divided into five orders or classes, according to their particular
actions. The following are the principal of each class:——
1. (LAXATIVES, LENITIVES, or MILD CATHARTICS.) Manna, cassia pulp,
tamarinds, prunes, honey, phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and olive
oils; ripe fruit.
2. (SALINE or COOLING LAXATIVES.) Epsom salt, Glauber’s salt, phosphate of
soda (tasteless salt), seidlitz powders, &c.
3. (ACTIVE CATHARTICS, occasionally acrid, frequently tonic and
stomachic.) Rhubarb, senna, aloes, &c.
4. (DRASTIC or VIOLENT CATHARTICS.) Jalap, scammony, gamboge, croton oil,
colocynth, elaterium, &c.
5. (MERCURIAL PURGATIVES.) Calomel, blue-pill, quicksilver with chalk, &c.
In prescribing purgatives regard should be had to the particular portion
of the alimentary canal on which we desire more immediately to act, as
well as to the manner in which the medicine effects its purpose. Thus,
Epsom salt, sulphate of potassa, and rhubarb, act chiefly on the duodenum;
aloes on the rectum; blue-pill, calomel, and jalap on the larger
intestines generally; and tartrate and bitartrate of potassa, and sulphur
on the whole length of the intestinal canal. Again, others are stimulant,
as aloes, croton oil, jalap, scammony, &c.; others are refrigerant, as
most of the saline aperients; magnesia and its carbonate are both aperient
and antacid; whilst another class, including rhubarb, damask roses, &c.,
are astringent. Further, some produce only serous or watery dejections,
without greatly increasing the peristaltic action of the bowels; whilst a
few occasion a copious discharge of the fæces in an apparently natural
form. See DRAUGHT, MIXTURE, PILLS, PRESCRIBING, &c.
=PURL.= _Prep._ To ale or beer, 1/2 pint, gently warmed, add of bitters, 1
wine-glassful, or q. s. Some add a little spirit. A favourite beverage
with hard drinkers early in the morning.
=PUR′PLE.= A rich compound colour, produced by the admixture of pure blue
and pure red. This colour has always been the distinguishing badge of
royalty and distinction. The celebrated Tyrian purple was produced from a
shell-fish called murex.
=Purple An′iline.= _Syn._ PERKIN’S PURPLE, MAUVE. This valuable dye-stuff
is prepared under W. H. Perkin’s patent, by mixing solutions of sulphate
of aniline and bichromate of potassa in equivalent proportions, and, after
some hours, washing the black precipitate with water, drying it, digesting
it repeatedly in coal-tar naphtha, and, finally, dissolving it in boiling
alcohol. It may be further purified by evaporating the alcoholic solution
to dryness, dissolving the residue in a large quantity of boiling water,
reprecipitating by caustic soda, washing with water, dissolving in
alcohol, filtering, and evaporating to dryness. Thus purified, mauve forms
a brittle substance, having a bronze-coloured surface. It imparts a deep
purple colour to cold water, though dissolving sparingly in that liquid;
it is more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in alcohol. See PURPLE
DYE (_below_), and TAR COLOURS.
=Purple of Cassius.= _Syn._ PURPLE PRECIPITATE OF CASSIUS, GOLD PURPLE,
GOLD PREPARED WITH TIN; AURUM STANNO PARATUM, PURPURA MINERALIS CASII, L.
_Prep._ 1. Crystallised protochloride of tin, 1 part; crystallised
perchloride of tin, 2 parts; dissolve each separately, mix the solutions,
and add of crystallised terchloride of gold (in solution), 1 part;
carefully wash, and dry the precipitate. Very fine.
2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin in cold dilute aqua regia until the
fluid becomes faintly opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh it;
next, dilute the solution largely with water, and add, simultaneously, a
dilute solution of gold and dilute sulphuric acid in such proportion that
the tin in the one shall be to the gold in the other in the ratio of 10 to
36.
3. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of gold, 1 part, is dissolved in distilled water,
200 parts; another solution is made by dissolving in the cold, pure tin, 1
part, in a mixture of nitric acid, 1 part, and hydrochloric acid, 2 parts;
this last solution is diluted with distilled water, 100 parts, and is then
added to the solution of terchloride of gold until precipitation ceases to
take place; the powder is, lastly, washed by decantation, and dried by a
very gentle heat.
4. Silver, 150 parts; gold, 20 parts; pure grain tin, 35 parts; fuse them
together under charcoal and borax, cool, laminate, and dissolve out the
silver with nitric acid.
_Obs._ Purple of Cassius is generally supposed to be a combination of
oxide of gold and sesquioxide of tin, in which the latter acts as an acid.
Heat resolves it into a mixture of metallic gold and binoxide of tin. It
is used as a purple in porcelain painting, and to communicate a ruby-red
colour to glass, when melted in open vessels.
=PURPLE DYE.= The purples now in vogue are the numerous shades of ‘mauve’
and ‘magenta’ obtained by the ‘aniline colours.’ (See _above_, also RED.)
For silk and woollen goods no mordant is required. The proper proportion
of the clear alcoholic solution is mixed with water slightly warm, any
scum that may form is cleared off, and the goods are entered and worked
until the required shade is obtained; a small quantity of acetic or
tartaric acid is recommended to be added in some cases. For dyeing on
cotton with the aniline colours, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac or
tannic acid, dyed in the colour, and then fixed by tin; or it may be
steeped in sumac and mordanted with tin, and then dyed. Purples were
formerly, and are still occasionally, produced by first dyeing a blue in
the ‘indigo vat,’ and then dyeing a cochineal or lac scarlet upon the top.
See VIOLET DYE.
=PUR′PURATE OF AMMO′′NIA.= See MUREXIDE.
=PURPU′RIC ACID.= See MUREXAN.
=PURPURIN.= C_{9}H_{6}O_{3}. _Syn._ MADDER PURPLE. The name given by
Robiquet and Colin to a beautiful colouring principle obtained from
madder.
_Prep._ Coarsely powdered madder is allowed to ferment with water, after
which it is boiled in a strong solution of alum; the decoction is next
mixed with sulphuric acid, and the resulting red precipitate is purified
by one or more crystallisations from alcohol.
_Prop., &c._ Crystalline red needles, insoluble in cold water, but soluble
in hot water, and in alcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and the
alkalies. It differs from alizarin or madder red in containing 2 atoms
less of carbon.
=PUR′REE.= _Syn._ INDIAN YELLOW. A yellow substance, of doubtful origin,
imported from China and India, and now extensively used in both oil and
water-colour painting. According to the researches of Stenhouse and
Erdmann it consists of purreic acid, a strongly tinctorial vegetable
substance, united to magnesia.
=PURRE′IC ACID.= _Syn._ EUXANTHIC ACID. This substance is obtained from
purree. It crystallises in nearly colourless needles, which are only
sparingly soluble in cold water, and forms rich yellow-coloured compounds
with the alkalies and earths. Heat converts it into a neutral,
crystallisable substance, called purrenone.
=PUS.= The cream-like, white or yellowish liquid secreted by wounded
surfaces, abscesses, sores, &c.
=PUTREFAC′TION.= _Syn._ PUTREFACTIO, L. The spontaneous decomposition of
animal and nitrogenised vegetable substances, under the joint influence of
warmth, air, and moisture. The solid and fluid matters are resolved into
gaseous compounds and vapours, which escape, and into earthy matters,
which remain. The most striking characteristic of this species of
decomposition is the ammoniacal or fetid exhalations that constantly
accompany it.
The nature of putrefaction, and the conditions essential to its
occurrence, have been briefly alluded to under fermentation, to which we
must refer the reader. It may here, however, be useful to reiterate that
this change can only be prevented by the abstraction or exclusion of the
conditions essential to its occurrence. This may be affected by——reduction
of temperature,——exclusion of atmospheric air, or——the abstraction of
moisture. The antiseptic processes in common use are effective in
precisely the same degree as these preventive means are carried out.
Frozen meat may be preserved for an unlimited period, while the same
substance will scarcely keep for more than a few days at the ordinary heat
of summer. Animal substances will also remain uninjured for a long period
if kept in vessels from which the air is entirely excluded, as in the
process now so extensively adopted for the preservation of fresh meat for
the use of our army and marine. The third condition is fulfilled when
nitrogenised matter is preserved in alcohol, brine, or any similar fluid,
and when it is dried. In either case water is abstracted from the surface,
which then loses its propensity to putrefy, and forms an impervious layer,
which excludes atmospheric oxygen from the interior and softer portion of
the substance. Creasote, and most of the antiseptic salts, also act in
this way.
