=QUINOID′INE.= _Syn._ AMORPHOUS QUININE,_Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II

INFORMIS, QUINOIDIA, QUINOIDINA, QUINOIDINUM, CHINOIDEUM, L. A few years

after the discovery of the quinine by Pelletier and Caventou, Sertuerner,

a German physician, and known as the discoverer of morphia, obtained, by a

peculiar method, from yellow bark, an amorphous alkaloid which was called

by him Chinoidin[131] (to which the name amorphous quinine is improperly

given), and also fever-killer (Fiebertödter). He found that not only this

alkaloid itself, but also all its compounds with acids, were equally

amorphous. As recent investigations have proved that this amorphous

alkaloid occurs in all cinchona barks, and is found particularly in many

young Indian barks in great quantity, it is quite natural that in the

manufacture of quinine the uncrystallisable sulphate of this alkaloid

should accumulate in the mother liquors of the sulphate of quinine. From

such liquors it is precipitated in an impure state by an alkali, and

brought into commerce under the name of quinoidine. As this amorphous

alkaloid has the property of preventing the crystallisation of the salts

of the other alkaloids, particularly those of quinidine, it is clear that

the quinoidine of commerce very often contains quinidine and also

cinchonidine. Dr de Vrij, for instance, found sometimes more than 20% of

quinidine in some samples of quinoidine of commerce. Although commercial

quinoidine contains many impurities which may have their origin partly in

the adulteration of the cinchona-alkaloids, unadulterated quinoidine, no

doubt, chiefly consists of the amorphous alkaloid discovered by

Sertuerner.

[Footnote 131: Sertuerner, ‘Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Physik,

Heilkunde, und Chemie,’ 3ter Band, 2tes Heft, Suite 269 (1830).]

The quinoidine of commerce ought never to be used in medicine unless

purified. For this purification there are two methods: 1. That of Mr

Bullock, which gives the purer but the more expensive product. Crude

quinoidine is exhausted with ether, which, after defecation, is distilled

off, leaving the purified quinoidine behind. This process has been

patented in England by Mr Bullock. 2. That of Dr de Vrij, which consists

in boiling 9 parts of crude quinoidine with a solution of 2 parts of

oxalate of ammonium in water. By this process the alkaloids contained in

the quinoidine are dissolved whilst the impurities, and amongst them the

lime which is often contained in the crude quinoidine, remain undissolved.

The solution is mixed with a large bulk of water, then filtered and the

purified quinoidine precipitated by a slight excess of liquor of soda.

_Prop., &c._ In its crude form quinoidine somewhat resembles aloes; in its

purest state it is a yellowish-brown, resin-like mass, freely soluble in

alcohol and ether, but nearly insoluble in water; with the acids it forms

dark-coloured, uncrystallisable salts. It is powerfully febrifuge, but

less so than either quinidine or quinine, although it is identical in

chemical composition with both of them.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr. for adults,

1/4 to 1 gr. for children, given in wine, lemonade, or acidulated honey.

=QUINOM′ETRY.= _Syn._ CINCHONOMETRY. The art of estimating the quantity of

quinine in cinchona bark, and in the commercial salts of this alkaloid.

_Proc._ 1. FOR BARK.——_a._ (Ph. E.) A filtered decoction of 100 gr. of

bark, in distilled water, 2 fl. oz., is precipitated with 1 fl. dr., or

q. s. of a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda; the precipitate,

after being heated in the fluid so as to become a fused mass, and having

again become cold, is dried and weighed. “It should be 2 gr., or more, and

entirely dissolve in a solution of oxalic acid.” To render the result

strictly accurate, the product should be dissolved in 10 parts of proof

spirit, containing 1/20th of sulphuric acid, and to this solution

carefully added an alcoholic solution of iodine as long as there appears a

brown precipitate, which immediately turns black by stirring with a glass

rod. This precipitate, collected upon a filter, washed with strong alcohol

and dried on a water bath, is Herapath’s iodosulphate of quinine, of which

100 parts represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.

_b._ (Rebourdain.) 100 gr. of the bark (coarsely powdered) are exhausted

with acidulated water, and the filtered solution rendered alkaline with

solution of potassa; it is next shaken with about 1-3rd of its volume of

chloroform, and then allowed to repose for a short time; the chloroform

holding the alkaloid in solution sinks to the bottom of the vessel in a

distinct stratum, from which the supernatant liquid is separated by

decantation; the chloroformic solution, either at once or after being

washed with a little cold water, is allowed to evaporate; the residuum,

when weighed, gives the per-centage richness of the sample.

_Obs._ A like result may be obtained with ether instead of chloroform; in

which case the solution of quinine will form the upper stratum.

_c._ Instead of Rebourdain’s process, Dr de Vrij prefers that of

Charles,[132] so far as regards the separation of the total mixed

alkaloids from the bark. To this mixture is applied the process mentioned

above (_a_), viz. solution in acidulated proof spirit, &c.

[Footnote 132: ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’ 4e série, t. 12, p. 81

(Août, 1870).]

2. For the SALTS. The above methods, as well as several others which have

been devised for the purpose, may also be applied to the salts of quinine;

but, unfortunately, they are inapplicable when great accuracy is required,

owing to the non-recognition of the presence of quinidine, as such, and

which, consequently, goes to swell the apparent richness of the sample in

quinine. The following ingenious method, invented by Dr Ure, not merely

enables us to detect the presence of cinchonine and quinidine in

commercial samples of the salts of quinine, but, with some trifling

modifications, it also enables us to determine the quantity of each of

these alkaloids present in any sample:——“10 gr. of the salts to be

examined” (the sulphate is here more especially referred to) “is put into

a strong test-tube, furnished with a tight-fitting cork; to this are to be

added 10 drops of dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid and 5 water), with 15

drops of water, and a gentle heat applied to accelerate solution. This

having been effected, and the solution entirely cooled, 60 drops of

officinal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops of liquor of ammonia, must be

added, and the whole well shaken while the top is closed by the thumb. The

tube is then to be closely stopped, and shaken gently from time to time,

so that the bubbles of air may readily enter the layer of ether. If the

salt be free from cinchonine and quinidine, or contain the latter in no

greater proportion than 10%, it will be completely dissolved; while on the

surface, where contact of the two layers of clear fluid takes place, the

mechanical impurities only will be separated. After some time the layer of

ether becomes hard and gelatinous, and no further observation is

possible.”

“From the above statement respecting the solubility of quinidine in ether,

it appears that the 10 gr. of the salt examined may contain 1 gr. of

quinidine, and still a complete solution with ether and ammonia may

follow; but in this case the quinidine will shortly begin to crystallise

in a layer of ether. The least trace of quinidine may be yet more

definitely detected by employing, instead of the ordinary ether, some

ether previously saturated with quinidine, by which means all of the

quinidine contained in the quinine examined must remain undissolved. It is

particularly requisite, in performing this last experiment, to observe,

(immediately) after the shaking, whether all has dissolved; for, owing to

the great tendency of quinidine to crystallisation, it may become again

separated in a crystalline form, and be a source of error.”

“If more than 1-10th of quinidine or (any) cinchonine be present, there

will be found an insoluble precipitate at the limits of the two layers of

fluid. If this be quinidine, it will be dissolved on the addition of

proportionately more ether, while cinchonine will remain unaffected.”

_Note._ To Dr Ure’s test Dr de Vrij prefers, for several reasons, Dr

Kerner’s test, ‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ von Fresenius, 1st

Jahrg, 1862; ‘Ueber Die Prufung des Käuflichen Schwefelsauren Chinins auf

fremde Alkaloides,’ von Dr G. Keraer.

=QUINOVIC ACID.= C_{28}H_{33}O_{4}. This is insoluble in water, also in

chloroform, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. It can be obtained from

the boiling alcoholic solution, by cooling, in small crystals. In the

leaves, bark, and wood of the cinchona tree this acid is contained,

together with quinovin, and it is this mixture which has been recently

applied in therapeutics, as a powerful tonic in cases of dysentery, &c.

The mixture can easily be obtained from the leaves, bark, or wood of

cinchona, and even from bark which has been exhausted by ebullition with

water or diluted acids, by cold maceration with weak milk of lime, by

which it is dissolved, as it combines easily with bases. It is only the

quinovate of lime which has till now been used in medicine.——_Dose_, 2 to

8 gr. every two hours.

=QUINOVIN.= C_{30}H_{48}O_{8}. _Syn._ CINCHOVIN, QUINOVIA.

=QUINOVIN.= A very bitter amorphous glucoside contained in the genus

Cinchona, Nauslea, and probably in many other allied genera. It is

insoluble in water, very soluble in rectified spirit and in chloroform,

with which last liquid it forms, in concentrated solutions, a jelly. If a

current of hydrochloric gas is passed into its alcoholic solution the

liquid becomes hot and the quinovin is split up into a peculiar kind of

sugar.

=QUIN′QUINA.= Dr de Vrij states that the substance known under this name

is a mixture of hydrochlorate of cinchonidine and of cinchonine. See

CINCHONA.

=QUIN′SY.= See THROAT AFFECTIONS.

=QUINTES′SENCE.= _Syn._ QUINTA ESSENTIA, L. A term invented by the

alchemists to represent a concentrated alcoholic solution of the active

principles of organic bodies. It is still occasionally employed in

perfumery and the culinary art. See ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.

=QUITTOR.= It generally shows itself at the top or coronet of the hoof of

the horse, in the form of a fistulous opening (whence quittor is also

called ‘the pipes’), filled with a purulent discharge.

Quittor invariably points to the presence of an internal ulcer, abscess,

or some other irritating cause, the discharge from which, accumulating

under the hard hoof, slowly works its way to the surface. The origin of

quittor is generally some injury to the hoof, such as a corn, a prick, or

an inequality of tread.

The first thing to be done is to remove the animal’s shoe, to cut away any

dead or discoloured horn, so as to reach the seat of the suppuration, and

to allow it to escape by a more direct outlet. Hot-water fomentations and

poultices should afterwards be applied for a few days. Should the sores

show an indisposition to heal, the parts should be washed with a tolerably

strong solution of sulphate of zinc, or of bichloride of mercury——25 grams

of the latter to an ounce of water. The application of strong caustics is

to be particularly deprecated.

=QUOTID′IAN.= Occurring or returning daily. See AGUE.

=RAB′BIT.= The _Lepus cuniculus_ (Linn.) of the Cuvian order _Rodentia_.

The domestic rabbit, when young, is a light and wholesome article of food,

approaching in delicacy to the common barn-door fowl; but has less flavour

than the wild animal. The fat is among the ‘simples’ of the Ph. L. 1618.

Its hair and skin are made into cheap furs, gloves, hats, &c.

_Composition of Rabbit’s Flesh_ (BARTLETT).[133]

[Footnote 133: ‘Lancet,’ March 29th, 1873.]

+---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

| | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | Average |Percentage.|

+---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

|Water | 5,982 | 6,623 | 7,315 | 6,640 | 73·17 |

|Fibrin and Syntonin | 1,143 | 1,247 | 1,393 | 1,261 | 13·90 |

|Gelatin | 302 | 335 | 350 | 329 | 3·63 |

|Fat | 240 | 272 | 345 | 286 | 3·15 |

|Albumen | 276 | 305 | 340 | 307 | 3·38 |

|Alcoholic extract, | 106 | 119 | 135 | 120 | 1·32 |

|Watery extract | 102 | 108 | 125 | 112 | 1·23 |

|Calcium phosphates | 16 | 19 | 25 | 20 | 0·22 |

| +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

| Edible portion | 8,167 | 9,028 | 10,029 | 9,075 | 100·00 |

| | | | | | |

| from stewing bones | 215 | 232 | 251 | 233 | 2·06 |

| out and stewed | 1,501 | 1,674 | 1,854 |} |{ 17·88 |

|Shank bones, fur and | | | |} |{ |

| eyes, thrown away | 313 | 352 | 382 |} 2,027 |{ waste. |

| +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

| | 10,201 | 11,286 | 12,516 | 11,335 | ... |

+---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

=Rabbit Pie.= Cut up two young rabbits, season with white pepper, salt, a

little mace, and nutmeg, all in fine powder; add also a little cayenne.

Pack the rabbit with slices of ham, forcemeat balls, and hard eggs, by

turns in layers. If it is to be baked in a dish add a little water, but

omit the water if it is to be raised in a crust. By the time it is taken

out of the oven have ready a gravy of knuckle of veal, or a bit of the

scrag, with some shank bones of mutton, seasoned with herbs, onions, mace,

and white pepper. If the pie is to be eaten hot, truffles, morels or

mushrooms may be added, but not if intended to be eaten cold. If it be

made in a dish put as much gravy as will fill the dish, but in raised

crusts the gravy must be carefully strained, and then put in cold as

jelly.

