southward,
in the event of the _Fram_ being wrecked. Sledges, kayaks, snow-shoes,
and many other articles had to be made, and this work kept all busy for
a considerable time. Sverdrup considers Canadian snow-shoes superior to
Norwegian ones, when it is a question of hauling heavily loaded sledges
over rough ice.
During the summer of 1895 the drift was very slow; the latitude on 22nd
June was 84° 32′, and on 6th September, 84° 43′. The longitude on these
dates was 80° 58′ and 79° 52′ respectively. During the next three months
the drift towards the west was much greater: on the 30th October the
longitude was 70° 50′, on the 1st December it was 58° 45′, and on the
9th January 1896 it was 41° 41′. The meridian of 60° passing near Cape
Fligely, in Franz-Josef Land, was passed towards the end of November. On
the 15th November the latitude was 85° 55.5′, and on the 9th January
1896 it was down to 84° 57′.
In these high latitudes the change from sunlight during the whole
twenty-four hours to darkness during the same period is very sudden. On
12th September the sun was above the horizon at midnight; on 8th October
it disappeared at noon—a change from constant light to constant
darkness in twenty-six days.
As early as the beginning of February 1896 numerous lanes of water were
found both to the north and to the south. By this time they had drifted
to the 25th degree of longitude, while the latitude kept steady at about
84° 50′. On the 15th February the longitude was 23° 28′, but by the 29th
February they had gone back to 27°. After this date the drift to the
west was very slow, but it was more rapid towards the south. On 16th May
the latitude was 83° 45′, and the longitude 12° 50′.
For some months no animals had been seen, and the appearance of two
bears on 28th February caused some excitement. When about 150 yards from
the ship, they stood for a time, but as it was still very dark, Sverdrup
waited in the expectation that they would come nearer. Instead of coming
nearer, they went off. Pettersen was asked whether he had something to
fry which would smell strongly, so as to entice the bears back. After
the bears had been long out of sight, Pettersen produced a pan of fried
butter and onions. Before long, the bears were seen coming back, and
both were shot by Sverdrup. It was sixteen months since they last shot a
bear, and during that time they had very little fresh meat.
Soundings were taken several times during the winter, but the bottom was
not reached with a line over 9000 feet in length.
An interesting experiment was made on the 13th April. Scott-Hansen and
Sverdrup took an observation with the theodolite, and Nordahl an
observation with the sextant, on the natural horizon. According to the
theodolite, the latitude was 84° 11.5′, and by the sextant 84° 13′. It
had previously been ascertained that there was a difference of about two
minutes between the artificial and natural horizons.
As spring advanced, the openings in the ice became larger, and
preparations were made for forcing the _Fram_ ahead as soon as the
opportunity offered. Everything that was on the ice was taken on board,
and on the 18th May the engine was made ready for getting up steam.
Towards the end of May blasting operations were begun to release the
_Fram_ from the ice, and on 2nd June, Sverdrup and his crew had the
satisfaction of seeing the ship once more free. There was still,
however, too much ice all around for the _Fram_ to make much use of her
freedom. It was not until the 12th June that a movement could be made,
and then only for a short distance. On the 27th June the _Fram_ was
forced ahead about 2 miles. On the 3rd July 3 miles were made, and on
the 7th about 1 mile. On the 8th July, in latitude 83° 2′, the bottom
was reached at 1841 fathoms. On the 19th July the _Fram_ made about 10
miles, and on the following day it advanced from 83° 14′ to 82° 39′.
Good progress was now made, and at midnight on the 27th July latitude
81° 32′ had been reached. During the next fortnight they made little
headway, and on the 9th August the latitude was found 16′ farther north
than on 27th July.
On the 13th August the _Fram_ steered through the last ice-floes into
open water, north of the 80th degree of latitude.
* * * * *
Nansen’s expedition lifted the veil of mystery from a large portion of
the Arctic regions. It proved that no land existed over the long zigzag
route traversed by the _Fram_ from the New Siberian Islands to a point
north of Spitzbergen within 350 miles of the Pole, nor over the long
sledge-route traversed by Nansen and Johansen. It discovered that the
Polar Sea, instead of being shallow as hitherto supposed, is a deep
basin, exceeding in many places 11000 feet.
The _Fram_ drifted very near the route sketched by Nansen before the
expedition set out, and although Nansen had to admit that the real force
which caused the drift was the wind—an opinion previously formed by De
Long from the drift of the _Jeannette_—this did not alter the final
result.
The drift of the _Fram_ also forcibly proves that the great mass of ice
in the Polar Sea is in a constant state of movement. It was found that
in the sea north of Siberia the prevailing winds were south-easterly or
easterly, and therefore the drift was towards the north-west or west. On
the other hand, to the north of Spitzbergen the winds are
north-easterly, and the drift is to the south-west.
The manner in which the _Fram_ drifted also allows speculations to be
made as to the likelihood of the existence of land to the north of the
_Fram’s_ track. It was found that with a southerly wind the ice moved
easily towards the north. This is in favour of the view that no land
exists within a considerable distance to the north. The depth of water
and the absence of bears during 1895 also favour this view. There is a
greater probability that land may exist north of Greenland or north of
Grinnell Land.[1] The _Fram_ began to drift to the south when it reached
the neighbourhood of 66° E. longitude, or to the north of Franz-Josef
Land. The latitude was then 85° 55.5′. It is probable, however, that the
_Fram_ was now within the direct influence of the drift which constantly
passes down the east coast of Greenland, and that the drift to the south
was not due to land towards the north or west. More ice is formed in the
Polar Sea during the long winter than is melted during the short summer,
and the surplus must find an outlet into the warmer water of the south.
The ice of the Polar Sea may be compared to the ice of a mighty glacier:
the surplus of both moves on until it finds an outlet, and moves in the
path of least resistance. The chief and almost only outlet from the
Polar Sea is between Greenland and Norway. A comparatively small amount
of ice finds its way through Robeson Channel or Behring Strait. The
drift of the _Jeannette_ proves that from Behring Strait the set of the
ice is towards the west and north-west. Between the longitude of Behring
Strait and the longitude of the north-east of Greenland there must
somewhere be a dividing-line where it will be easier for the ice to find
its way east round the north of Greenland than westward over the great
extent of Polar Sea. It is probable that the ice from north of latitude
84° and westward at least as far as 100° W. longitude drifts to the east
round the north of Greenland, if land does not extend farther north in
that direction.
The sledge-journey by Nansen and Johansen was the most daring ever
undertaken. In the case of any other sledge-journey there was always a
base of supplies to fall back upon; in Nansen’s case there was none. In
taking only one companion with him, his daring amounted to rashness. Had
any serious accident happened to one of them it would have meant the
sacrifice of both lives, for it cannot be supposed for a moment that a
comrade could have been deserted under any circumstances. A party of
three would have been much safer, although it would have involved a
larger quantity of provisions. Two men might struggle on with a disabled
companion, but it would be practically impossible for one to do so.
-----
[1] These remarks were written before the discovery of Crocker Land and
Bradley Land.
[Illustration: CHART OF SVERDRUP’S DISCOVERIES.]