Among special antiseptic processes are the following:
APPLICATION OF COLD. The accession of putrefaction is prevented, and its
progress arrested, by a temperature below that at which water freezes. In
the colder climates of the world, butchers’ meat, poultry, and even
vegetables, are preserved from one season to the other in the frozen
state. In North America millions are thus supplied with animal food,
which, we can state, from personal experience, is often superior in
flavour, tenderness, and apparent freshness, to that from the recently
killed animal. In temperate climates, and in cold ones during their short
summer, ice-houses and ice-safes afford a temperature sufficiently low for
keeping meat fresh and sweet for an indefinite period. Substances
preserved in this manner should be allowed to gradually assume their
natural condition before cooking them; and on no account should they be
plunged into hot water, or put before the fire, whilst in the frozen
state.
BUCANING. A rude kind of drying and smoking meat, cut into thin slices,
practised by hunters in the prairies and forests.
DESICCATION or DRYING. In this way every article of food, both animal and
vegetable, may be preserved without the application of salt or other
foreign matter. The proper method is to expose the substances, cut into
slices or small fragments, in the sun, or in a current of warm dry air,
the temperature of which should be under 140° Fahr. Articles so treated,
when immersed for a short time in cold water, to allow the albumen and
organic fibres to swell, and then boiled in the same water, are nearly as
nutritious as fresh meat cooked in the same manner. If a higher degree of
heat than 140° be employed for animal substances, they become hard and
insipid. Owing to the practical difficulties in the way of applying the
above process to fresh meats, it is usually employed in conjunction with
either salting or smoking, and, frequently, with both of them.
EXCLUSION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. This is effected by the method of preserving
in sugar, potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some of the patented
methods noticed below. Fresh meat may be preserved for some months in that
state, by keeping it in water perfectly deprived of air. In practice some
iron filings and sulphur may be placed at the bottom of the vessel, over
which must be set the meat; over the whole is gently poured recently
boiled water, and the vessel is at once closed, so as to exclude the
external air.
IMMERSION IN ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS. One of the commonest and most effective
liquids employed for this purpose is alcohol of 60 to 70%, to which a
little camphor, ammonia, sal ammoniac, or common salt, is occasionally
added. A cheaper and equally efficient plan is to employ a weak spirit
holding a little creasote in solution. A weak solution of sulphurous acid
may be substituted for alcohol. Weak solutions of alum, or carbolic acid,
with or without the addition of a few grains of corrosive sublimate, or of
arsenious acid, are also highly antiseptic. These are chiefly employed for
anatomical specimens, &c. A solution containing only 1/600th part of
nitrate of silver is likewise very effective; but, from this salt being
poisonous, it cannot be employed for preserving articles of food.
Butchers’ meat is occasionally pickled in vinegar. By immersing it for 1
hour in water holding 1/400th part of creasote in solution, it may be
preserved unchanged for some time even during summer.
INJECTION OF ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS into the veins or arteries of the recently
killed animal. It is found that the sooner this is done after the
slaughter of the animal the more effective it becomes, as the absorbent
power of the vessels rapidly decrease by age. See GANNAL’S PROCESS
(_below_).
JERKING is a method of preserving flesh sometimes adopted in hot climates.
It consists in cutting the lean parts of the meat into thin slices, and
exposing these to the sunshine until quite dry and brittle, when they are
bruised in a mortar, and pressed into pots.
PICKLING IN VINEGAR. In this method the substances, rendered as dry as
possible by exposure to the air, are placed in glass or stoneware jars
(not salt-glazed), or wooden vessels, when strong vinegar, either cold or
boiling hot, is poured over them, and the vessel at once closely corked or
otherwise covered up, and preserved in a cool situation. Meat is
occasionally thus treated; vegetables frequently so. See PICKLE.
POTTING IN OIL. In this case salad or olive oil is substituted for vinegar
(see _above_), and is always used cold.
SALTING acts chiefly by abstracting water from the albuminous portions of
the meat, by which its disposition to change is lessened.
SMOKING. This process, which, as well as the last, is referred to further
on, acts both by the abstraction of moisture and the antiseptic properties
of certain substances (creasote, &c.) contained in wood smoke. Fresh meat
and fish are occasionally smoked; but, in general, substances intended to
be thus treated are first salted.
In Donkin and Gamble’s patent process the substances, previously
parboiled, are placed in small tin cylinders, which are then filled up
with rich soup; the lids are next soldered on quite air-tight, and a
small hole is afterwards made in the centre; the cylinders are then placed
in a bath of strong brine, or a strong solution of chloride of calcium,
which is at once heated to the boiling point, to nearly complete the
cooking process; after which the small hole in the lid is hermetically
sealed by covering it with solder while the vessel still remains boiling
hot; the tins are, lastly, again submitted to heat in the heated bath, the
duration of which is proportioned to the quantity and character of their
contents, the ‘dressing’ of which is to be perfected by this operation.
The ends of the tins, on cooling, assume a concave form, from the pressure
of the atmosphere, without which they cannot be air-tight, and the process
has been unsuccessful. To determine this, the patentees expose the
canisters, prepared as before, for at least a month in an apartment heated
to about 100° Fahr.; when, if the process has failed, putrefaction
commences, and the ends of the cases, instead of remaining concave, bulge
or become convex. This is called the ‘test.’ By this process, which was
invented by M. Appert in France about the year 1808, fish, flesh, poultry,
and vegetables may be preserved for years in any climate.
Goldner’s process differs somewhat from the preceding, in the employment
of a higher degree of heat, more hastily applied, and not prolonged or
repeated after the tins are soldered up.
Gannal’s process, having for its object the preservation of butchers’ meat
in the fresh state, depends on the peculiarly absorbent property of the
flesh of recently killed animals, above referred to. This process consists
in injecting a solution of sulphate of alumina, or, better, of chloride of
aluminium, of the sp. gr. 1·070 to 1·085 (10° to 12° Baumé), into the
carotid artery, by means of a syphon, as soon as the blood ceases to flow
from the slaughtered animal; both extremities of the jugular vein being
previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of the solution are sufficient for an ox,
and a proportionate quantity for smaller animals. A less quantity is also
required in winter than summer. When the animal has been well bled, and
the injection skilfully performed, it is scarcely perceptible that the
animal has undergone any preparation. The injected animal is cut up in the
usual way; and when intended to be eaten within 2 or 3 weeks merely
requires to be hung up in a dry, airy situation free from flies; but if it
is to be kept for a longer period, it is directed to be washed with a
mixed solution of common salt and chloride of aluminium at 10° Baumé, and
then simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels, and kept in a
cool, dry place. If the air cannot be perfectly excluded, it should be
packed in dry salt, not for the purpose of preserving it, but to prevent
the vegetation of bissus, as, without this precaution, the meat becomes
musty from exposure and the action of moisture. Meat preserved by this
process may be kept for several years, and merely requires soaking for 24
hours in water, for the purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the
appearance and taste of fresh meat, fit for either roasting or boiling.
For hot climates a somewhat stronger solution, or a larger quantity of the
usual one, may be injected. The use of the strong solutions ordered in
some recent works, however, deprives the flesh of a portion of its
apparent freshness, and makes it more nearly approach in flavour to that
which has been slightly salted in the ordinary manner.
In addition to the above it may be added that both flesh and fish may be
preserved by dipping them into, or brushing them over with, pyroligneous
acid, and then drying them. This gives them a smoky flavour; but if pure
acetic acid (Ph. L.) be used, no taste will be imparted. These fluids may
be applied by means of a clean painter’s brush, or even a stiff feather. A
table-spoonful is sufficient to brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh
so prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies and back, uninjured.
Fish may also be preserved in a dry state, and perfectly fresh, by means
of sugar alone. Fresh fish may be thus kept for some days, so as to be as
good when boiled as if just caught. If dried and kept free from
mouldiness, there seems no limit to their preservation; and they are much
more nutritious in this way than when salted. This process is particularly
valuable in making what is called ‘kippered salmon,’ and the fish
preserved in this manner are far superior in quality and flavour to those
which are salted or smoked. A few tablespoonfuls of brown sugar are
sufficient for a salmon of five or six pounds’ weight; and if salt be
desired, a teaspoonful or two may be added. Saltpetre may be used instead
of salt, if it be wished to make the kipper hard.