=Rabbit Pudding.= Cut a rabbit into sixteen pieces, and slice a quarter of

a pound of bacon; season with chopped sage, pepper, and salt; then add

potatoes and onions according to the size of the family, and half a pint

of water. Boil for two hours. The meat and vegetables must be well mixed.

Rice may be substituted for potatoes if preferred.

=Rabbit, Ragout of.= “Wash and clean a good-sized Ostend rabbit; boil the

liver and heart, chop them, and mix with veal stuffing; fill the rabbit,

sew it up, and tie it into shape. Put a piece of fat beef and 1 lb. of

bacon, cut in slices, into a saucepan, with 1 oz. of dripping; put in the

rabbit to brown, turning it over to brown both sides; pour off the

dripping, and put in 1 quart of water; let it simmer gently an hour and a

half. A quarter of an hour before serving skim off all the fat, and

thicken the gravy with a little corn flour; season with pepper and salt,

and, if liked, stew a bunch of herbs and half an onion with it. Lay the

rabbit on a dish with the bacon round it, and pour the gravy over.”

(Tegetmeier.)

=RAC′AHOUT.= _Syn._ RACAHOUT DES ARABES. This is said to be farina

prepared from the acorns of _Quercus Ballota_, or Barbary oak, disguised

with a little flavouring. The following is recommended as an

imitation:——Roasted cacao or chocolate nuts, 4 oz.; tapioca, and potato

farina, of each 6 oz.; white sugar, slightly flavoured with vanilla, 1/2

lb. Very nutritious. Used as arrow-root.

=RACE′MIC ACID.= _Syn._ PARATARTARIC ACID. This compound was discovered by

Kestner in 1820, replacing tartaric acid in grape juice of the Department

of the Vosges. Racemic acid and tartaric acid have exactly the same

composition, and yield, when exposed to heat, the same products; the

racemates also correspond in the closest manner with the tartrates.

Racemic acid is rather less soluble than tartaric, and separates first

from a solution containing the two acids. A solution of racemic acid

precipitates a neutral salt of calcium, which is not the case with

tartaric acid. A solution of racemic acid does not affect a ray of

polarised light, while a solution of tartaric acid rotates the ray to the

right.

“Dessargnes and Jungfleisch found by experiment that under the influence

of heat ordinary tartaric acid is readily transformed into inactive

tartaric acid and racemic acid, and the latter chemist thought to find in

this fact an explanation of the production of racemic acid.

“But observations continued through many years upon mother liquors from

various tartaric acid factories showed that although more or less inactive

tartaric acid was present in all of them, racemic acid was not, even when

they had been subjected to prolonged treatment, and its occurrence in

appreciable quantity was confined to a small number of specimens. In fact,

some samples of mother liquor from factories where evaporation was carried

on in a partial vacuum contained more racemic acid than others from

factories where evaporation was carried on over a pure fire. Recently

Jungfleisch noticed that the liquors richest in inactive tartaric acid

were also rich in alumina, and the suspicion that alumina favoured the

conversion was confirmed by direct experiment; also that the neutral

aluminum sulphate has but little action. Jungfleisch has come to the

conclusion that when there is an accumulation of alumina on the mother

liquor, the conditions are favorable for the production of a large

proportion of inactive tartaric acid, and a small proportion of racemic

acid, although when the latter is present in considerable quantity, it

becomes the most manifest through its comparative insolubility.

Examination of liquors from which racemic acid has been deposited has

always shown them to contain much inactive tartaric acid. This theory does

not exclude the probability that certain vines under particular conditions

produce racemic acid.”[134]

[Footnote 134: ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’]

=RACK′ING.= See CIDER and WINES.

=RAD′ICLE.= _Syn._ RADICAL. According to the binary theory of the

constitution of saline compounds, every salt is composed, like chloride of

sodium (NaCl), of two sides or parts, which are termed its radicals. That

part of a salt which consists of a metal, or of a body exercising the

chemical functions of one, is called the metallic, basic, or basylous

radical; while the other part, which, like chlorine, by combining with

hydrogen would produce an acid, is designated the chlorous or acidulous

radical. Every salt, therefore, consists of a basic and of an acid

radical. Sometimes radicals are elementary in their nature, when they are

called _simple_; and sometimes they are made up of a group of elements,

when they are termed _compound_. Some radicals, both simple and compound,

have been isolated, while many have but a hypothetical existence. In the

following formulæ the vertical line separates the basic from the acid

radicals, the former being on the left, the latter on the right:——

H | F Hydrofluoric acid (_Fluoride of hydrogen_).

Na | Cl Chloride of sodium.

K | CN Cyanide of potassium.

Ca | CO_{3} Carbonate of calcium.

NH_{4} | Cl Chloride of ammonium.

C_{2}H_{5} | NO_{2} Nitrite of ethyl.

=RAD′ISH.= The common garden radish (RAPHANUS, L.) is the root of

_Raphanus sativus_ (Linn.), one of the _Cruciferæ_. There are several

varieties. They are all slightly diuretic and laxative, and possess

considerable power in exciting the appetite. The seed is pressed for oil.

The horseradish (ARMORACIA, L.) belongs to a distinct genus.

=RAIN-GAUGE.= _Syn._ OMBOMETER, PLUVIAMETER, UDOMETER. An instrument for

determining the quantity of water, which falls as rain, at any given

place. A simple and convenient rain-gauge for agricultural purposes is

formed of a wide mouthed funnel, or open receiver, connected with a glass

tube furnished with a stop-cock. The diameter of the tube may be exactly

1-100th that of the receiver, and if the tube be graduated into inches and

tenths, the quantity of rain that falls may be easily read off to the

1-1000th of an inch. The instrument should be set in some perfectly open

situation; and, for agricultural purposes, with its edge as nearly level

with the ground as possible. Another form of gauge is furnished with a

float, the height of which marks the amount of liquid. The diameter of the

gauge should range between 4 and 8 inches. The quantity of water should be

duly measured and registered at 9 a.m. daily.

Mr Symonds, F.R.B.S., has drawn the following code of instructions for the

guidance of those registering the amount of rainfall at any locality:——

1. _Site._ A rain-gauge should not be set on a slope or terrace, but on a

level piece of ground, at a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, and

buildings——at the very least as many feet from their base as they are in

height.

Tall growing flowers, vegetables, and bushes must be kept away from the

gauges. If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is most

endurable from north-west, north, and east; less so from south,

south-east, and west; and not at all from south-west or north-east.

2. _Old Gauges._ Old-established gauges should not be moved, nor their

registration discontinued, until at least two years after a new one has

been in operation, otherwise the continuity of the register will be

irreparably destroyed. Both the old and the new ones must be registered at

the same time, and the results recorded for comparison.

3. _Level._ The funnel of a rain-gauge must be set quite level, and so

firmly fixed that it will remain so, in spite of any gale of wind or

ordinary circumstances. Its correctness in this respect should be tested

from time to time.

4. _Height._ The funnel of gauges newly placed should be one foot above

grass. Information respecting height above sea level may be obtained from

G. J. Symons, Esq., 64, Camden Square, N.W., London.

5. _Rust._ If the funnel of a japanned gauge become so oxidised as to

retain the rain in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should have

a coat of gas tar or japan black, or a fresh funnel of zinc or copper

should be provided.

6. _Float Gauges._ If the measuring rod is detached from the float it

should never be left in the gauge; if it is attached to the float it

should be pegged or tied down, and only allowed to rise to its proper

position at the time of reading. To allow for the weight of the float and

rod these gauges are generally so constructed as to show 0 only when a

small amount of water is left in them. Care must always be taken to set

the rod to the zero or 0.

7. _Can and Bottle Gauges._ The measuring glass should always be held

upright. The reading is to be taken midway between the two apparent

surfaces of the water.

8. _Date of Entry._ The amount measured at 9 a.m. on any day is to be set

against the previous one, because the amount measured at 9 a.m. of, say,

the 17th, contains the fall during fifteen hours of the 16th, and only

nine hours of the 17th. (The rule has been approved by the meteorological

societies of England and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is particularly

commended to the notice of observers.)

9. _Mode of Entry._ If less than one tenth (·10) has fallen, the cipher

must always be prefixed; thus, if the measure is full up to the seventh

line, it must be entered as ·07——that is, no inches, no tenths, and seven

hundredths. For the sake of clearness it has been found necessary to lay

down an invariable rule that there shall always be two figures to the

right of the decimal point. If there be only one figure, as in the case of

one tenth of an inch (usually written ·1), a cipher must be added, making

it ·10. Neglect of this rule causes much inconvenience. All columns should

be cast _twice_——once up and once down——so as to avoid the same error

being made twice. When there is no rain a line should be drawn rather than

a cipher inserted.

10. _Caution._ The amount should always be written down before the water

is thrown away.

11. _Small Quantities._ The unit of measurement being ·01, observers whose

gauges are sufficiently delicate to show less than that are, if the amount

is under ·005, to throw it away; if it is ·005 to ·010 inclusive, they are

not to enter it as ·01.

12. _Absence._ Every observer should train some one as an assistant; but

where this is not possible, instructions should be given that the gauge

should be emptied at 9 a.m. on the 1st of the month, and the water

bottled, labelled, and tightly corked, to await the observer’s return.

13. _Heavy Rains._ When very heavy rains occur it is desirable to measure

immediately on their termination; and it will be found a safe plan, after

measuring, to return the water to the gauge, so that the morning

registration will not be interfered with. Of course, if there is the

slightest doubt as to the gauge holding all the falls it must be emptied,

the amount being previously written down.

14. _Snow._ In snow three methods may be adopted; it is well to try them

all:——(1) Melt what is caught in the funnel by adding to the snow a

previously ascertained quantity of warm water, and then deducting this

quantity from the total measurement, enter the residue as rain. (2) Select

a place where the snow has not drifted, invert the funnel, and, turning it

round, lift and melt what is enclosed. (3) Measure with a rule the average

depth of snow, and take one twelfth as the equivalent of water. Some

observers use in snowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter as the

rain-gauge, and of considerable depth. If the wind is at all rough all the

snow is blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-gauge.

15. _Overflow._ It would seem needless to caution observers on this head,

but as a recent foreign table contains _six instances in one day_, in

which gauges were allowed to run over, it is evidently necessary that

British observers should be on the alert. It is not desirable to purchase

any new gauge of which the capacity is less than four inches.

16. _Second Gauges._ It is often desirable that observers should have two

gauges, and that one of them should be capable of holding eight inches of

rain. One of the gauges should be registered daily, the other weekly or

monthly, as preferred, but always on the 1st of each month. By this means

a thorough check is kept on accidental errors in the entries, which is not

the case if _both_ are read daily.

17. _Dew and Fog._ Small amounts of water are at times deposited in

rain-gauges by fog and dew. They should be added to the amount of

rainfall, because (1) “they tend to water the earth and nourish the

streams,” and not for that reason only, but (2) because in many cases the

rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, and it would then obviously be

impossible to separate the yield of snow, rain, &c.; therefore, for the

sake of uniformity, all must be taken together.

18. _Doubtful Entries._ Whenever there is the least doubt respecting the

accuracy of any observation, the entry should be marked with a ?, and the

reason stated for its being placed there.

_Obs._ The height at which the rain-gauge is elevated from the ground is a

matter of considerable moment. Thus, one observer found the fall of rain

at York for twelve months (1833-1834) to be——at a height of 213 feet from

the ground, 14·96 inches; at 44 feet, 19·85 inches; and on the ground,

25·71 inches.

Later experimentalists have confirmed this curious fact. Thus, Colonel

Warde found the following to be the relative rainfall at different periods

for the four years extending from 1864 to 1867:

Inches.

On a level with the ground 1·07

At a height of 2 inches 1·05

” 6 ” 1·01

” 1 foot 1·00

” 2 feet 0·99

” 3 ” 0·98

” 5 ” 0·96

” 10 ” 0·95

” 20 ” 0·94

One of the causes that have been assigned for this singular phenomenon has

been——the greater exposure in elevated situations of the rain to

dispersive action of the wind, a surmise which derives some support from

the circumstance, that when a rain-gauge is placed on a building, the roof

of which is flat, of large area, and with few, if any, chimneys to disturb

the air currents, an amount of rain is collected equalling that obtained

on the surface of the ground.