The well-known property possessed by ether, alcohol, pyroxylic spirit,
chloroform, and certain other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefaction, has
been thus applied by M. Robin:——He encloses the meat or other substances
to be preserved in a glass case, along with a sponge or a capsule
containing the preservative liquid, which latter is continually evolved in
a vaporous condition, and exercises the preservative agency. In this way
the vapours of hydrocyanic acid are found to be very efficacious. Camphor
is thus employed in the MUMMY CASES in the British Museum.
It has been asserted by Mr George Hamilton that in an atmosphere of
binoxide of nitrogen, in the dark, flesh preserves its natural colour and
freshness for about five months; and eats well provided it be boiled in
open vessels, to expel nitrous fumes. See CANDYING, EGG, FISH, FRUIT,
MILK, PICKLES, POTTING, PRESERVES, SALTING, SMOKING, STUFFING, VEGETABLE
SUBSTANCES, &c.
=PUT′TY.= This name is given to the following preparations (when used
alone. ‘Glazier’s putty’ is generally indicated):——
=Putty, Glazier’s.= From whiting made into a stiff paste with drying oil.
It is used to fix panes of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks in
wood before painting it, &c.
=Putty, Plasterer’s.= A fine cement used by plasterers, made of lime only.
It differs from ‘FINE STUFF’ in the absence of hair.
=Putty, Polisher’s.= _Syn._ PUTTY POWDER, CALCINE; CINERES STANNI, STANNI
OXYDUM CRUDUM, L. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained by exposing metallic
tin in a reverberatory furnace, and raking off the dross as it forms; this
is afterwards calcined until it becomes whitish, and is then reduced to
powder. Another method is to melt tin with rather more than an equal
weight of lead, and then to rapidly raise the heat so as to render the
mixed metal red hot, when the tin will be immediately flung out in the
state of ‘putty’ or ‘peroxide.’ The products of both these processes are
very hard, and are used for polishing glass and japan work, and to colour
opaque white enamel. See TIN.
=Putty, To Soften.= Take 1 lb. of American pearlash and 3 lbs. of
quick-lime. After slaking the lime in water add the pearlash, and let the
mixture be made of a consistence about the same as that of paint. When
required for use apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it remain in
contact with the putty for twelve hours; after which the putty will have
become so softened that the glass may be removed from the frame without
any difficulty.
=PUZZOLA′NA.= PUOZZOLANA, or, more correctly, PUZZUOLANA, is a volcanic
ash found at Puzzuoli, near Naples. When mixed with lime it forms an
excellent hydraulic cement. A good FACTITIOUS PUZZOLANA may be made by
heating a mixture of 3 bushels of clay and 1 bushel of fresh-slaked lime
for some hours to redness. (M. Bruyere.) See CEMENT and MORTAR.
=PYRI′TES.= A term applied to several native metallic sulphides. IRON
PYRITES is the best known of these.
=PY′RO-.= The term is applied to several acids that are obtained by the
action of heat on other substances; as, PYROGALLIC ACID, PYROLIGNEOUS A.,
&c.
=PYROACE′TIC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroacetic).
=PYROGAL′LIC ACID.= HC_{6}H_{5}O_{3}. _Syn._ ACIDUM PYROGALLICUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. From either gallic or tannic acid, heated in a retort by means
of an oil bath, and steadily maintained at a temperature of about 420°
Fahr. as long as crystals are formed in the neck of the retort, or in the
receiver, both of which should be kept well cooled. Pure. If a much higher
heat is employed, the product consists chiefly of metagallic acid.
2. From Aleppo galls, in very coarse powder, heated in a dish covered with
thin filtering paper pasted to its edge, and connected with a well-cooled
receiver. Dr Ure says that the so-called Chinese galls furnish, by dry
distillation, a “very concentrated solution of pyrogallic acid, which,
evaporated on the water bath, yields of brown crystalline pyrogallic acid
nearly 15% of the weight of the galls.”
3. (Dr Stenhouse.) By sublimation from the dry aqueous extract of
nut-galls, in a Mohr’s apparatus, in the same way that benzoic acid is
obtained from benzoin resin, observing the precautions referred to in No.
1 (_above_). Nearly pure. The product is fully 10% of the weight of
extract operated on.
_Prop._ Light crystals, which, when perfectly pure, are quite white;
freely soluble in water, but the solution cannot be evaporated without
turning black and suffering decomposition; it strikes a rich blackish-blue
colour with the protosalts of iron, and reduces those of the sesquioxide
to the state of protoxide; when heated to 480° Fahr., it is converted into
METAGALLIC ACID and water.
_Uses, &c._ Pure pyrogallic acid is now very extensively employed in
photography. A solution of the crude acid mixed with a little spirit is
used to dye the hair, to which it imparts a fine brown colour, but has the
disadvantage of also staining the skin when applied to it.
=PY′ROGEN ACIDS.= Those generated by heat.
=PYRO′LA.= See WINTER GREEN.
=PYROLIG′NEOUS ACID.= _Syn._ VINEGAR OF WOOD†, SPIRIT OF W.†, SMOKING
LIQUOR†, ESSENCE OF SMOKE†; ACIDUM PYROLIGNOSUM, L. Impure acetic acid,
obtained by the destructive distillation of wood in close vessels. It
comes over along with tar creasote, and other liquid and gaseous matters.
In this state it contains much empyreumatic matter in solution; but by
separation from the tar, saturation with slaked lime or chalk, defecation,
and evaporation, an impure acetate of pyrolignate of lime is obtained,
which, after being gently heated, to destroy part of its empyreumatic
matter, without injuring its acetic acid, is again dissolved and
defecated, and then precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, when a
solution of acetate of soda and a precipitate of sulphate of lime are
formed by double decomposition. The solution is next evaporated to
dryness, the dry mass (pyrolignite of soda) dissolved in water, and the
new solution filtered and recrystallised. The crystals of acetate of soda,
obtained by the last process, yield nearly pure acetic acid by
distillation along with sulphuric acid. See ACETIC ACID and VINEGAR.
=PYROLIG′NEOUS SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxilic).
=PYROM′ETER.= An instrument to measure high degrees of heat. WEDGWOOD’S
PYROMETER, the one best known, depends on the property which clay
possesses of contracting when strongly heated. PROF DANIEL’S PYROMETER
consists, essentially, of a small rod or bar of platinum, which acts in a
precisely opposite manner to the preceding, viz., by its expansion.
=PYROPH′ORUS.= _Syn._ LUFT-ZUNDER, Ger. Any substance that inflames
spontaneously when exposed to the air.
_Prep._ 1. Neutral chromate of lead, 6 parts; sulphur, 1 part; triturate
them with water, q. s. to form a paste, and make this into pellets; dry
these perfectly by a gentle heat, then heat them in a closed tube until
the sulphur is all driven off; lastly, transfer them to a stoppered phial.
2. (HOMBERG’S PYROPHORUS.) From alum and brown sugar, equal parts; stir
the mixture in an iron ladle over the fire until dry, then put it into an
earthen or coated glass phial, and keep it at a red heat so long as the
flame is emitted; it must then be carefully stopped up and cooled.
3. (Dr Hare.) Lampblack, 3 parts; burnt alum, 4 parts; carbonate of
potassa, 8 parts; as the last.
4. (Gay Lussac.) From sulphate of potassa, 9 parts; calcined lampblack, 5
parts; as No. 2.
5. Alum, 3 parts; wheat flour, 1 part; as No. 2.
6. (LEAD PYROPHORUS——Göbel.) Heat tartrate of lead to redness in a glass
tube, and then hermetically seal it. See TARTRATE OF LEAD.
_Obs._ When the above are properly prepared, a little of the powder
rapidly becomes very hot, and inflames on exposure to the air. The
accession of the combustion is promoted by moisture, as a damp atmosphere
or the breath. With the exception of the first and sixth, “they owe their
combustibility to the presence of sulphide of potassium.” (Gay Lussac.)
=PYROPHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= See DIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID (Phosphorus).
=PYRO′SIS.= _Syn._ BLACK WATER, WATER BRASH, WATER QUALM. An affection of
the stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and the eructation of a thin,
sour liquid, often in considerable quantity, especially in the morning.
The following pill will be found of service in this affection:——Powdered
opium, 1/8th gr.; subnitrate of bismuth, 5 gr.; extract of gentian,
sufficient to make into 2 pills. To be taken two or three times a day,
before meals.
The solution of bismuth and citrate of ammonia (Liquor Bismuthi et Ammoniæ
Citratis, B. P.), in doses of 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., taken as above, is another
medicine which may be had recourse to, should the above fail to give
relief.
=PYBOTARTAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{5}H_{6}O_{4}. Obtained by the destructive
distillation of tartaric acid. See TARTARIC ACID.
=PYROTECH′NY.= The art of making fireworks. The three principal materials
employed in this art are charcoal, nitre, and sulphur, along with filings
of iron, steel, copper, or zinc, or with resin, camphor, lycopodium, or
other substances, to impart colour, or to modify the effect or the
duration of the combustion. Gunpowder is used “either in grain, half
crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iron
filings are, the brighter red and white spots they give; those being
preferred which are made with a coarse file, and quite free from rust.
Steel filings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a more
brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint
to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the sulphide of antimony
gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords a
yellow fire, as well as colophony (resin) and common salt; but the last
must be very dry. Lampblack produces a very red colour with gunpowder, and
a pink one with nitre in excess; it serves for making golden showers.”
When this substance is lightly mixed with gunpowder and put into cases, it
throws out small stars resembling the rowel of a spur; this composition
has hence been called ‘spur fire.’ “The yellow sand, or glistening mica,
communicates to fire-works golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale
green; sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac gives a palm-tree green.
Camphor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad
smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are also used, on account of
their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a
magnificent flame; but it is principally employed in theatres to represent
lightning, or to charge the torch of a Fury.” (Ure.) See FIRES (Coloured),
FLAME COLOURS, GUNPOWDER, STARS, ROCKETS, &c.
The following substances are in requisition by the Pyrotechnist:——
ZINC. This metal is employed in the form of fine powder, which is obtained
as follows:——The metal, scarcely melted, is poured into a hot mortar,
where it is reduced to powder, being kept during the operation at a
temperature of 401° F. It is then sifted to remove any particles which may
have escaped contact with the pestle.
COPPER. This metal may be obtained in a state of minute division by
precipitating it from a solution of sulphate of copper by means of iron,
the precaution being taken of using a large quantity of iron. The
precipitate, after being well washed, is dried between folds of blotting
paper, and kept in well stoppered bottles.
IRON-SAND. A quantity of sulphur is melted in a crucible over a slow fire,
and when it is quite fluid, iron filings are thrown in while the whole is
being stirred. The crucible is removed from the fire, and the contents are
rapidly stirred until cold. The material is then rolled on a board till it
is broken up as fine as corned powder, after which the sulphur is sifted
out.
SODA POWDER. This powder is prepared with the same precaution as ordinary
gunpowder, the proportions which answer best being:
Nitrate of soda 630 parts.
Sulphur 125 ”
Charcoal 125 ”
————
880 parts.
As the nitrate of soda is hygrometric, this powder must be preserved in
closed vessels from the moisture of the air.
LEAD POWDER. This mixture is also prepared like gunpowder, and the
constituents are used in the following proportions:
Nitrate of lead 12 parts.
Nitrate of potash 2 ”
Charcoal 3 ”
——
17 parts.
In the manufacture of this mixture on a large scale considerable care is
necessary, since the mixture of nitrate of lead and charcoal is very
liable to ignite by friction.
PREPARED BLOOD. 450 to 500 grammes of zinc is dissolved in 1340 grammes of
hydrochloric acid 22° B., largely diluted with water, and filtered. This
solution is again diluted with its own volume of water, and mixed with
fresh blood. The whole is well stirred from time to time for 48 hours, and
the clear liquor is siphoned off from the precipitate. The precipitate is
well washed with water, dried, and reduced to powder, in which state it
may be kept for any length of time.
TOUCH PAPER. This paper is prepared by immersing purple or blue paper in a
solution of nitrate of potash in spirits of wine or vinegar, and carefully
drying it.
When the touch paper is used with small articles, a piece is tied round
the orifice with thread, leaving sufficient paper to form a small tube at
the end. This tube is filled with gunpowder, and the paper twisted over
it, when all is ready for firing.
Touch paper for capping every description of fireworks, such as squibs,
crackers, Roman candles, &c., is prepared in the following
manner:——Dissolve 2 oz. of the best saltpetre in 1 quart of warm water,
and take care that the water is very clean.
After the mixture has stood for half an hour, pour off 1-1/2 pint into a
white basin, then cut your sheets of dark blue double-crown paper in half.
The weight of the paper should be 12 or 14 lbs. per ream.
Place the paper on a slab sufficiently large to give you room to use a
small piece of sponge, with which you use the liquor to wet your paper.
Cover each half sheet with the liquor as quickly as possible, on one side
only, and immediately this is done place it on a line, the wet side on
outwards, and when nearly dry, if you have a great number of sheets, place
them together as evenly as possible under a press for one hour, then lay
them out to dry, after which they will be quite smooth and ready for use.
In pasting this paper on the work, take care that the paste does not touch
that part which is to burn. To use this paper correctly, cut it in strips
sufficiently long to go twice round the mouth of the case, or even more if
requisite. When you paste on the strips, leave a little above the mouth of
the case not pasted; in small cases a little meal powder is put into the
mouth, and then the paper is twisted to a point. In larger cases damp
priming is used, and when dry, the capping process is proceeded with.
CRACKERS. The following mixtures are used for ordinary crackers:——
Meal powder parts 5 15 6 8 16
Fine charcoal ” 1 4 —— 2 17
Coarse charcoal ” —— —— 6 —— ——
Sulphur ” —— —— 2 —— 1
Saltpetre ” —— —— 16 1 7
Composition for crackers with Chinese fire——
Meal powder parts 9 6 16
Saltpetre ” 6 8 ——
Sulphur ” 1 2 3
Charcoal ” 1-1/2 1-1/2 2
Fine iron ” 5 —— 7
Sand ” —— 5 ——
Composition for crackers with brilliant fire——
Meal powder parts 8 8 36 18 32
Sulphur ” 1 1-1/2 1 1 3
Iron filings ” 2 2-1/2 —— —— ——
Litharge ” —— —— —— 2 ——
Steel filings ” —— —— 8 3 12
The paper generally used for cartridge is that known as ‘elephant’ or
cartridge, the latter being the more frequently employed.
Cartridge paper is employed in the preparation of crackers, which vary
from 12 to 15 inches, and 3-1/2 inches diameter. One edge of the paper is
folded down about 3/4-inch in breadth, then the double edge is turned down
about 1/4-inch, and the single edge is bent back over the double fold so
as to form a channel 1/4-inch wide. This is filled with meal powder, which
is then to be covered by the folds on each side, when the whole is to be
pressed very smooth and close, by passing it over the edge of a flat
ruler. The part containing the powder is to be gradually folded into the
remainder of the paper, each fold being carefully pressed down. The
cracker is then doubled backwards and forwards into as many folds of about
2-1/4 inches as the paper will allow.
The whole is pressed together by means of a wooden vice, a piece of twine
is passed twice round the middle across the folds, and the joinings are
secured by causing the twine to take a turn round the middle at every
turn. One of the ends of the folds may be doubled short under, which will
produce an extra report, but the other must project a little beyond the
rest, for the priming and capping with the touch paper. When these
crackers are fired they give a report at every turn of the paper.
The crackers may also be made of two single cards, rolled over each other
and covered with paper coated with paste. The crackers are partially
filled with the composition by means of a tin funnel. Ordinary powder is
then introduced, and the remaining space is filled with a little sawdust.
REVOLVING CRACKERS. These crackers are charged at each end with clay to a
depth of two lines, and filled with a composition without gunpowder. The
clay prevents the fire streaming out at the ends, and it escapes through
two holes placed opposite each other. The two holes are united at the same
time by connecting them by means of a quick-match, and a rotatory motion
is thus communicated to the cylinder.
ENGLISH PIN WHEELS. Pin, or Catherine wheels are of very simple
construction. A long wire about 3/16th of an inch in diameter is the
former; on this wire are formed the pipes, which being filled with
composition, are afterwards wound round a small circle of wood so as to
form a helix or spiral line. The cases are generally made of double-crown
paper (yellow wove), and cut into strips to give the greatest length, and
of width sufficient to roll about four times round the wire, and pasted at
the edge so as to bite firmly at the end of the last turn. When a number
of pipes are made and perfectly dry, they are filled with composition.