=RAI′SINS.= _Syn._ DRIED GRAPES; UVÆ (B. P.). UVÆ SICCATÆ, UVA (Ph. L.),

UVÆ PASSÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. “The prepared fruit of _Vitis vinifera_”

(Linn.)——Ph. L. The grapes are allowed to ripen and dry on the vine. After

being plucked and cleaned, they are dipped, for a few seconds, into a

boiling lye of wood ashes and quicklime at 12° or 15° Baumé, to every 4

galls. of which a handful of culinary salt and a pint of salad oil has

been added; they are then exposed for 12 or 14 days in the sun to dry;

they are, lastly, carefully garbled, and packed for exportation. The

sweet, fleshy kinds of grapes are those selected for the above treatment;

and, in general, their stalks are cut about one half through, or a ring of

bark is removed, to hasten their maturation.

Raisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic, and, in general, laxative;

the latter to a greater extent than the fresh fruit. There are many

varieties found in commerce. Their uses as a dessert and culinary fruit,

and in the manufacture of wine, &c., are well known, and are referred to

elsewhere. See GRAPES, WINES, &c.

=RANCID′ITY.= The strong, sour flavour and odour which oleaginous bodies

acquire by age and exposure to the air. For its prevention, see FATS, OILS

(Fixed), &c.

=RAPE OIL.= See OILS (Fixed).

=RASH.= Erasmus Wilson notices four different affections, as included

under this head:——

1. ST ANTHONY’S FIRE, or ERYSIPELAS, the severest of them all, already

referred to.

2. NETTLE-RASH, or URTICARIA, characterised by its tingling and pricking

pain, and its little white elevations on a reddish ground, like the wheals

caused by the sting of a nettle. This efflorescence seldom stays many

hours, and, sometimes, not even many minutes, in the same place, and is

multiplied or reproduced whenever any part of the skin is scratched or

even touched. No part of the body is exempt from it, and when many of them

occur together, and continue for an hour or two, the parts are often

considerably swelled, and the features temporarily disfigured. In many

cases these eruptions continue to infest the skin, sometimes in one place,

and sometimes in another, for one or two hours together, two or three

times a day, or perhaps, for the greatest part of the twenty-four hours.

In some constitutions this lasts only a few days; in others several

months.

There are several varieties of nettle-rash or urticaria noticed by medical

writers, among which URTICARIA FEBRILIS, PERSISTANS, and EVANIDA, are the

principal.

The common cause of nettle-rash is some derangement of the digestive

functions, arising either from the use of improper food or a disordered

state of the nervous or other systems of the body. Lobsters, crabs,

mussels, shrimps, dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mushrooms, and adulterated

beer or porter, bear the character of frequently causing this affection.

In childhood it commonly arises from teething. Occasionally, in persons of

peculiar idiosyncrasy, the most simple article of food, as almonds, nuts,

and even milk, rice, and eggs, will produce this affection.

The treatment may consist of the administration of gentle saline

aperients, and in severer cases a gentle emetic, followed by the copious

use of acidulated diluent drinks, as weak lemon-juice-and-water,

effervescing potassa-draughts, &c., and, when required, diaphoretics. The

clothing should be light, but warm, and the itching, when severe, may be

allayed by the application of a lotion of water to which a little vinegar

or camphorated spirit has been added; the latter must, however, be

employed with caution. A hot knee-bath is useful in drawing the affection

from the face and upper part of the body. A ‘compress,’ wrung out of cold

water until it ceases to drip, and kept in contact with the stomach by

means of a dry bandage, has been recommended to relieve excessive

irritation of the stomach and bowels. It has been stated that decoction of

Virginian snake-root is particularly useful in relieving chronic

urticaria.

3. RED-RASH, RED-BLOTCH, or FIERY SPOT, is commonly the consequence of

disordered general health, of dyspepsia, and particularly, of females, of

tight lacing. Sometimes it is slight and evanescent; at others it

approaches in severity to the milder forms of erysipelas, there being much

swelling and inflammation. Chaps, galls, excoriations, and chilblains are

varieties of this disease produced by cold, excessive moisture, or

friction. The treatment is similar to that of nettle-rash.

4. ROSE-RASH, FALSE MEASLES, or ROSEOLA, is an efflorescence, or rather a

discoloration of a rose-red tint, in small irregular patches, without

wheals or papulæ, which spread over the surface of the body, and are

ushered in by slight febrile symptoms. There are several varieties. The

causes are the same as those which produce the preceding affections, and

the treatment may be similar. In all of them strict attention to the diet,

and a careful avoidance of cold applications, or exposure to cold, so as

to cause a retrocession, are matters of the first moment.

=RASP′BERRY.= _Syn._ HINDBERRY. The fruit of _Rubus Idæus_ (Linn.), a

small shrub of the natural order _Rosaceæ_. It is cooling, antiscorbutic,

and mildly aperitive. It is frequently used to communicate a fine flavour

to liqueurs, confectionery, wine, &c. See FRUITS and VEGETABLES.

Fresenius gives the following as the composition of raspberries:

CULTIVATED.

Wild Red. Red. White.

_Soluble Matter_——

Sugar 3·597 4·708 3·703

Free acid (reduced to equivalent

in malic acid) 1·980 1·356 1·115

Albuminous substances 0·546 0·544 0·665

Pectous substances, &c. 1·107 1·746 1·397

Ash 0·270 0·481 0·318

_Insoluble Matter_——

Seeds }

Skins, &c. } 8·460 4·106 4·520

Pectose 0·180 0·502 0·040

[_Ash from insoluble matter included

in weights given_] [0·134] [0·296] [0·081]

Water 86·860 86·557 88·180

———————— ———————— ————————

100·000 100·000 100·000

=RATAFI′A.= Originally a liquor drank at the ratification of an agreement

or treaty. It is now the common generic name in France of liqueurs

compounded of spirit, sugar, and the odoriferous and flavouring principles

of vegetables, more particularly of those containing the juices of recent

fruits, or the kernels of apricots, cherries, or peaches. In its

unqualified sense this name is commonly understood as referring to

cherry-brandy or peach-brandy.

Ratafias are prepared by distillation, maceration, or extemporaneous

admixture, in the manner explained under the head LIQUEUR. The following

list includes those which are commonly prepared by the French

liquoristes:——

=Ratafia d’Angelique.= From angelica seeds, 1 dr.; angelica stalks, 4 oz.;

blanched bitter almonds, bruised, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 6 quarts;

digest for 10 days, filter; add, of water, 1 quart; white sugar, 3-1/2

lbs.; mix well, and in a fortnight decant the clear portion through a

piece of clean flannel.

=Ratafia d’Anis.= See (Liqueur) CORDIAL, ANISEED.

=Ratafia de Baume de Tolu.= From balsam of Tolu, 1 oz.; rectified spirit,

1 quart; dissolve, add water, 3 pints; filter, and further add of white

sugar, 1-1/2 lb. Pectoral and traumatic.

=Ratafia de Brou de Noix.= From young walnuts with soft shells (pricked or

pierced), 60 in no.; brandy, 2 quarts; mace, cinnamon, and cloves, of each

15 gr.; digest for 8 weeks; press, filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb.; and

keeping it for some months before decanting it for use. Stomachic.

=Ratafia de Cacao.= _Syn._ R. DE CHOCOLAT. From Caracca cacao-nuts, 1 lb.;

West Indian do., 1/2 lb.; (both roasted and bruised;) proof spirit, 1

gall.; digest for 14 days, filter, and add, of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.;

tincture of vanilla, 1/2 dr. (or shred of vanilla may be infused with the

nuts in the spirit instead); lastly, decant in a month, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Café.= From coffee, ground and roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof

spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 2 lbs. (dissolved in); water, 1 quart; as last.

=Ratafia de Cassis.= From black currant juice, 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.;

cloves and peach kernels, of each 1/2 dr.; brandy, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3

lbs.; digest for a fortnight, and strain through flannel.

=Ratafia de Cerise.= From Morello cherries, with their kernels bruised, 8

lbs.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; as last.

=Ratafia de Chocolat.= Ratafia de cacao (see _above_).

=Ratafia de Coings.= From quince juice, 3 quarts; bitter almonds, 3 dr.;

cinnamon and coriander seeds, of each 2 dr.; mace, 1/2 dr.; cloves, 15 gr.

(all bruised); rectified spirit, (quite flavourless), 1/2 gall.; digest

for a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia de Crème.= From crème de noyeau and sherry, of each 1/4 pint;

capillaire, 1/2 pint; fresh cream, 1 pint; beaten together.

=Ratafia de Curaçoa.= Curaçoa.

=Ratafia de Framboises.= Raspberry cordial.

=Ratafia de Genièvre.= From juniper berries (each pricked with a fork),

1/4 lb.; caraway and coriander seed, of each 40 gr.; finest malt spirit

(22 u. p.), 1 gall.; white sugar 2 lbs.; digest a week, and strain with

expression.

=Ratafia de Grenoble.= From the small wild black cherry (with the kernels

bruised), 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; citron

peels, a few grains; as before.

=Ratafia de Grenoble, de Teyssère.= From cherries (bruised with the

stones), 1 quart; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; mix, digest for 48 hours,

then express the liquor, and heat it to boiling in a close vessel; when

cold, add of sugar or capillaire, q. s., together with some noyeau, to

flavour, and a little syrup of the bay laurel, and of galangal; in 3

months decant, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Noyeau.= From peach or apricot kernels (bruised), 120 in no.;

proof spirit or brandy, 2 quarts; white sugar, 1 lb.; digest for a week,

press, and filter.

=Ratafia de Œillets.= From clove-pinks (without the white buds), 4 lbs.;

cinnamon and cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for

10 days, express the tincture, filter, and add of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia d’Ecorce d’Orange.= Crème d’Orange.

=Ratafia de Fleurs d’Oranger.= From fresh orange petals, 2 lbs.; proof

spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; as last. Instead of orange

flowers, neroli, 1 dr., may be used.

=Ratafia à la Provençale.= From striped pinks, 1 lb.; brandy or proof

spirit, 1 quart; white sugar, 3/4 lb.; juice of strawberries, 3/4 pint;

saffron, 20 gr.; as before.

=Ratafia des Quatre Fruits.= From cherries, 30 lbs.; gooseberries, 15

lbs.; raspberries, 8 lbs.; black currants, 7 lbs.; express the juice, and

to each pint add, of white sugar, 6 oz.; cinnamon, 6 gr.; cloves and mace,

of each 3 gr.

=Ratafia Rouge.= From the juice of black cherries, 3 quarts; juices of

strawberries and raspberries, of each 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.; mace and

cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 galls.; white sugar, 7

lbs.; macerate, &c., as before.

=Ratafia Sec.= Take of the juice of gooseberries, 5 pints; juices of

cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, of each 1 pint; proof spirit, 6

quarts; sugar, 7 lbs.; as before.

=Ratafia à la Violette.= From orris powder, 3 oz.; litmus, 4 oz.;

rectified spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 10 days, strain, and add of white

sugar, 12 lbs.; dissolved in soft water, 1 gall.

=RATS.= The common or brown rat is the _Mus Decumanus_ (Linn.), one of the

most prolific and destructive species of the _Rodentia_. It was introduced

to these Islands from Asia; and has since spread over the whole country,

and multiplied at the expense of the black rat (_Mus Rattus_——Linn.),

which is the old British species of this animal, until its inroads on our

granaries, our stores, and dwelling-houses have increased to such an

extent, that its extirpation has become a matter of serious, if not of

national, importance.

For the destruction of these noxious animals two methods are adopted:——

1. Trapping. To render the bait more attractive, it is commonly sprinkled

with a little of one of the rat scents noticed below. The trap is also

occasionally so treated.

2. Poisoning. The following are reputed the most effective mixtures for

this purpose:——

ARSENICAL PASTE. From oatmeal or wheaten flour, 3 lbs.; powdered indigo,

1/2 oz.; finely powdered white arsenic, 1/4 lb.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 dr.;

mix, add of melted suet, 2-1/2 lbs.; and beat the whole into a paste. A

similar compound has the sanction of the French Government.

ARSENICAL POWDER. From oatmeal, 1 lb.; moist sugar, 1/4 lb.; white arsenic

and rotten cheese, of each 1 oz.; rat-scent, a few drops.

MILLERS’ RAT POWDER. From fresh oatmeal, 1 lb.; nux vomica (in very fine

powder), 1 oz.; rat-scent, 5 or 6 drops. This is highly spoken of by those

who have used it.

MINERAL RAT-POISON. From carbonate of baryta, 1/4 lb.; sugar and oatmeal,

of each 6 oz.; oils of aniseed and caraway, of each a few drops.

PHILANTROPE MUOPHOBON. A French preparation, which, according to Mr

Beasley, consists of tartar emetic, 1 part, with farinaceous matter, 4

parts, and some other (unimportant) ingredients.

PHOSPHOR PASTE.

RAT-SCENTS. The following are said to be the most attractive:

_a._ Powdered cantharides steeped in French brandy. For traps. It is said

that rats are so fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about the hands

they may be handled with impunity.