These cases are not driven for filling, but are filled by means of a tin
funnel with a tube 3/4 of an inch long, made to pass easily into the mouth
of the case, which is gradually filled by lifting a wire up and down in
this tube, the diameter of the charging wire being half that of the tube.
The dry composition being placed in the funnel, the moment an action of
the wire takes place the composition begins to fall into the case, which
the charging wire compresses by continuous motion until you have filled
the pipe to within 3/4 of an inch of the top. The pipe is then removed,
and the mouth neatly twisted, which will be the point for lighting.
When a number of pipes are ready, place them on a damp floor, or in any
damp situation, until they become very pliant, but by no means wet; then
commence winding them round a circle of wood whose substance must be
equal to the thickness of the diameter of the pipe; and when wound, secure
the end with sealing-wax, to prevent its springing open; after winding the
required quantity let them dry. Now cut some strips of crimson or purple
paper 3/16th of an inch wide, and in length twice the diameter of the
wheel; then paste all over thoroughly. Take a strip and paste it across
the wheel diametrically, rub it down, then turn the wheel over, and place
the ends down to correspond with the opposite side; when dry, the wheel
will be ready for firing.
They may be fired on a large pin or held in the hand, but it is preferable
to drive the pin into the end of a stick, which will prevent any accident,
should a section of the wheel burst.
SQUIBS. These are either filled with grained powder, or with a mixture
consisting of:——Gunpowder, 8 parts; charcoal, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part. The
cases, which are about 6 inches long, are made by rolling strips of stout
cartridge paper three times round a roller, and pasting the last fold.
They are then firmly tied down near the bottom, and the end is either
dipped into hot pitch or covered with sealing-wax. The cases are filled by
putting a thimble full of the powder in, and ramming it tightly down with
a roller, this operation being continued until the case is filled. It is
then capped with touch paper.
SERPENTS (MARROON SQUIBS). A suitable case being ready, it is filled two
thirds up with a powder consisting of:——Saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8
parts; fine gunpowder, 4 parts; antimony, 1 part. This, after being rammed
down into the case tolerably tightly, the remainder of the space is filled
with grained or corned powder.
SPARKS. These fireworks differs from stars in size, being very small and
made without cases. The English method of preparing them is as follows:——A
mixture of
Fine gunpowder 1 part
Powdered saltpetre 3 parts
Powdered camphor 4 ”
is placed in a mortar, and some weak gum-water in which a little gum
tragacanth has been dissolved, is poured over it, and the whole worked up
into a thin paste. Some lint, prepared by boiling it in vinegar or
saltpetre, and afterwards dried and unravelled, is placed in the
composition so as to absorb the whole. This is then poured into balls
about the size of a pea, dried and sprinkled with fine gunpowder.
In Germany the following compositions are used:
---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+
| 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14|
+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+
Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
potash parts |24|40|12|20|——|——|——|40|21|21|14|20|96|40|
Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
potash and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|23|23|——|——|——|——|
Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
baryta ” |——|——|——|——|18|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
potash ” |——|——|——|——|——|12|26|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
lead ” |24|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
baryta ” |——|——|——|40|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Calomel ” |——|——|——|13| 7|——|——|28|12|12| 4| 8|18|——|
Sulphide of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|28|——|12|6 | 4|——|——|
Sulphate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
strontia ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|20|72|37|
Oxalate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
soda ” |——|16|10|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Chalk ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 5|——|——|——|
Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
zinc ” |——|——|——|——|——|14|28|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
charcoal ” |——|——|——|——|——| 5|11|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Sulphur ” |12|——| 1|13|——|——|——|——|——|——| 6| 3|——|——|
Gum lac ” |1 | 8|——| 1| 3|——|——|——|——|——|——| 2|18| 8|
Soap ” |——| 3| 1|——|——|——|——| 3| 3| 3|——|——|——|——|
Starch ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|10|——|——|——|——|——|——|
Sugar ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 4| 4|——|——|——|——|
Pine soot ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 1|——|
---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+
The above mixtures are intended to give coloured sparks, according to the
numbers.
No. 1 gives a bluish-white colour.
” 2 and 3 give yellow.
” 4 gives green.
” 5 gives green.
” 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 give blue.
” 11 and 12 give violet.
” 13 gives red.
” 14 gives purple.
The materials are mixed with a small quantity of a solution of starch, so
as to form a thick paste, which is forced through a perforated plate, the
holes in which are twice as large as it is intended the sparks should be
on drying. The small pieces fall on a pasteboard, to which the workman
gives a rapid horizontal motion to round the grains. They are then dried,
and those which are perfectly round are selected and separated by sieves
of different meshes to collect those of the same size together.
CHINESE FIRE.
_Red Chinese or Gerbe Fire._
Calibre of the case. Saltpetre. Sulphur. Charcoal. Iron Sand.
1st order.
12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 3 oz. 4 oz. 7 oz.
16 to 22 ” 1 ” 3 ” 5 ” 7 ” 8 drms.
22 to 36 ” 1 ” 4 ” 6 ” 8 ”
_White Chinese Fire._
Calibre. Saltpetre. Bruised Powder. Charcoal. Iron Sand.
3rd order.
12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 12 oz. 7 oz. 8 drms. 11 oz.
16 to 22 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 11 ” 8 drms.
22 to 36 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 8 ” 12 ”
The iron sand is moistened with a little spirits of wine, and then mixed
with the charcoal and saltpetre, which have been previously incorporated
in another mortar.
SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. These are generally used in combination with
other arrangements, &c., and the composition of which they are made,
consists of——saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8 parts; fine gunpowder, 3
parts.
These materials are mixed with gum and as little spirits of wine as will
suffice to make a very stiff paste. This paste is cut up into small
squares, which are rolled up into balls on a board covered with gunpowder.
The gunpowder, which adheres, serves for the purpose of firing them. When
perfectly dry, they are ready for use.
GERBES. These fireworks display themselves as luminous jets of fire
somewhat resembling a water spout. Previously to putting in the brilliant
composition, put two scoops of first firing or preparatory fire, for which
the following will suit, in cases not larger than 1/4 lb. size:——16 oz.
meal powder, 6 oz. saltpetre, 3 oz. sulphur, 3 oz. fine coal. It is
important to see that the interior of the cases are quite smooth and free
from wrinkles.
GOLD RAIN. The larger rockets are filled with this material, which
consists of small squares made in the same way as the simple stars. It is
composed as follows:——
Ordinary. Chinese. Composition for
immediate use.
Saltpetre parts 16 4 Saltpetre parts 4
Sulphur ” 8 2 Sulphur ” 2
Fine charcoal ” 2 4 Fine small coals ” 1
Pine soot ” 2 —— Fine gunpowder ” 8
Meal powder ” 4 16 Coarse cast iron ” 4
A portion of the cotton is softened in linseed oil and the materials
prepared in a mortar with water.
ROMAN CANDLES. These are made somewhat like gerbes and filled with the
same materials, the only difference being that _stars_ are placed between
the different layers of substances. The materials must not be too tightly
rammed down or the stars will be destroyed.
SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. Take of saltpetre 16 parts, sulphur 8 parts,
fine gunpowder 3 parts; mix them with gum and only just enough spirits of
wine to make a very stiff paste. Cut this up into small squares, and roll
into balls covered with gunpowder. When properly dry they are ready for
use.
MARROONS. These are small cubical boxes filled with an explosive
composition which explodes suddenly, making a loud report. They are
generally used in combination with other fireworks. The boxes are made of
pasteboard, the corners being made tight by pasting paper over them, but
leaving the top open until they are filled. They are filled with coarse
gunpowder, when the top is closed with strong paper well cemented, and the
whole box is wrapped round two or three times with lind cord dipped in
strong glue. A hole is made in one of the corners, into which a
quick-match is introduced, and the marroon is ready for action.
The reader who may be desirous of further information on the subject of
Pyrotechny, cannot do better than consult the article on the subject in
‘Knapp’s Chemical Technology,’ edited by Messrs. Richardson and
Watts.[124]
[Footnote 124: Vol. 1, part 4, No. 1. Ballière & Co.]
To this work we are indebted for much of the material contained in the
present papers. See COLOURED FIRES.
=PYROXYL′IC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxylic).
=PYROX′YLIN.= _Syn._ FULMINATING COTTON, GUN-COTTON. A highly inflammable
and explosive compound, discovered by Schönbein. It is obtained by the
action of nitric acid on cotton (cellulin, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}), in the
presence of sulphuric acid.