_b._ From powdered assafœtida, 8 gr.; oil of rhodium, 2 dr.; oil of

aniseed, 1 dr.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; mix by agitation.

_c._ From oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 1/4 oz.

_d._ From oil of aniseed, 1/4 oz.; nitrous acid, 2 to 3 drops; musk,

triturated with a little powdered sugar, 1 gr.

=RA′ZORS.= See PAPERS, PASTE, and SHAVING.

=REA′GENTS.= See TESTS.

=REAL′GAR.= This valuable red pigment is the bisulphide of arsenic. It is

found native in some volcanic districts; but that of commerce is prepared

by distilling, in an earthen retort, arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of

sulphur and arsenic, of orpiment and sulphur, or of arsenious acid,

sulphur, and charcoal, in the proper proportions. See DISULPHIDE OF

ARSENIC.

=RECOMMENDATIONS TO FARMERS.= A series of valuable suggestions, intended

for the guidance of farmers in the purchase of manures and cattle-feeding

materials have lately been issued by the Royal Agricultural Society of

England. In substance they are as follows:——In the purchase of

feeding-cakes, the guarantee of ‘pure’ should be insisted upon, since this

means a legal warranty that the article is produced from good clean seed.

The terms ‘best’ and ‘genuine’ are of no value, and should be objected to.

Furthermore, the sample should be subjected to analysis. For this purpose

a sample should be taken out of the middle of the cake, whilst the

remainder of the cake from which the sample has been selected, should be

sealed up and placed aside for reference in case of dispute.

The following advice is given to farmers about to purchase manures:——Raw

bones or bone dust should be purchased ‘as pure,’ whilst they should be

guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of

lime, and 4 per cent. of ammonia. ‘Boiled bones’ should be purchased as

‘pure’ boiled bones, guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent. of

tribasic phosphate of lime, and 1-3/4 per cent. of ammonia. Dissolved

bones vary so greatly that the buyer should insist on a guarantee of

quality under the heads of ‘soluble phosphate of lime,’ ‘insoluble

phosphate of lime,’ and ‘nitrogen’ or ‘ammonia,’ also for an allowance at

current rates for each unit per cent. if the bones should prove on

analysis to contain less than the guaranteed per-centages, &c. It should

be insisted that mineral superphosphates are delivered dry and in good

condition, and be guaranteed to contain a certain per-centage of soluble

phosphates at a certain price per unit per cent. No value is to be

attached to ‘insoluble phosphates.’ Compound artificial manures, which are

rarely used, should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of

soda should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda should

be guaranteed to contain 94 to 95 per cent. of pure nitrate. Sulphate of

ammonia should yield 35 per cent. of ammonia. Peruvian guano should be

sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry, friable condition,

and to contain a certain per-centage of ammonia.

In buying artificial manures the purchaser is recommended to obtain a

guarantee that they shall be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery

condition to allow of sowing by the drill.

Samples, taken out of three or four bags, should be well mixed together,

and they should be analysed not later than three days after delivery. Two

tins, holding about half a pound each, should be filled in the presence of

a witness, sealed up, one sent to the analyst, and the other retained for

future reference.

=RECTIFCA′TION.= The redistillation, &c., of a fluid, for the purpose of

rendering it purer.

=RED.= A term denoting a bright colour, resembling blood. Red is a simple

or primary colour, but of several different shades or hues, as scarlet,

crimson, vermilion, orange-red, &c.

=RED, AN′ILINE.= _Syn._ ROSANILINE. This artificial base is prepared by

the action of bichloride of tin, mercurial salts, arsenic acid, and many

other oxidising agents, upon aniline. The aniline reps of commerce, now so

largely used for dyeing, are saline compounds, more or less pure, of

rosaline, with 1 equiv. of acid. These compounds are known under the names

of ‘magenta,’ ‘fuchsine,’ ‘roseine,’ ‘azaleine,’ &c. In England the

aniline red commonly employed is the acetate of rosaniline, which has been

prepared by Mr Nicholson in splendid crystals of very considerable

dimensions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosaniline is chiefly employed.

The free base presents itself in colourless crystalline plates, but its

compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have, when dry, a beautiful green colour,

with golden lustre, and furnish with water an intensely coloured red

solution. See PURPLE (Aniline) and RED DYE, also TAR COLOURS.

=RED DYE.= The substances principally employed for dyeing reds are

cochineal, lac-dye, and madder, which, under proper treatment, yield

permanent colours of considerable brilliancy, the first and third more

particularly so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours are also

obtained from Brazil wood, safflower, archil, and some other substances.

For purple-red or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.), on silk or wool, the

aniline reds (salts of rosaniline) are now extensively used. (See

TAR-COLOURS.) The mode of applying them is noticed under PURPLE DYE. SILK

is usually dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochineal, safflower,

or lac dye; wool, with cochineal and, still more frequently, with madder;

and cotton, with madder (chiefly), Brazil wood, &c. The leading properties

of these substances are given under their respective names, and the

methods of employing them are generally referred to in the articles

DYEING, MORDANTS, &c., and, therefore, need not be repeated here. The

following may, however, be useful to the reader:——

1. First, give the ‘goods’ a mordant of alum, or of alum-and-tartar,

rinse, dry, and boil them in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron be used

instead of alum, the colour will be purple, and by combining the two, as

mordants, any intermediate shade may be produced.

2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak alkaline bath at the boiling

temperature, then washed, dried, and ‘galled’ (or, when the calico is to

be printed, for this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent

exposure to the air for a day or two, and immersion in very dilute

sulphuric acid. In this way the stuff gets opened, and takes and retains

the colour better). After the ‘galling’ the goods are dried, and alumed

twice; then dried, rinsed, and passed through a madder bath, composed of

3/4 lb. of good madder for every lb. weight of the goods; this bath is

slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 50 or 60 minutes, more

or less, according to the shade of colour required; after a few minutes

the stuff is taken out, and slightly washed; the operation is then

repeated, in the same manner, with fresh madder; it is, lastly, washed and

dried, or passed through a hot soap bath, which carries off the

fawn-coloured particles.

3. (ADRIANOPLE RED, TURKEY R.) This commences with cleansing or scouring

the goods by alkaline baths, after which they are steeped in oily liquors

brought to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda; a bath of sheep’s

dung is next often used as an intermediate or secondary steep; the

oleaginous bath, and the operation of removing the superfluous or loosely

adhering oil with an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, due

care being taken to dry the goods thoroughly after each distinct process;

then follow the distinct operations of galling, aluming, maddering, and

brightening, the last for removing the dun-coloured principle, by boiling

at an elevated temperature with alkaline liquids and soap; the whole is

generally concluded with treatment by spirit of tin. In this way are given

the most brilliant reds on cotton.

_Obs._ Wool takes from half its weight of madder to an equal weight to dye

it red; cotton and linen take rather less. On account of the comparative

insolubility of the colouring matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be

boiled along with the goods to be dyed, and not removed from the

decoction, as is the practice in using many other articles. Other

dye-stuffs are frequently added to the madder bath, to vary the shades of

colour. Decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are often

thus employed, the mordants being modified accordingly. By adding bran to

the madder bath the colour is said to be rendered much lighter, and of a

more agreeable tint.

=RED GUM.= A slight eruptive disease of infancy, occasioned by teething,

and, less frequently, by irritation from rough flannel worn next to the

skin. See STROPHULUS.

=RED LAV′ENDER.= See TINCTURE OF LAVENDER (Compound).

=RED LIQ′UOR.= The crude solution of acetate or sulpho-acetate of alumina

employed in calico printing. It is generally prepared by mixing crude

sulphate of alumina with about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of

lime, both being in the state of solution.

=RED PIG′MENTS.= The preparation of the principal red pigments are

described under their respective names. The following list includes most

of the reds in use:——

=Arme′nian Bole.= _Syn._ BOLE ARMENIAN; BOLUS ARMENIÆ, L. Formerly

imported from Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c.; now generally made by

grinding together a mixture of whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre,

in nearly equal proportions.

=Red, Brown.= A factitious mixture of red oxide of iron and red ochre, in

variable proportions.

=Car′mine.=

=Carmina′ted Lake.=

=Red Chrome.= _Syn._ DICHROMATE OF LEAD, RED CHROMATE OF L.; PLUMBI

DICHROMAS, P. CHROMUS RUBRUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Boil pure carbonate of lead

with chromate of potassa, in excess, until it assumes a proper colour;

then wash it well with pure water, and dry it in the shade.

2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little water of ammonia or lime

water.

3. (Liebig and Wöhler.) Fuse saltpetre at a low red heat in a Hessian

crucible, and throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yellow), by small

portions at a time, as long as a strong ebullition follows upon each

addition of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture frequently with a

glass rod; after repose for a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, and,

as soon as the solid residuum is cold, wash it with water, and dry it by a

gentle heat.

_Obs._ Great care must be taken, in conducting the last process, not to

employ too much heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand long over

the newly formed chrome-red, as the colour is thus apt to change to a

brown or orange. When well managed the product has a crystalline texture,

and so beautiful a red colour that it vies with native cinnabar. The

liquid poured from the crucible is reserved for manufacturing chrome

yellow.

=Red, In′dian.= _Syn._ PURPLE OCHRE; OCHRA PURPUREA PERSICA, TERRA

PERSICA, L. This is a native production, brought from Ormus. A factitious

article is prepared by calcining a mixture of colcothar and red ochre.

=Lakes= (Various).

=Red, Light.= From yellow ochre, by careful calcination. It works well

with both oil and water, and produces an admirable flesh-colour by

admixture with pure white. All the ochres, both red and yellow, are

darkened by heat.

=Red Or′ange.= _Syn._ SANDIX. Obtained from white lead by calcination.

Very bright.

=Real′gar.= Bisulphide of arsenic.

=Red Bole.= See ARMENIAN and VENETIAN BOLE. (Ochres.)

=Red Chalk.= A clay iron ore, much used for pencils and crayons, and, when

ground, also for paints.

=Red Lead.= _Syn._ MINIUM. The finest red lead is prepared by exposing

ground and elutriated massicott, or dross of lend, in shallow iron trays

(about 12 inches square, and about 4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the

hearth of a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about 600 to 650° Fahr.,

with occasional stirring, until it acquires the proper colour. The furnace

employed for the preparation of massicot during the day usually possesses

sufficient residuary heat during the night for this process, by which fuel

is saved. Lead for the above purpose should be quite free from copper and

iron.

=Red O′chre.= A natural product abounding on the Mendip hills.

=Red Or′piment.= _Syn._ RED ARSENIC. Tersulphide of arsenic.

=Red Vene′tian.= _Syn._ BOLUS VENETA, L. A species of ochre, brought from

Italy.

=Rose Pink.= This is whiting coloured with a decoction of Brazil wood to

which a little pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour, but it does

not stand. It is always kept in a damp state. The colour may be varied by

substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addition of a little spirits of

tin.

=Vermil′ion.= (See under that word.)

=REDUC′TION.= _Syn._ REVIVIFICATION. A term in its fullest sense applied

to any operation by which a substance is restored to its neutral state;

but now generally restricted, in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen,

and hence frequently termed deoxidation or deoxidisement. This change is

operated by either heating the substance in contact with carbon or

hydrogen, or in exposing it to the action of some other body having a

powerful affinity for oxygen. See POTASSIUM, &c.

=REFI′′NING.= A term employed in commercial chemistry and metallurgy

synonymously with purification. The separation of the precious metals from

those of less value, as in the operation of parting, constitutes the

business of the ‘refiner.’ See GOLD, SILVER, &c.

=REFRAC′TION (of Light).= The deviation of a ray of light from its

original path on entering a medium of a different density or power. For

the practical application of this property, see GEMS.

=REFRI′′GERANTS.= Medicines or agents which tend to lessen the animal

temperature without causing any marked diminution of sensibility or

nervous energy. Among internal refrigerants cold water, weak acidulous

drinks, and saline aperients, are those which are probably the best known

and the most useful. Among external refrigerants are cold water,

evaporating lotions, weak solutions of subacetate of lead, &c.

=REFRIGERA′TION.= The abatement of heat; the act or operation of cooling.

Among the purposes to which refrigeratory processes are applied in the

arts, the principal are——the condensation of vapours——the cooling of

liquids——the congelation of water, and——the production of extreme degrees

of cold in chemical operations. The first of these is referred to under

the heads DISTILLATION, STILL, &c., and the second under WORT. It is,

therefore, only necessary to notice here the third and fourth applications

of cold, artificially produced, above referred to.

The refrigeratory processes at present employed depend upon the greater

capacity for heat which the same body possesses as its density lessens, or

its attenuation increases; as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of

solids, the rapid evaporation of liquids, and the almost instantaneous

return of atmospheric air, or other gaseous body, from a highly condensed

state to its normal condition. The loss of sensible heat in the first

example is the basis of the various processes of producing cold by what

are commonly called ‘FREEZING-’ or ‘FRIGORIFIC-MIXTURES,’ all of which act

upon the principle of liquefying solid substances without supplying heat.

The caloric of liquidity being in these cases derived from that previously

existing in the solid itself in a sensible state, the temperature must

necessarily fall. The degree of cold produced depends upon the quantity of

heat which is thus diffused through a larger mass, or which, as it were,

disappears; and this is dependent on the quantity of solid matter

liquefied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline compounds are the

substances most frequently employed for this purpose, and those which have

the greatest affinity for water, and thus liquefy the most rapidly,

produce the greatest degree of cold. Similar changes occur during the

evaporation of liquids. When heat passes from the sensible to the

insensible state, as in the formation of vapour, cold is generated. This

may be shown by pouring a few drops of ether or rectified spirit on the

palm of the hand, when a strong sensation of cold is experienced. A still

more familiar illustration of this fact is exhibited in the rapidity with

which the animal body loses heat when enveloped in damp or wet clothing.

The evaporation of water produces a degree of cold which is greater than

that of other liquids, in exact proportion as the insensible or latent

heat of its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenuation or rarefaction of

gases similar phenomena occur.

It has been found that evaporation proceeds much more rapidly from the

surface of fluids in a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water may be easily

frozen by introducing a surface of sulphuric acid under the receiver of an

air-pump, over which is placed a capsule filled with water, so that the

vapour arising from the latter may be immediately absorbed by the former.

After a few strokes of the piston the water is converted into a solid cake

of ice. The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous vapours as soon as

generated, and thus maintaining the integrity of the vacuum. Professor

Leslie found that, when air is thus rarified 250 times, the surface of

evaporation was cooled down 120° in winter; and when only 50 times, a

depression of 80° or even 100° took place. “Sulphuric acid is capable of

congealing more than 20 times its weight of water before it has imbibed

nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or has lost about 1/8th of its

refrigerating power.” (Ure.) Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted in

this way, may be reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having a great

tendency to absorb moisture may be substituted for the sulphuric acid.

Fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, nitrate of magnesium, chloride of

zinc, and oatmeal (dried nearly to brownness before a common fire), have

been used for this purpose. Again, instead of employing an air-pump, a

vacuum may be produced by the agency of steam, afterwards condensed by the

affusion of cold water.

A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of the evaporative power of a

vacuum, is the ‘CRYOPHORUS,’ or ‘FROST-BEARER,’ of Dr Wollaston. This

instrument consists of two small glass globes, united by a tube, one of

which is partly filled with water. The whole apparatus is perfectly free

from air, and is, consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous vapours. No

sooner is the pressure removed as by plunging the empty ball into a

freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), than rapid evaporation

commences, and the water in the other ball is frozen in two or three

minutes.

[Illustration]

Even in hot climates ice may be produced under favorable circumstances by

evaporation. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this is effected by

exposing a thin stratum of water to the atmosphere, during the fine clear

nights of December, January, and February. The pans are made of porous

earthenware, and water is poured in to the depth of about 1-1/2 inch. A

large number of these vessels are arranged in an excavation in the ground,

30 or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom of which is covered, to

the depth of 10 or 12 inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian

corn. At sunrise the pans are visited, the ice separated from the water,

and packed as tight as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened

from the heat.

Several machines have recently been invented by which water is frozen in

large quantities by exposure to condensed air in the act of its subsequent

expansion. They are worked by either hand or steam power. The

refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin

Works, acts on this principle; and it does its work so efficiently that it

produces a cooling effect equivalent to two tons of ice every twenty-four

hours, at a very small expenditure of fuel. A small model worked by hand

will readily freeze mercury. Kirk’s apparatus is used at Bathgate to cause

the crystallisation of solid paraffin from the heavy paraffin oils.

Formerly, a machine, acting by the evaporation of ether, was employed for

the same purpose.

For the production of an extremely low temperature, such as is required

for the liquefaction of some gases, Faraday employed solid carbonic acid

mixed with a little ether.

In the production of ice or an extreme degree of cold, by saline mixtures,

the salts should be in the crystallised state, and as rich as possible in

water, but without being in the least damp. They should also be coarsely

pulverised at the time of using them, and should not be mixed until

immediately before throwing them into the liquid ingredients. The mixture

should be made in a thick vessel, well clothed, to prevent the accession

of external heat; and the substance to be acted on should be contained in

a very thin vessel, so as to expose it more fully to the action of the

mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a ‘FREEZING POT’ or

‘SABOTIÈRE’ is commonly employed. The following table, though founded on

experiments made more than 50 years ago by Mr Walker, gives full and

accurate information on the subject of freezing mixtures:——

Table _exhibiting a few of the most useful_

FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. _Drawn up from actual

experiments performed by_ MR WALKER.

+----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+

| | | Deg. of cold |

| Ingredients. | Thermometer sinks. | produced. |

+----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+

| Snow or pounded ice 2 parts { From any | |

| Chloride of sodium 1 ” { temperature. to -5° | —— |

+----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+

| Snow or pounded ice 5 ” { From any | |

| Chloride of sodium 2 ” { temperature. to -12° | —— |

| Sal ammoniac 1 ” { | |

+----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+

| Snow or pounded ice 12 ” { From any | |

| Chloride of sodium 5 ” { temperature to -25° | —— |

| Nitrate of ammonia 5 ” { | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 8 ” | |

| Hydrochloric From +32° to -27° | 59° |

| acid (_concentrated_) 5 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 2 ” | |

| Crystallised chloride From +32° to -50° | 82° |

| of calcium 3 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Sal ammoniac 5 ” | |

| Nitrate of potassa 5 ” From +50° to +10° | 40° |

| Water 16 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” From +50° to +4° | 46° |

| Water 1 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” | |

| Carbonate of soda 1 ” From +50° to +7° | 57° |

| Water 1 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Phosphate of soda 9 ” | |

| Nitrate of ammonia 6 ” From +50° to -21° | 71° |

| Diluted nitrous acid[135]4 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Sulphate of soda 8 ” From +50° to 0° | 50° |

| Hydrochloric acid 5 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 3 ” From 0° to -46° | 46° |

| Diluted nitrous acid[135]2 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 2 ” | |

| Sulphuric acid[136] 1 ” From -20° to -60° | 40° |

| Water 1 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 1 ” | |

| Crystallised chloride From 0° to -66° | 66° |

| of calcium 2 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 1 ” | |

| Crystallised chloride From -40° to -73° | 33° |

| of calcium 3 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

| Snow 8 ” | |

| Sulphuric acid 5 ” From -68° to -91° | 23° |

| Water 5 ” | |

+-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

[Footnote 135: Fuming “nitrous acid,” 2 parts; water, 1 part; by weight.]

[Footnote 136: Prof. Pfaundler has shown that an acid containing 66·19 per

cent. of H_{2}SO_{4}, is the most advantageous to employ for this purpose;

one part of an acid of this strength with 1·097 parts of snow forming a

refrigerating mixture which will reduce the temperature to -37° C. (-36°

F.). For practical purposes it is suggested an excess of snow would be

better, since the refrigerating value of the mixture is thereby largely

increased, though the lowest temperature is not obtained. See ICE.]

_Obs._ The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to

mixing, to the temperature required in the second, by the use of other

mixtures.

=REG′ULUS.= A term applied by the alchemists to various metallic matters

obtained by fusion; as REGULUS OF ANTIMONY, ARSENIC, &c. It is now

obsolete.

=REL′ISHES.= See SAUCES.

=REMEDIES, FERRUGINOUS.= Rob. Freygang:——

STEEL BRANDY is an ordinary clear brownish brandy, containing a very

little bitter matter, like the stomachic bitters of the apothecaries, and

mixed with about 1 per cent. of sugar. 10,000 parts contain about 1-1/2

part oxide of iron.

STEEL STOMACHIC BITTERS. This is more aromatic, but otherwise similar to

the steel brandy; 10,000 parts contain 2/3 part iron oxide.

STEEL LIQUEUR is a clear, agreeably-tasting liqueur, of the colour and

containing much of the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain nearly

1,200 of sugar and only 1 of iron oxide.

STEEL SYRUP——Syrop ferrugineux de Quinquina. A clear slightly

violet-coloured, thin, sweet fluid, containing spirit and sugar, of which

cinchona bark may be an ingredient, though it is appreciable by neither

taste nor tests. It contains 1-1/4 part iron in 10,000 parts.

STEEL BONBONS contain a trace of iron oxide.

The iron present in the above preparations is in the form of citrate.

(Hager.)

=REMIT′TENT.= A term applied to fevers, and other diseases, which exhibit

a decided remission in violence during the twenty-four hours, but without

entirely leaving the patient, in which they differ from intermittents or

agues.

=REN′NET.= _Syn._ RUNNET, PREPARED CALF’S MAW. The fourth or true

digesting stomach of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and useless

membrane, washed, treated with either brine or dry salt for a few hours,

and then hung up to dry. When well prepared, the dried ‘vells’ somewhat

resemble parchment in appearance.

_Uses, &c._ Rennet is employed to curdle milk. A piece of the requisite

size is cut off, and soaked for some hours in whey or water, after which

the whole is added to the milk for curdling, slightly warmed, and the

mixture is slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122° Fahr. In a short

time after this temperature has been attained the milk separates into a

solid white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish, translucent liquid

(whey). Two square inches from the bottom of a good ‘vell’ are sufficient

for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of the stomach that

operates these changes. The stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the

same properties. See CHEESE.

=Rennet, Liquid.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF RENNET. _Prep._ From fresh rennet (cut

small), 12 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; knead them together, and leave the

mixture at rest, in a cool place, for 5 or 6 weeks; then add of water 18

oz.; good rum or proof spirit, 2 oz.; lastly, digest for 24 hours, filter,

and colour the liquid with a little burnt sugar.

=Rennet, Liquid.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF RENNET. Fresh rennet, 12 oz.; salt, 2

oz.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; white wine, a quart; digest for 24 hours and

strain. A quart of milk requires 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls. WISLIN directs 10

parts of a calf’s stomach; salt, 3 parts. The membrane of the stomach is

to be cut with scissors and kneaded with the salt, and with the rennet

found in the interior of that organ; the whole left in a cool place in an

earthen pot till the cheesy odour is replaced by the proper odour of

rennet, which will be in one or two months. Then add 16 parts of water and

1 of spirit. Filter and colour with burnt sugar.

The German Pharmacopœia gives the following formula for liquid rennet:——3

parts of the mucous membrane of fresh calf’s rennet, macerated for three

days in 26 parts of white wine, 1 part of table salt being added.

_Obs._ 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart of milk. Some persons use

white wine instead of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.

=RES′IN.= _Syn._ RESINA, L. This name is applied to many vegetable

principles composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The

resins (RESINÆ) cannot be very accurately defined, but we may in a general

way describe them as substances which are solid at ordinary temperatures,

more or less transparent, inflammable, readily fusible, do not volatilise

unchanged, become negatively electrified by rubbing; are insoluble in

water, but soluble in alcohol; mostly inodorous, and readily incorporated

with fatty bodies by fusion. Their sp. gr. varies from ·9 to 1·2.

According to Liebig, they are oxidised essential oils. Common resin,

rosin, or colophony, and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are

familiar examples of these substances. (See _below_.)

=Resin, Black.= _Syn._ ROSIN‡, BLACK R.‡, COLOPHONY; RESINA NIGRA,

COLOPHONIA, L. What remains of turpentine after the oil has been

distilled. When this substance, whilst still fluid, is agitated with about

1-8th part of water, it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy. Used for

violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, varnishes, &c.

=Resin, Yel′low.= _Syn._ YELLOW ROSIN‡, WHITE R.‡; RESINA FLAVA, RESINA

(Ph. L.), La. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters, &c. (See _above_.)

=RES′INOIDS.= _Syn._ RESINOUS EXTRACTS, CONCENTRATED E.; EXTRACTA RESINA,

L. Under this head, the so-called ‘Eclectics,’ who form a numerous class

among American physicians, place their most important ‘concentrated

remedies.’ “Viewed as pharmaceutical preparations eligible for use in

medicine, though not purified so as to rank as distinctive proximate

principles, these are very appropriately named ‘resinous extracts,’ or

‘resins.’ The term ‘resinoid,’ so commonly used, is less appropriate to

the class, implying, as it does, a resemblance to resins, while all of

these are either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed proximate

principles possessing no real resemblance to the class of resins.”