By varying the strength of the nitric acid three kinds of
gun-cotton may be obtained, called respectively mononitro-cellulin
[C_{6}H_{9}(NO_{2})O_{5}], dinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{8}(NO_{2})_{2}O_{5}],
and trinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{7}(NO_{2})_{3}O_{5}]. The first is but
slightly explosive; the second is not sufficiently explosive to be used as
a substitute for gunpowder, but is best adapted for the preparation of
collodion; the third is highly explosive, and is the variety employed in
mining and military operations, &c.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P., DINITRO-CELLULIN.) Cotton-wool, 1; sulphuric acid, 5;
nitric acid, 5; mix the acids, immerse the cotton, and stir with a glass
rod for three minutes, or until it is thoroughly wetted, then remove it,
and thoroughly wash out the acid, so that the washings cease to produce a
precipitate with chloride of barium. Drain on filtering paper, and dry in
a water bath. Used in the preparation of COLLODION.
2. Concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500) and concentrated sulphuric
acid (sp. gr. 1·845) are mixed together in about equal measures; when the
mixture has become cold it is poured into a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar
or basin, and clean, dry carded cotton, in as loose a state as
practicable, is immersed in it for 4 or 5 minutes, the action of the
liquid being promoted by incessant stirring with a glass rod; the acid is
next poured off, and the cotton, after being squeezed as dry as possible,
by means of the glass stirrer, or between two plates of glass, is thrown
into a large quantity of clean soft water, and again squeezed to free it
from superfluous moisture; it is then washed in a stream of pure water
until it becomes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly, carefully dried
by the heat of hot water or steam, at a temperature not higher than about
180° Fahr. 3. (Schönbein.) Nitric acid (1·45 to 1·50), 1 part; sulphuric
acid (1·85), 3 parts (both by volume); proceed as above, but, after the
cotton has been squeezed from the acid, allow it to remain in a covered
vessel for an hour before washing it, and after washing it, dip it into a
solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 oz., in pure water, 1 gall., then
squeeze, and partially dry it; next dip it into a weak solution of nitre,
and dry it in a room heated by hot air or steam to about 150° Fahr. (See
Patent Specif.)
4. (Von Lenk.) The cotton, having been thoroughly cleansed and dried, is
steeped, as above, in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids (the
strongest obtainable in commerce), squeezed as dry as possible, and
immersed in a fresh mixture of strong acids, being allowed to remain in
this second mixture 48 hours. It is then washed in a stream of water for
several weeks, and finally treated with a solution of silicate of potassa
(soluble glass). This is the celebrated Austrian gun-cotton which was
reported on so favorably by a committee of the British Association in
1863. The treatment with silicate of potassa is adopted merely for the
purpose of retarding the combustion.
5. (‘Bulletin de St Pétersbourg,’)——_a._ Take of powdered nitre, 20 parts;
sulphuric acid (1·830 to 1·835), 31 parts; dissolve in a glass vessel,
and, whilst the solution is still warm (122° Fahr.), add of dry carded
cotton 1 part, and employ agitation until this last is well saturated;
then cover over the vessel with a plate of glass, and let it stand, for 24
hours, at a temperature of about 86° Fahr.; next well wash the cotton, as
above, first with cold and afterwards with boiling water, and dry it
carefully at a very low temperature.
_b._ From sulphuric acid (containing 3 equiv. of water), 13 parts; nitric
acid (monohydrated), 12 parts; carded cotton, 1 part; the immersion being
limited to one hour at a temperature of from 104° to 122° Fahr. (See
‘Pharm. Journ.,’ vol. xiii, No. 2.)
_Prop., &c._ Pyroxylin explodes, with a very sudden flash, and the
development of very little heat, without either smoke or residue, at a
temperature of about 300° Fahr. (No. 3 at 277° Fahr.). Several
modifications of pyroxylin are known, varying considerably in composition,
though they all contain the elements of hyponitric acid, and are all
explosive. Some are insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, whilst
others are readily dissolved, forming the glutinous solution which is used
in surgery under the name of ‘collodion,’ and which is also extensively
used in photography. The best gun-cotton (Von Lenk’s) is of no use
whatever for making collodion. The pyroxylin prepared by the formula 5,
_a_ (_above_), is soluble in a mixture of 7 parts of ether and 1 part of
alcohol; whilst the product of 5, _b_, if prepared by 2 hours’ digestion
instead of 1, is said to be even soluble in absolute alcohol.
_Obs._ General von Lenk has overcome all the difficulties which have
hitherto prevented gun-cotton being used in place of gunpowder. By
spinning the gun-cotton into thread or yarn, and weaving this into webs,
he has succeeded in making cartridges which will produce the exact amount
of force required. The time needed for the complete ignition of the
cartridge can be diminished or increased at pleasure by varying the
mechanical arrangement of the spun threads. Each gun and each kind of
projectile requires a certain density of cartridge. In general, it is
found that the proportion of 11 lbs. of gun-cotton occupying 1 cubic foot
of space produces a greater force than gunpowder of which from 50 to 60
lbs. occupies the same space, and a force of the nature required for
ordinary artillery. See COLLODION and XYLOIDIN; consult also Abel’s
researches in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society.’
=QUACK MED′ICINES.= See PATENT MEDICINES, OINTMENT, PILLS, &c.
=QUAIL.= The _Coturnix vulgaris_, a gallinaceous bird, allied to the
partridge, but of smaller size. Its flesh is highly esteemed by epicures.
It is imported from Turkey, preserved in oil; and from Italy, potted with
clarified butter.
=QUARANTINE.= The old laws of Quarantine, as the French derivation of the
word indicates, compelled a vessel coming from the shores of a country
liable to, or ravaged by, an infectious disease, such as plague, to those
of a region free from contagion, to undergo forty days’ isolation before
it was unladen, or its passengers were allowed to land at the healthy
port.
In Europe these ancient enactments against the importation of infection
are still more or less vexatiously enforced in Spain, Portugal, Greece and
Turkey; and in a modified form at Malta and some of the French and Italian
ports. In the Mediterranean ports, ships coming from countries which lie
in the southern or eastern shores of that sea are usually subjected to a
quarantine of from six to fifteen days, during which period the passengers
are confined in a sort of barrack called a ‘lazaretto,’ the merchandise,
letters, &c., of the vessel being in the meantime frequently fumigated, or
otherwise disinfected.
The inconveniences to commerce and the necessary intercourse between
nations attending the too rigorous carrying out of quarantine have, within
the last twelve years, led to a series of sanitary international
conferences between the European Governments, with the object of divising
some methods which, without weakening the safeguards to the public health,
should as much as possible reduce the inconveniences attending the
enforcement of quarantine to a minimum. At the last of these conferences,
which was held at Vienna in 1873, the members were almost unanimous in
advising the abolition of quarantine on European rivers.
Until within the last twenty years the old quarantine laws were pretty
strictly enforced in this country. Since this time, however, they have
been considerably relaxed, or, we should rather say, superseded by the
following ordinances, which, upon the authority of an order in council of
July 31st, 1871, can be enforced in the case of suspected vessels.
This ordinance declares that it is lawful for a sanitary authority, having
reason to believe that any ship arriving in its district comes from a
place infected with cholera, to visit and examine the ship before it
enters the port.
Art. 3 provides that the master of a cholera-infected ship, or one that
has even been exposed to the infection of cholera, is to moor, anchor, or
place her in such a position as from time to time the sanitary authority
shall direct.
Art. 4 provides that no person shall land from any such ship until after
the examination.
Art. 5 provides for the proper examination of all persons on board by a
legally-qualified practitioner, and permits those not suffering from
cholera to land immediately.
Another order in council, dated August 3rd, 1874, empowers any
custom-house officer, or other person having authority from the
Commissioners or Board of Customs, at any time before the Nuisance
Authority shall visit and examine the ship, to detain the ship.
“No person shall, after such detention, land from the ship, and the
officer shall forthwith give notice of the detention, and of the cause
thereof, to the proper nuisance (local) authority; and the detention shall
cease as soon as the nuisance authority shall visit and examine the ship,
or at the expiration of twelve hours after notice shall have been given to
such nuisance authority.”
Another order in council, dated August 5th, 1871, directs that the master
of a vessel, in which cholera has existed, shall not be allowed to bring
his vessel into port until he has destroyed the infected clothes and
bedding.