(Parrish.) Most of them are prepared from plants indigenous to North

America, by precipitating a strong alcoholic tincture with water. They are

all brought to the condition of powder, those which are naturally soft and

oily being mixed with a sufficient quantity of sugar of milk, or other dry

material. One of these eclectic remedies has been introduced into regular

practice. See PODOPHYLLIN.

=RESIN, or ROSIN OIL.= This is a product of the dry distillation of resin.

The apparatus used consists of an iron pot, a head piece, a condensing

arrangement, and a receiver.

In distilling the resin, a bright oil first comes over with water. As soon

as a cessation in the flow of the distillate occurs the receiver is

changed, and the heat is further raised, when a red-coloured and heavy

rosin oil comes over. The black residue remaining in the pot is used as

pitch. The light oil, called ‘pinoline,’ is rectified, and the acetic acid

water passing over with it is saturated with calcium hydrate, filtered and

evaporated to dryness; and the calcium acetate obtained is employed in the

manufacture of acetic acid. The rosin oil, obtained after the light oil

has passed over, has a dark violet-blue colour, and is called ‘blue rosin

oil.’ The red oil is boiled for a day with water, the evaporated water

being returned to the vessel; next day the water is drawn off, and the

remaining rosin oil is saponified with caustic soda lye of 36° Baumé, and

the resulting solid mass is distilled so long as oil passes over.

The product obtained is ‘rectified rosin oil,’ which is allowed to stand

in iron vessels, protected by a thin layer of gypsum, whereby after a few

weeks a perfectly clear oil is obtained free from water. The oil of first

quality is obtained by a repetition of the foregoing operation upon the

once rectified oil. The residues of both operations are melted up with the

pitch.[137]

[Footnote 137: Dingler’s ‘Polytech. Journ.,’ ccvi, 246 (‘Journ. Chem.

Soc.,’ new series, vol. xi, 304).]

Rosin oil is employed in the manufacture of axle grease, the oil being

previously converted into a soap by heating with slaked lime.

=RESOLV′ENTS.= _Syn._ DISCUTIENTS; RESOLVENTIA, L. Substances or agents

which discuss or resolve inflammatory and other tumours. See DIGESTIVES.

=RESPIRA′TION.= The peculiar function by which the blood is submitted to

the action of the air, for the purpose of removing carbonic acid, and

restoring its vitality by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.

The air expired from the lungs is found to have undergone a most

remarkable change. It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst a

considerable portion of its oxygen has disappeared, and its place is

supplied by about a like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer capable

of supporting animal life, and even a lighted taper plunged into it is

immediately extinguished. In the mean time the ‘venous blood’ which

entered the lungs from the right chambers of the heart has lost its dingy

hue, and has acquired the rich florid colour which is characteristic of

‘arterial blood.’ In this state it is returned to the left chambers of the

heart, and is propelled by that organ to every part of the body, from

which it passes by the capillaries to the veins, and by these again to the

heart and lungs, to undergo the same changes and circulation as before.

The carbon and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived from the food,

are, in this course, gradually converted into carbonic acid and water by a

species of slow combustion; but how these changes are effected is not

definitely ascertained.

The lungs, as is well known, receive the atmospheric air through the

trachea or windpipe. At the root of the neck this divides into two

branches, called bronchi, and each bronchus, upon entering its respective

lung, divides into an infinity of small tubes. The latter terminate in

small pouches, called the air-cells, and a number of these little

air-cells communicate together at the extremity of each small tube. The

number of air-cells in the two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000,

and the extent of the membrane which lines the cells and tubes together at

1500 square feet. (Dr Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances, from 22 to

43 cubic inches of air are thrown out at each expiration; but, by a forced

effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled. The number of

respirations per minute in health, when the individual is tranquil and

undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases this number. See FOOD,

NUTRITION, &c.

=Respiration, Artificial.= Various means have been adopted for this

purpose, among which blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that

generally adopted. A better, and, in general, a much more efficient

method, is as follows:——Powerful but not violent pressure is made upon the

sides of the chest and upon the abdomen at the same time, by which the

cavity of the thorax is diminished, and the air contained in the lungs is

expelled; the compression is then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity

of the ribs causes them to resume their old expanded positions; the chest

is again enlarged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air rushes into the

lungs, to be again expelled by pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as

before. By this means artificial respiration may be kept up for a great

length of time, without the use of bellows, or any other apparatus. The

chief principle of Dr Marshall Hall’s so-called ‘ready method’ is the

postural performance of artificial respiration. The patient is first

placed gently on the face, and then turned on the side; then on the face

again, alternately; these measures being repeated deliberately,

efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in the minute. When the

prone position is resumed, equable, but efficient, pressure is applied

along the spine; this pressure is removed immediately before rotation on

the side.

The ‘Silvester method,’ invented by Dr Henry Silvester, is now

acknowledged to be far more effective than Dr Hall’s method, and is

adopted by the Royal Humane Society for the restoration of the apparently

drowned. It consists in laying the patient on the back, slightly raising

the head and shoulders, drawing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by

passing an elastic band over it and under the chin. The arms are then

grasped just above the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until they meet

above the head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs),

keeping the arms in that position for two seconds. The patient’s arms are

then turned down, and pressed gently and firmly for two seconds against

the sides of the chest (this is for the purpose of pressing the air out of

the lungs). Artificial breathing is thus carried on. These efforts are

repeated fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire

is perceived. During the employment of these means the nostrils are

excited with snuff or smelling salts, or the throat is tickled with a

feather. After natural breathing has been restored, warmth and circulation

are induced by wrapping the body in hot blankets, applying bottles or

bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the

armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet, and by rubbing

the limbs upwards firmly and energetically.

In the ‘Landw. Versuchs Stat.’ (xviii, 81-169)[138] Rudolph Pott has

recorded a series of interesting experiments instituted with the object of

determining the comparative quantities of carbonic acid excreted by

respiration and perspiration in different species of animals in equal

intervals of time; together with some experiments on the excretion of

carbonic acid by the same animals under different physiological

conditions.

[Footnote 138: ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ 1876, vol. i, p. 721.]

The author states that in his researches he used an air tight box, with

glass sides, in which the animal is placed, and through which the air can

be drawn at any rate required by means of an aspirator.

The air before entering the glass chamber passes over caustic potash and

through baryta water; after leaving the chamber it passes through three

flasks containing known quantities of baryta water.

In the first part of this paper the author estimates the amount of

carbonic acid excreted by different animals during the space of six hours,

and under otherwise similar circumstances. The following are the most

important conclusions he arrives at:——

1. The greatest quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their weight is

given off by birds. Mammals are the next in order. Insects exhale less

than either of these.

2. Worms, amphibia, fishes, and snails form another group which excrete

much less carbonic acid. Of these worms exhale the most and snails the

least.

3. Those animals of the second group, which live in water, give off the

greatest part of their carbonic acid to the air, and only a much smaller

portion to the surrounding water.

4. Young animals excrete more carbonic acid than old ones; this is most

marked in amphibia. For example 100 grams of an old frog (_Rana

temporaria_) exhaled in six hours ·213 grm., whereas 100 grams of a young

frog gave off in the same time ·765 grm.

5. The larvæ of insects exhale less carbonic acid than the insects

themselves.

6. Different individuals of the same species exhale in the same time

nearly the same quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their

body-weight.

In the second part of this paper the author describes experiments in the

influence of coloured light on the excretion of carbonic acid; in the same

animal (mouse) and for the same time.

He concludes that——

1. The excretion of carbonic acid is less in ordinary daylight than in

coloured light.

2. The violet and red rays exercise the least influence on the excretion

of carbonic acid, the green and yellow are the most active; and the

milk-white and blue rays occupy an intermediate position. The relation of

these different actions may be expressed by the following figures:——

Violet. Red. Milk-white.

86·89 93·38 100

Blue. Green. Yellow.

122·63 128·52 174·79

Finally, the author experimented with a mouse during the night, and found

then the excretion of carbonic acid at that time is considerably less than

during the day.

=REVALEN′TA ARABICA.= A mixture of the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with

barley flour, and a little sugar or salt. (‘Lancet.’) See LENTIL and

REVALENTA.

=REVERB′ERATORY FURNACE.= See FURNACE.

=REVI′′VER.= _Prep._ 1. (BLACK REVIVER, PARIS’S ANTICARDIUM.)——_a._ Blue

galls (bruised), 4 oz.; logwood and sumach, of each 1 oz.; vinegar, 1

quart; macerate in a closed vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then

strain off the clear, add iron filings and green copperas, of each 1 oz.,

shake it occasionally for a week, and preserve it in a corked bottle.

_b._ Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for 2 hours in water, 5 quarts,

until reduced to a gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas 1/2 lb.

Used to restore the colour of faded black cloth.

2. (BLUE REVIVER.) From soluble Prussian blue, 1 oz.; dissolved in

distilled water, 1 quart. Used for either black or blue cloth.

=RHAM′NIN.= _Prep._ Express the juice from buckthorn berries scarcely

ripe, which is to be rejected; boil the cake or residue with water, strain

with pressure, and filter the liquid whilst hot; crude rhamnin will be

deposited as the liquid cools, which, by solution in boiling alcohol and

filtration, may be procured in crystals.

_Obs._ Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni), “the juice of the fruit of

_Rhamnus catharticus_ (Linn.),” is officinal in the Ph. L.

=RHAT′ANY.= _Syn._ RHATANY ROOT; KRAMERIÆ RADIX (B. P.); KRAMERIA (Ph. L.

E. & D.), RHATANIÆ RADIX, L. “The root of _Krameria triandria_.” (Ph. L.)

It is stomachic, and powerfully astringent and styptic.——_Dose_, 20 to 60

gr., either in powder or made into a decoction or infusion. It is much

employed in tooth powders, to fix the teeth when they become loosened by

the recession of the gums, and also for improving the natural red colour

of the lips and gums. A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made with

brandy, forms the ‘wine-colouring’ used by the Portuguese to give

roughness, colour, and tone to their port wine. Hard extract of rhatany is

also much employed for the same purpose.

=RHE′IN.= _Syn._ CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. The yellow colouring principle of

rhubarb.

=RHEUMATIC and GOUT PILLS.= (W. Gross Cardiff). Pills weighing 2 grammes

rolled in lycopodium, the essential ingredients of which are quinine

sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, and a little rhubarb. (Hager.)

=RHEU′MATISM.= _Syn._ RHEUMATISMUS, L. An affection of the joints, and of

the external muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of the body,

attended with swelling, stiffness, and great pain. Acute rheumatism or

rheumatic fever,——arthritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane, or

rheumatic gout,——sciatica, or rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the

great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip,——and lumbago, or rheumatism of the

loins, are varieties of this disease.

The treatment of rheumatism consists in the administration of purgatives

and diaphoretics or sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as bark, quinine,

&c. Calomel with opium, and iodide of potassium, have also been frequently

and successfully employed in this complaint. Of late years the

administration of the bicarbonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in

rather large doses, has been strongly recommended, and in numerous cases

adopted with success. Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved useful

in suddenly cutting short severe attacks of certain forms of rheumatism.

The compound powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will generally promote

the ease and sleep of the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend

considerably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a dry atmosphere and a

regular temperature should be sought, since a damp atmosphere, and,

indeed, exposure to damp under any form, are the principal causes of

rheumatism. Stimulating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, above all,

the hot or vapour bath, are also frequently serviceable in rheumatism,

especially in lumbago and casual attacks arising from cold. The daily use

of oranges, or of lemon juice diluted with water, has been found, in the

majority of cases, to lessen the susceptibility of those who employ them

to attacks of rheumatism and rheumatic gout arising from a damp situation

or exposure to the weather. See LEMON JUICE.

=RHO′DIUM.= A whitish metal discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, associated

with palladium in the ore of platinum.

It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of metallic pens (‘rhodium’ or

‘everlasting pens’). A very small quantity added to steel is said to

improve its closeness, hardness, and toughness, and to render it less

easily corrodible by damp.

=RHU′BARB.= _Syn._ RHEI RADIX (B. P.); RHEUM (Ph. E. & D.), RHEUM——Sinense

(Ph. L.), RHABARBARUM†, RHŒM†, L. “The root of uncertain species of

Rheum.” (Ph. L.) According to Dr F. Farre, the term ‘sinense’ (Chinese),

employed by the London College, “was placed after ‘rheum,’ to include the

so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs, which are considered to be the

produce of China and Chinese Tartary, and to exclude European, Himalayan,

&c.”