Local Government Boards are also invested with considerable executive
powers, by which they are enabled to enforce quarantine during the
prevalence of any contagious disease in other countries. The main Act,
however, relating to quarantine, is the 6th of Geo. IV., c. 78; and all
vessels having on board any person or persons affected with a dangerous or
infections disorder, are to be deemed as coming within its provisions (see
‘Public Health Act,’ Schedule v., part 3). There is a land, as well as a
sea quarantine. Thus, for instance, in some countries, more particularly
those of Eastern Europe, the former is still in force on the frontiers of
contiguous States, to the great impediment of commerce and inconvenience
of travellers.
The late outbreak of plague in Astrakan has led to its being established
and very strictly carried out on the borders of Russia, Austria, Hungary,
and Germany.
Hecker, writing on the probable origin of quarantine, remarks:——“The
fortieth day, according to the most ancient notions, has always been
regarded as the last of ardent diseases, and the limit of separation
between these and those which are chronic. It was the custom to subject
lying-in women for forty days to a more exact superintendence.
There was a good deal also said in medical works of forty days’ epochs in
the formation of the fœtus, not to mention that the alchemists always
expected more durable revolutions in forty days, which period they called
the philosophical month. This period being generally held to prevail in
natural processes, it appeared reasonable to assume and reasonably to
establish it; as that required for the development of latent principles of
contagion, since public regulations cannot dispense with decisions of this
kind, even though they should not be wholly justified by the nature of the
case. Great stress has also been laid on theological and legal grounds,
which were certainly of greater weight in the fifteenth century than in
modern times; such as the forty days’ duration of the flood; the forty
days’ sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai; our Saviour’s fast for the same
length of time in the wilderness; lastly, what is called the Saxon term,
which lasts for forty days.
=QUAR′TAN.= Occurring every fourth day.
=QUARTA′TION.= The practice, among assayers, of alloying 1 part of gold
with 3 parts of silver, before submitting it to the operation of
‘parting,’ in order that its particles may be too far separated to protect
the copper, lead, palladium, silver, or other metals, with which it is
contaminated, from the solvent action of the nitric or sulphuric acid, as
the case may be. See ASSAYING.
=QUARTZ.= Pure native silica. It is an essential constituent of granite
and many other rocks. Its crystalline, transparent varieties, are known as
rock crystal. See GLASS, POWDER, &c.
=QUASS.= _Syn._ POSCA VENALIS, L. _Prep._ Mix rye-flour and warm water
together, and keep the mixture by the fireside until it has turned sour.
Used as vinegar in Russia.
=QUAS′SIA.= _Syn._ QUASSIA (Ph. L., E., & D.; QUASSIA LIGNUM, QUASSIA
WOOD, B. P.). The “wood of _Picræna_ (_Picrasma_) _excelsa_, Lindl.” (B.
P., Ph. L.), or _Jamaica quassia_; and also of the “_Quassia amara_,
Linn.” (Ph. E.), or _Surinam quassia_. The latter is the original quassia,
but it is no longer imported. Quassia is characterised by its intense
bitterness. It is reputed tonic and stomachic, assisting digestion, and
giving tone and vigour to the system. Its name was given to it by Linnæus,
in honour of a negro slave who had long employed it as a remedy for the
malignant endemic fevers of Surinam. When sliced, it forms the ‘quassia
chips’ of the shops. It is generally taken in the form of infusion. This
last, sweetened with sugar, forms a safe and effective poison for
flies.——_Dose_ (in powder), 10 to 20 gr.
ROASTED QUASSIA, reduced to powder, is largely employed, instead of hops,
to embitter porter; and the unroasted powder is used for the same purpose
in the adulteration of the bitter varieties of ale.
=QUAS′SIN.= _Syn._ QUASSITE, QUASSINA. A peculiar bitter principle,
obtained by precipitating decoction of quassia with milk of lime,
evaporating the filtrate, dissolving the residue in alcohol, treating with
animal charcoal, again evaporating, dissolving in water, and
crystallising. 8 lbs. of quassia chips yield 1 drachm.
=QUEEN’S BLUE.= Thumb blue. See BLUE.
=QUEEN’S MET′AL.= A species of pewter used for teapots, &c., made by
fusing under charcoal a mixture of tin, 9 parts, and antimony, bismuth,
and lead, of each 1 part; or, tin, 100 parts; antimony, 8 parts; copper, 4
parts; bismuth, 1 part. See BRITANNIA METAL and PEWTER.
=QUEEN’S YEL′LOW.= Subsulphate of mercury.
=QUERCITRIN.= The bark of the _Quercus tinctoria_ yields a neutral
substance, to which the above name has been given. Quercitrin may be
prepared as follows by the process of Rochleder:——The bark is boiled with
water, the decoction is left to cool, and the impure quercitrin which
separates is collected, then rubbed to a pulp with alcohol of 35° B.,
heated over the water bath, collected on linen, and pressed, whereby the
principal impurities are removed. The residue is dissolved in a larger
quantity of boiling alcohol, the solution is filtered hot, and water is
added to it until it becomes turbid, so that the greater part of the
quercitrin separates before the liquid is cold. It is then collected,
pressed, and purified by a repetition of the same treatment.
Another process, by Zwenger and Dronke, is this:——The bark, in small
pieces, is exhausted with boiling alcohol, the alcohol is distilled off,
and the residue, while still warm, is mixed with a little acetic acid, and
then with neutral acetate of lead; the filtrate, freed from lead by
sulphuric acid, is evaporated, and the quercitrin which crystallises is
purified by repeated crystallisation from alcohol.
“Hydrated quercitrin forms microscopic, rectangular, partly rhombic
tablets, having their obtuse lateral edges truncated; pale yellow when
pulverised. It is neutral, inodorous, tasteless in the solid state, bitter
in solution, permanent in the air.”[125]
[Footnote 125: Watts.]
=QUER′CITRON.= The bark of _Quercus nigra_ or _tinctoria_, a species of
oak indigenous in North America. With alum mordants it yields a very
permanent yellow dye.
=QUER′CITRON.= A yellow dye stuff, composed of the shavings and powder of
the bark of _Quercus tinctoria_, or _Q. nigra_, or _Q. citrina_, a kind of
oak, a native of North America. It abounds more particularly in
Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia.
In America quercitron is used for tanning, and in Europe for dyeing only.
When employed for the latter purpose it is used in the form of an aqueous
decoction, mordanted with alum or chloride of tin. Leesching states that a
dye possessing greater colorific powder may be procured by boiling the
bark with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.
=QUICK′SILVER.= See MERCURY.
=QUILLAI BARK.= _Syn._ QUILLAY BARK, SOAP BARK. The _Quillaya saponaria_,
from which yields this bark, is an evergreen tree, growing in the
mountainous parts of Chili, in South America.
It is believed to take its name from the native word _quillay_, which
signifies to wash. The inner bark only is employed. When bruised and
agitated in water it imparts a lather to the water, in the same way that
soap does. This quality has been found to be due to the existence in the
bark of _saponin_——the same principle which confers a similar property on
_Saponaria officinalis_. The bark is free from any bitter principle, as
well as from tannic acid. It is very generally used amongst the
inhabitants residing on the western side of South America, where it is
employed for removing grease from silk, and also in the form of a wash for
cleansing and preserving the hair.
When had recourse to for cleansing silks, quillai bark is said not to
change the colour of the fabric. It is sometimes given as a febrifuge, and
as a remedy for cold in the head. For this latter purpose the powder is
snuffed up the nostrils, when it occasions sneezing and profuse discharge
from the nose.
=QUILLS.= _Prep._ 1. The quills or wing-feathers of the goose (goose
quills) are separately plunged, for a few seconds, into hot ashes,
cinders, or sand, of a temperature about equal to that of boiling water,
after which they are scraped with a blunt knife, strongly rubbed with a
piece of flannel or woollen cloth, and gently ‘stoved,’ they are, lastly,
tied up in bundles by women or children. A yellow tinge is often given to
them by dipping them for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or nitric
acid, or into an infusion of turmeric.
2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water sufficiently high to nearly
touch the nibs; then close it steam tight, and apply three or four hours’
hard boiling; next, withdraw the quills, and dry them, and in 24 hours cut
the nibs and draw out the pith; lastly, rub them with a piece of cloth,
and expose them to a moderate heat in an oven or stove. Quills prepared in
this way are as hard as bone, without being brittle, and nearly as
transparent as glass. Crow quills and swan quills may be cured in the same
manner.