Three principal varieties of rhubarb are known in this country:——

Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce of six-year-old plants of the

mountain declivities of Chinese Tartary; and its principal excellence

depends on its more careful preparation, and subsequent garbling, both

before its selection for the Russian market, and after its arrival at

Kiachta, and again at St Petersburg. At Kiachta all pieces of a porous,

grey, or pale colour are rejected, the whole being pared and perforated,

the better to determine the quality of the interior portion. At St

Petersburg the pieces are again carefully examined and garbled, and are,

finally, packed in close cases or chests, which are rendered air-tight by

the application of pitch on the outside.

East India or Chinese rhubarb is the produce of the locality just referred

to, as well as of other parts of China. It is obtained from younger

plants, and its preparation and subsequent selection or garbling is

conducted with less care.

English rhubarb is principally produced at Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the

_Rheum rhaponticum_. It is cut and dressed up after the manner of Turkey

rhubarb, for which it is sold by itinerant vendors, habited as Turks.

_Adult._ Dr Maisch[139] says the presence of turmeric may be detected in

powdered rhubarb by the following method:——A small quantity of the

suspected rhubarb is agitated for a minute or two with strong alcohol, and

then filtered, chrysophanic acid being sparingly soluble in this

menstruum. The brown yellow colour of the filtrate is due to the resinous

principles of rhubarb mainly; if adulterated with turmeric, the tincture

will be of a brighter yellow shade; a strong solution of borax produces in

both tinctures a deep red-brown colour.

[Footnote 139: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy,’ xliii, 259.]

If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in large excess, the tincture of

pure rhubarb will instantly assume a light yellow colour, while the

tincture of the adulterated powder will change merely to a lighter shade

of brown-red.

The test is a very delicate one, and is based on the liberation of boracic

acid, which imparts to curcumine a colour similar to that produced by

alkalies, while all the principles of rhubarb soluble in strong alcohol

yield pale yellow solutions in acid liquids.

_Qual._ Russian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in irregular plano-convex or

roundish lumps, perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a yellow

colour outside; when recently broken, the inside presents a rich mottled

appearance, and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odour. It is

firm, compact, heavy, perfectly free from moisture, and easily grated. Its

taste is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub-acid; and when chewed it

feels gritty, and tinges the saliva of a beautiful yellow colour. It

breaks with a rough, hackly fracture, is easily pulverised, and its powder

is of a bright buff-yellow colour.

East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in flat pieces, seldom

perforated, and its taste and odour are stronger than the other. It is

also heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue, and when pulverised

the powder is redder than that of Russian rhubarb.

English rhubarb possesses all the preceding qualities in a greatly less

degree. It is light and spongy, does not feel gritty between the teeth,

its taste is mucilaginous, and its powder has a peculiar pinkish hue not

present in either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As a medicine it

possesses little value, and is chiefly employed to adulterate East India

and Turkey rhubarb.

_Prop., &c._ Rhubarb is astringent, stomachic, and purgative. In small

doses its operation is principally or wholly confined to the digestive

organs; in larger ones, it first acts as a mild aperient, and, afterwards,

as an astringent; hence its value in diarrhœa. It has also been used

externally to promote the healing of indolent sores.——_Dose._ As a

stomachic, 1 to 5 gr.; as a purgative, 10 to 20 gr. It is most effective

when chewed, or in the form of powder produced by grating it.

=Rhubarb, Roast′ed.= _Syn._ BURNT RHUBARB; RHEUM USTUM, L. _Prep._ 1.

Rhubarb, in coarse powder, is carefully and regularly heated in a smooth

shallow iron disc, with constant stirring, until its colour has changed to

a moderately dark brown, when it is allowed to cool out of contact with

the air; when cold, it is reduced to powder, and at once put into a

well-closed bottle.

2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb, in an iron vessel, constantly

stirring, until it becomes almost black; then smother it in a covered

jar.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; as an astringent in diarrhœa, and a tonic in

dyspepsia, &c. Prof. Procter, the well-known American Pharmaceutist,

recommends the rhubarb to be only roasted to a ‘light brown.’

=RICE.= _Syn._ ORYZA, L. The seed of _Oryza sativa_, a plant of the

natural order _Graminaceæ_. Several varieties are known in commerce,

distinguished by the name of the country or district which produces them.

The finest is that imported from Carolina. It reaches this country in a

decorticated condition. ‘Paddy’ is rice with the husk upon it. Dr Letheby

estimates that it affords nourishment to not less than a hundred millions

of people.

As an article of diet, rice is highly nutritious and wholesome when

combined with fresh animal or other nitrogenised food; but, owing to the

very small quantity of ‘flesh-formers’ which it contains, and its

comparative destitution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to form the

principal portion of the diet of the working classes, or the poorly fed,

at least in this climate. “It does not appear so well calculated for

European constitutions as the potato, for we find the poor constantly

reject it when potatoes can be had.” This preference evidently depends on

something more than mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when rice was

substituted for potatoes in some of our union workhouses, the most serious

consequences followed. In one of these, nine or ten deaths from scurvy and

allied diseases occurred in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice

are annually imported into Britain, and used by distillers in the

manufacture of spirits.

Letheby gives the following as the composition of rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 6·3

Carbo-hydrates 79·5

Fatty matter 0·7

Saline matter 0·5

Water 13·0

——————

100·0

Payen gives the following as the composition of dried rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 7·55

Starch 88·65

Dextrin, &c. 1·00

Fatty matter 0·80

Cellulose 1·10

Mineral water 0·90

——————

100·00

Ash of rice:——

Potash 18·48

Soda 10·67

Lime 1·27

Magnesia 11·69

Oxide of iron 0·45

Phosphoric acid 53·36

Chlorine 0·27

Silica 3·35

——————

99·54

=Rice, To Cook.= If rice is boiled it should be subjected to a low

temperature. The best way of cooking rice, however, is by thoroughly

steaming it. By this method, it is said, the loss of nitrogenous matter is

prevented, and the grain consequently suffers no diminution of nutritive

power, as in the case of boiling.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

_Microscopic appearance of Rice._

Fig. 1——Transverse section of the husk of rice.

Fig. 2.——Appearance of husk as seen in a transparent medium of glycerin

and gum: _a_, Siliceous granules arranged in longitudinal and transverse

ridges, perforated by openings——stomata, some having hairs over them. _b

c_, Transverse and longitudinal, brittle, rough-edged fibres, _d_, A fine

membrane of transverse angular cells; these overlie a very delicate

membrane of large cells, _e_.

[Illustration: Microscopic appearance of ground rice-flour.]

=RICINO′LEIC ACID.= A variety of oleic acid discovered in saponified

castor oil.

=RICK′ETS.= _Syn._ RACHITIS, L. A disease, generally confined to

childhood, characterised by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded

breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, emaciated limbs, and great

general debility. The bones, more particularly those of the spine and

legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency of earthy matter; the

stools are frequent and loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, painful

and difficult respiration, and, unless the child rallies, atrophy is

confirmed, and death ensues. When recovery takes place there is always

more or less deformity left.

The common causes of rickets are bad nursing, exposure to damp and cold,

and insufficient nutrition, arising from the use of white bread containing

alum, or any of the pernicious compounds vended under the names of

‘FARINACEOUS FOOD,’ ‘INFANTS’ F.,’ ‘PATENT F.,’ &c. Rickets, like caries

of the bones, is a disease which is scarcely known amongst infants whose

pap is made of pure wheaten bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume the

same themselves.

The treatment of rickets depends more on proper domestic management than

on direct medication. Careful nursing, warm dry clothing, thorough

ventilation, moderate exercise, and, above all, a light nutritious mixed

diet abounding in nitrogenous matter and the phosphates, will do much to

effect a cure. To these may be added the administration of the milder

chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine, with occasional doses of some mild

aperient, as phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhœa, of rhubarb or

some other tonic purge. The administration of small doses of phosphate of

lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently repeated, or, still better,

the daily use of jelly made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often

effect wonders in those cases in which the bones are implicated from an

apparent deficiency of earthy matter. See BREAD, FARINA, NURSING, &c.

=RING′WORM.= _Syn._ SCALD-HEAD; PORRIGO, L. The common ringworm, the

PORRIGO SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a disease that appears in

circular patches of little pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving

a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs of the hair in its

progress. It spreads rapidly, and is very infectious, often running

through a whole school. It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and scalp

of weakly children, and frequently arises without any apparent cause, but,

in general, may be traced to uncleanness, or contact with parties

suffering from the disease.

The treatment of ringworm consists in shaving the part, and keeping it

clean with soap and water, at the same time that an occasional mild saline

aperient is administered, and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red

meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be rigorously adhered to. When

the scabbing commences, dressings of tar ointment, or of the ointment of

nitrate or red oxide of mercury, or a mixture of equal parts of the first

and either the second or third, should be applied, in each case diluting

the mixture with sufficient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability

of the part. During this treatment the head should be covered with an

ordinary nightcap, or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in a bladder

or oil-skin case, as is commonly the practice, since the complete

exclusion of atmospheric air tends to aggravate the disease.

=RI′′PENING.= See BREWING, MALT LIQUORS, WINE, &c.

=ROAST′ING.= Alexis Soyer recommends, “as an invariable rule,” that “all

dark meats, such as beef and mutton, should be put down to a sharp fire

for at least fifteen minutes, until the outside has acquired a coating of

osmazome, or condensed gravy, and then removed back, and allowed to cook

gently. Lamb, veal, and pork, if young and tender, should be done at a

moderate fire. Veal should even be covered with paper.

“Very rich meat, if covered with paper, does not require basting. Fowls,

&c., should be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and in about ten

minutes rubbed over with a small piece of butter, pressed in a spoon.

Meats, whilst roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at the time

when the gravy begins to appear; the flour absorbs it, and forms a coating

which prevents any more coming out. Hares and small game should be treated

in the same manner.”

Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire, and the distance between it

and the joint, beef, mutton, and veal, take about 1/4 hour per lb. in

roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game, require only 12 to 14 minutes per

lb.; whilst veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes from 1/4 hour to

20 minutes, as they must always be well done. The flesh of old animals

requires more cooking than the flesh of young ones; and inferior, tough,

and bony parts than the prime joints and pieces.

Roasting is not an economical method of cooking pieces of meat abounding

in bone or tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion of these is

either destroyed or rendered insoluble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw

bones from a joint are capable of affording a rich and excellent basin of

soup, highly nutritious; whilst the bones from a corresponding joint which

has been roasted are nearly worthless when so treated. The same applies

with even greater force to the gristly and tendinous portions. A dry heat

either destroys them or converts them into a horny substance, unfit for

food; whilst by boiling they are transformed into a highly succulent and

nutritious article of food, besides affording excellent soup or jelly.

Hence the policy of ‘boning’ meat before roasting or baking it; or, at all

events, of removing the bony portion which would be most exposed to the

action of the fire. See BONE and JELLY.

=ROB.= _Syn._ ROOB. A term, derived from the Arabic, formerly applied to

the inspissated juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar to the

consistence of a conserve of thin extract. Rob of elder-berries (ELDER

ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI), juniper berries (JUNIPER ROB; ROOB JUNIPERI),

mulberries (MULBERRY ROB; ROOB DIAMORUM), and walnuts (WALNUT ROB; ROOB

DYACARYON), with a few others, are still found in some of the foreign

Pharmacopœias.

=ROCK.= The popular name of a sweetmeat formed of sugar boiled to a candy,

and then poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool in the lump. It is

variously flavoured.

=ROCK CRYS′TAL.= Native crystallised silica. See QUARTZ.

=ROCK OIL.= See PETROLEUM.

=ROCK SOAP.= A native silicate of alumina; used for crayons, and for

washing cloth.

=ROC′KETS.= (In pyrotechny.) _Prep._ The CASES.——These are made of stout

cartridge paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then throttled a little

below the mouth, like the neck of a phial. The diameter should be exactly

equal to that of a leaden ball of the same weight, and the length should

be equal to 3-1/2 times the external diameter. Above the spindle there

must be one interior diameter of composition driven solid. They are filled

with the following mixtures, tightly driven in, and when intended for

flight (SKY-ROCKETS), they are ‘garnished,’ and affixed to willow rods to

direct their course.

The COMPOSITION.——1. (Marsh.)——_a._ For 2-oz. rockets. From nitre, 54-1/2

parts; sulphur, 18 parts; charcoal, 27-1/4 parts; all in fine powder, and

passed through lawn.

_b._ For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; charcoal, 20

parts; as the last.

_c._ For 1/2-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62-3/4 parts; sulphur, 15-3/4

parts; charcoal, 21-1/2 parts.

2. (Ruggieri.)——_a._ For rockets of 3/4-inch diameter. From nitre, 16

parts; charcoal, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts.

_b._ For 3/4- to 1-1/2-inch rockets, use 1 part more of nitre.

_c._ For 1-3/4-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of nitre.

_d._ By using 1 part less of charcoal and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5

parts of fine steel filings, the above are converted into ‘BRILLIANT

FIRES,’

_e._ By the substitution of coarse cast-iron borings for filings, and a

further omission of 2 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are

converted into ‘CHINESE FIRE,’

HAND-ROCKETS and GROUND-ROCKETS are usually loaded with nothing but very

fine meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or borings.

After SKY-ROCKETS and WATER-ROCKETS are charged, a piece of clay is driven

in, through which a hole is pierced, and the ‘head’ or ‘garniture’ filled

with stars, and a little corn-powder is then applied. See FIRES, STARS,

and PYROTECHNY.

=ROLLS.= A variety of fancy bread, generally in the form of small

semi-cylindrical cakes, prepared by the bakers, and intended to be eaten

hot for breakfast. They differ from ordinary fine or French bread, as it

is called, chiefly in containing more water. Some are wetted up with milk

and water, and are hence called ‘milk rolls.’

=ROLL (Wine).= _Prep._ Soak a French roll or sponge-biscuit in raisin,

marsala, or sherry wine, surround it by a custard or cream thickened with

eggs, and add some spice and ornaments.

=ROOT.= _Syn._ RADIX, L. That part of a plant which imbibes its

nourishment from the soil or medium in which it grows. In popular

language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are improperly included under this

term.

=RO′′PINESS.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=RHYPOPH′AGON.= _Prep._ From yellow soap, sliced, 1 oz.; soft soap

(finest), 3 oz.; melt them by the heat of hot water, then allow them to

cool a little, and stir in of oil of cloves, 1/2 dr.; essence of

ambergris, 10 drops. It is kept a month before sale. Used for shaving.

=ROSE.= _Syn._ ROSA, L. The typical genus of the natural order _Rosaceæ_.

It includes numerous species greatly prized as garden plants.

=Rose, Cabbage.= _Syn._ HUNDRED-LEAVED ROSE; ROSÆ CENTILFOLIÆ PETALA (B.

P.), ROSA CENTIFOLIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The fresh petals” (Ph. L.) of this

species are used in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent and

laxative. See WATERS and SYRUP.

=Rose, Dog.= The _Rosa canina_, or wild briar. See HIPS.

=Rose, French.= _Syn._ RED ROSE; ROSÆ GALLICÆ PETALA (B. P.), ROSA GALLICA

(Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The fresh and dried unexpanded petals” (Ph. L.) of

this species are officinal. The white claws of the petals are removed

before drying them.

_Uses, &c._ The red rose is an elegant astringent and tonic, and, as such,

is used as the basis of several pharmaceutical preparations. See

CONFECTION, HONEYS, INFUSION, and SYRUP.

=ROSE′MARY.= _Syn._ ROSMARINUS (Ph. L. E. & D.) The flowering tops of

_Rosmarinus officinalis_ (Linn.), or the common rosemary of our gardens,

are officinal in the Ph. E. & D.; as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in

the B. P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refreshing, and they are reputed

carminative, emmenagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves are occasionally

used by the hysterical and hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea.

The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and is much used in various

cosmetic compounds, under the presumption of its encouraging the growth of

hair and improving its quality.

=ROSE PINK.= See RED PIGMENTS.

=RO′SIN.= See RESIN.

=ROSY-DROP.= See ACNE.

=ROT.= _Syn._ GREATROT, HYDROPHIC R.,

SHEEP R., WET R. A disease peculiar to sheep, produced by the presence in

the liver of the _Distoma hepatica_, a parasite commonly known under the

name of “a fluke.” Rot prevails during very wet or rainy seasons. The

leading symptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity; the lips and tongue look

vivid, and the eyes sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the slightest

pull; the breath is fetid, and the urine highly coloured and scanty; and

there is either black purging or obstinate costiveness. The treatment

consists in a change to a dry warm elevated situation, and a dry diet,

consisting of oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, &c., to which some turnips,

carrots, or mangel wurzel may be added, with a liberal supply of common

salt, and a few grains of sulphur, daily. These last two substances form

the active ingredients in Flesh’s ‘Patent Restorative.’ See MEAT, DISEASE

OF.

=ROT (in Timber).= See DRY ROT.

=ROTA′TION (of Crops).= The rotation or succession of crops is absolutely

necessary for the successful and economical cultivation of the soils.

Crops have been divided by agriculturists into exhausting crops, restoring

crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhausting crops are usually

considered to be those of corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen

their seed and which are carried off the ground are also exhausting, but

in different degrees. Even clover, tares, and grass cut green are

considered as exhausting, but in a less degree than those that are allowed

to ripen. Restoring crops are such as are allowed to decay upon the

ground, or are consumed upon it by domestic animals. Cleaning crops are

such as are grown in drills, and undergo the usual operations of weeding,

hoeing, &c.; the majority of these may also be regarded as exhausting

crops. An exhausting crop should always be followed by a restoring or a

cleaning crop; or, where possible, by both combined. Crops should also

succeed each other in such a way that the soil may not be exhausted of any

one particular kind of nutriment. This is best effected by so rotating the

crops that plants which are nearly allied should not succeed each other on

the same soil, or, at all events, not more than once. See AGRICULTURE,

SOILS, &c.

=ROT′TEN STONE.= See TRIPOLI.

=ROUGE.= _Syn._ TOILET ROUGE; ROUGE VEGETAL, ROUGE D’ESPAGNE, Fr. _Prep._

Wash safflower (any quantity) until the water comes off colourless; dry

and pulverise it, and digest the powder in a weak solution of crystallised

carbonate of soda; then place some fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a

porcelain or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial solution on this,

and throw down the colouring matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or

white-wine vinegar, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; next wash

the prepared cotton in pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour with a

fresh solution of soda; to the new solution add a quantity of finely

powdered talc or French chalk, proportionate to the intended quality of

rouge; mix well, and precipitate with lemon juice, as before; lastly,

collect the powder, dry it with great care, with as little heat as

possible, and triturate it with a very small quantity of oil of olives, to

render it smooth and adhesive.

_Obs._ According to the best authorities, this is the only article which

will brighten a lady’s complexion without injuring the skin. The relative

fineness and proportion of talc employed determines the quality of the

rouge. It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil, a small ‘powder

puff,’ or a hare’s foot. It is also employed under the form of ‘pommade’

and ‘crepons.’ The last of these consist of pieces of white woollen crape,

upon which the colouring matter of the carthamus has been precipitated,

instead of upon the talc, noticed above.

The following articles also pass under the name of rouge, and are used for

the purposes named after each:——

=Rouge, Brown-red.= Jeweller’s rouge.

=Rouge, Chinese Card.= This is said to be a ‘carthamate of soda,’ it is

colourless when applied, but, being decomposed by the acid secretions of

the skin, acquires a most beautiful rose-like tint. (O’Shaughnessy.)

=Rouge, Jeweller’s.= Sesquioxide of iron prepared by calcination. Used to

polish gold, &c.

=Rouge, Liquid.= The red liquid left from the preparation of carmine; or a

solution of carmine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of pure rouge in

alcohol acidulated with acetic acid.

=Rouge, Indienne.= The terra persica, or Indian red; imported from Ormuz.

=Rouge de Prusse.= Light red or burnt yellow ochre. See RED PIGMENTS.

=Rouge, Spanish Lady’s.= This is cotton wool which has been repeatedly

wetted with an ammoniacal solution of carmine, and dried. It is applied

like ‘rouge crepons.’

=Rouge d’Athenes, Vert.= _Syn._ PURE ROUGE. See CARTHAMINE.

=ROUGH′ENING.= See WINES.

=RUBEFA′′CIENTS.= _Syn._ RUBEFACIENTIA, L. Substances or agents which,

when applied for a certain time to the skin, occasion a redness and

increase of heat, without blistering. They act as counter-irritants.

Mustard, powdered ginger (both made into a paste with water), hartshorn

and oil, and ether and spirit of wine (when their evaporation is

prevented), are familiar examples of this class of remedies.

=RUBE′OLA.= See MEASLES.

=RUBIA′CIN.= An orange-coloured substance, obtained from madder.

=RUBID′IUM.= [Eng., L.] A metal belonging to the alkaline group discovered

by Bunsen and Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis. It is found in many

mineral waters associated with cæsium.

=RU′BY.= See GEMS and PASTES.

=RUE.= _Syn._ RUTÆ FOLIA, RUTA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The leaf _Ruta

graveolens_.” (Ph. L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and stimulant.

It is also reputed nervine and emmenagogue. The fresh leaves are

powerfully acrid, and even vesicant; but they become milder in

drying.——_Dose._ Of the powder, 15 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily; in

hysteria, flatulent colic, &c. See INFUSION and OILS (Volatile).

=RUM.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS JAMACIENSIS, SPIRITUS SACCHARI, L. An ardent spirit

obtained by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar-boilers

(syrup scum), the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses),

the washings of the boilers and other vessels, together with sufficient

recent cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the crushed cane, to impart

the necessary flavour. The sweet liquor before fermentation commonly

contains from 12 to 16% of saccharine, and every ten gallons yield from

one to two gallons of rum.

The average strength of rum, as imported into this country, is about 20

O.P. Like all other spirits, it is colourless when it issues from the

still, but owing to the taste of the consumer the distiller is compelled

to colour it before it leaves his premises.

_Obs._ Rum is imported from the West Indies. The best comes from Jamaica,

and is hence distinguished by that name. Leeward Island rum is less

esteemed. The duty on rum is 10_s._ 2_d._ per proof-gallon if imported

direct from any of the British Colonies (Colonial rum), but 10_s._ 5_d._

if from any other part of the world (foreign rum). The consumption of rum

has long been declining in England; its place being chiefly supplied by

gin. Rum owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric acid, a fact which

the wary chemist has availed himself of in the manufacture of a butyric

compound (essence of rum) for the especial purpose of enabling the spirit

dealer to manufacture a factitious rum from malt or molasses spirit. In

Jamaica it is usual to put sliced pine apples into the puncheons

containing the finer qualities of rum, which is then termed pine-apple

rum. See ALCOHOL, SPIRIT, &c.

=RUM, BAY, R. Rother’s Formula for.= According to an American authority,

true bay rum is made from _Pimenta acris_ (_Myrica acris_, Schwartz;

_Myrtus acris_, Willd.), and not from _Laurus nobilis_, as commonly

supposed; the method of its distillation not being known outside the West

Indies, it has been customary to make it extemporaneously with the oil of

bay distilled from the leaves of the former plant. This preparation is

inferior in fragrance, however, to the genuine article. The following

formula of R. Rother is said to give very good results. Take of oil of

bayberry, 1 fl. oz.; Jamaica rum, 1 pint; strong alcohol, 4 pints; water,

3 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix and

filter.

=RUPERT’S DROPS.= These are made by letting drops of melted glass fall

into cold water. By this means they assume an oval form, with a tail or

neck resembling a retort. They possess this singular property that, if a

small portion of the tail is broken off, the whole bursts into powder with

an explosion, and a considerable shock is communicated to the hand.

=RUPIA.= This is an affection of the skin attended by the formation on it

of vesicles, that develop into ulcers which copiously discharge a foul,

unhealthy, and reddish matter. After a time this matter hardens and forms

a thick incrustation over the sores.

The best treatment is to put the patient upon a generous diet, including

wine, and to administer iodide of potassium with sarsaparilla or quinine.

The scabs should be poulticed.

=RUP′TURE.= See SURGERY.

=RUSKS.= _Prep._ From 4 eggs; new milk and warm water, of each 1/2 pint;

melted butter and sugar, of each 1/4 lb.; yeast, 3 table-spoonfuls; beat

well together with as much flour, added gradually, as will make a very

light paste; let it rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a

little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, and

flatten them; bake these moderately, and, when cold, cut them into slices

of the size of rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a little. A nice

tea-cake when hot, or with caraways, to eat cold. PLAIN RUSKS are made by

simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, and baking them in a slow oven

to the proper colour.

=RUS′MA.= An arsenical iron pyrites, found in Galatia, which, when reduced

to powder, and mixed with half its weight of quicklime, is used by the

Turkish ladies to make their ‘PSILOTHRONS,’ or compounds to remove

superfluous hair. See DEPILATORY.

=RUST.= _Syn._ RUBIGO, L. The coating or film of oxide or carbonate which

forms on the surface of several of the metals when exposed to a moist

atmosphere; more particularly, that which forms on iron or steel (FERRI

HYDRATE; HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRUGO, FERRI RUBIGO).

Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II · 第 9 / 27 章

=QUINOID′INE.= _Syn._ AMORPHOUS QUININE, CHINOIDINE; QUINA AMORPHA, QUINA