=QUI′NA.= See QUININE.
=QUINAMINE.= _Syn._ QUINAMINA. C_{20}H_{26}N_{2}O_{2}. This alkaloid was
discovered by Hesse, in 1872, in the bark of _Cinchona succirubra_,
cultivated at Darjeeling, in British Sikhim.
Dr de Vrij gives the following process for the preparation of
quinamine:——The mixed alkaloids obtained from the red bark are converted
into neutral sulphates, and the solution treated with Rochelle salt,
whereby the tartrates of quinine and of cinchonidine are separated. After
collecting these upon a filter the filtered liquid is shaken with caustic
soda and ether. By this process the amorphous alkaloid and the quinamine
are dissolved by the ether, with slight traces of cinchonine, whilst the
bulk of this last alkaloid remains undissolved. After distilling the
ethereal solution the residue is transformed into neutral acetate, and the
solution of this mixed with a solution of sulphocyanate of potassium.
By this reaction the sulphocyanate of the amorphous alkaloid is
precipitated in the shape of a yellow, soft, resinous substance, whilst
the sulphocyanate of quinamine remains dissolved. After subsiding and
filtering, the solution is clear and quite colourless, and by addition of
caustic soda the quinamine is precipitated. It is then collected upon a
filter, washed, and dried. It can now easily be obtained crystallised by
dissolving it in boiling spirit, from which it crystallises in cooling. By
this process the author obtained 0·38 per cent. of pure quinamine from
samples of red cinchona quill bark, which he had received, through the
Secretary of State for India, from the plantations in British Sikhim.
=QUINCE.= _Syn._ CYDONIA, L. The fruit of _Cydonia vulgaris_, or common
quince tree. Its flavour in the raw state is austere, but it forms an
excellent marmalade (quince marmalade), and its juice yields an agreeable
and wholesome wine. The seed or pips (cydoniæ seminæ; cydonium——Ph. L.)
abound in gummy matter, which forms a mucilage with water, and possesses
the advantage of not being affected by the salts of iron or alcohol. See
DECOCTION, FIXATURE, and JELLY.
=QUINETUM.= The alkaloids contained in the East Indian red bark (_Cinchona
succirubra_) consist of a large percentage of cinchonidine, cinchonine,
quinine, and amorphous alkaloid, besides a trace of quinidine, the
preponderating alkaloid being cinchonidine.
Dr de Vrij, of the Hague, has devised a process by which these can be
extracted in their entirety, and to the mixed alkaloids so obtained the
name ‘quinetum’ has been given.
It is affirmed of quinetum that it possesses a remedial value as a tonic
and antiperiodic that renders it, in many cases, superior to quinine, ague
being one of these; also that it may be advantageously employed in
affections in which quinine would be inadmissible. A medical
correspondent informs us that he has used it with signal success in hay
asthma. Another advantage it has over quinine is, it is much lower in
price. Quinetum, according to Dr de Vrij’s process, as well as a sulphate
and hydrochlorate, are prepared by Mr Whiffen, of Battersea.
=QUINICINE.= An alkaloid obtained in 1853 by Pasteur, by exposing quinine
or quinidine, under favorable circumstances, to a temperature varying from
248° to 266° Fahr., for several hours. It is very probable that this
alkaloid is either identical, or in very close connection, with the
amorphous alkaloid soluble in ether which occurs in all barks, and
particularly in the young barks of the plantations in India.
=QUINIDINE.= C_{20}H_{24}O_{2}N_{2}.2Aq. _Syn._ QUINIDIA, CONCHININE, &c.
An alkaloid contained in many species of cinchona, together with quinine
and cinchonine, and therefore often found in the mother liquors of quinine
manufactures. It is identical with the β quinine of Van Heyningen, and was
discovered, in 1833, by Henry and Delondre. As the cinchonidine discovered
by Winckler, in 1848, has been unhappily denominated quinidine by this
chemist, there is still a confusion about these alkaloids, and, therefore,
the quinidine of commerce was very often a mixture of both, till Pasteur
made, in 1853, a classical investigation of this matter. He maintained the
name of quinidine for the alkaloid discovered by Henry and Delondre,
because it is isomeric with quinine, and gives the same green colour when
treated with chlorine followed by ammonia, and gave the name of
cinchonidine to the alkaloid discovered by Winckler, because it is
isomeric with cinchonine. He determined also the action of the solutions
of these alkaloids on the plane of polarisation, and found that the
quinidine turned this plane to the right, its molecular rotation in
alcoholic solution being [_a_] = 250·75° →, whilst he found that the
cinchonidine turned this plane to the left, its molecular rotation in
alcoholic solution being [_a_] = 144·61° ←.
_Prop. &c._ Many of the salts of quinidine are very similar to those of
quinine, but the normal salt with hydriodic acid is not only very
different from that of quinine, but also from those of all the other
cinchona-alkaloids. The normal hydriodate of quinidine is so very
sparingly soluble in water that 1 part requires, at 60° Fahr., not less
than 1200 parts of water to be dissolved. Therefore the presence of
sulphate of quinidine in the sulphate of quinine, which often occurs,
either from that article being carelessly made or from wilful
adulteration, can be easily detected by adding a few minims of solution of
iodide of potassium to the saturated solution of sulphate of quinine in
water of 60° Fahr., whereby, if quinidine is present, its hydriodate will
be separated either in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only
traces are present, in the shape of striæ on the sides of the glass where
this has been rubbed by a glass rod.
For an account of its medicinal properties, the reader should consult the
recent report from India upon the experiments made there by order of
Government with all the four cinchona-alkaloids, which experiments are
very favorable to the therapeutical action of quinidine compared with that
of quinine.
=QUININE.= C_{10}H_{12}ON. _Syn._ QUINA, QUINIA. Till recently it was
found in the greatest quantity in good Calisaya bark, particularly in that
from Bolivia, but since it has been found in great quantity in some other
barks, especially in the bark of _Cinchona officinalis_, for instance, in
the bark of that species grown in Ceylon. Red bark contains not only
quinine and cinchonine, but also cinchonidine.
_Prep._ 1. By precipitating a solution of sulphate of quinine with a
_slight_ excess of ammonia, potassa, or soda, and washing and drying the
precipitate. By solution in alcohol, sp. gr. ·815, and spontaneous
evaporation, it may be procured in crystals. Crystals may also be obtained
from “its solution in hot water with a little ammonia.” (Liebig.)
2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime, in slight excess, to a strong
decoction of the ground bark made with water acidulated with sulphuric
acid, washing the precipitate which ensues, and boiling it in alcohol; the
solution, filtered while hot, deposits the alkaloid on cooling.
_Prop., &c._ Quinine, when prepared by precipitation, is an amorphous
white powder, but when this precipitate is left in the liquor it assumes,
after some time, the appearance of aggregated crystalline needles; when
slowly crystallised from its solution, these needles are remarkably fine,
and of a pearly or silky lustre. It is freely soluble in rectified spirit
and in ether, and of all the cinchona-alkaloids it is the most soluble in
ammonia. It is upon this fact that Kerner’s method for testing the purity
of sulphate of quinine is founded. Its normal salts, if dissolved in
water, have a slightly alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. It is only
sparingly soluble in water, even when boiling; both the fixed and volatile
oils dissolve it with the aid of heat, more especially when it has been
rendered anhydrous, or is presented to them under the form of an ethereal
solution. It fuses by a gentle heat, without decomposition; forms
crystallisable salts, which are only slightly soluble in water, unless it
be acidulated, and, like the pure alkaloid, are extremely bitter, and
possess much of the characteristic flavour of cinchona bark. It is
precipitated by the alkalies and their carbonates, by tannic acid, and by
most astringent substances.
_Pur._ See QUININE, SULPHATES OF, and QUINOMETRY (_below_).
_Tests._ Quinine is recognised by——1. Its appearance under the
microscope.——2. Its solubility in ether, and in pure ammonia water.——3.
Its solubility in concentrated nitric acid, forming a colourless liquid,
which does not become yellowish until it is heated.——4. The solubility of
itself and salts, when pure, in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming
colourless fluids, “which do not acquire any coloration upon being heated
to the point of incipient evaporation of the sulphuric acid, but which
afterwards become yellow, and finally brown.” (Fresenius.)——5. Its
solubility in concentrated sulphuric acid to which some nitric acid has
been added, forming a colourless, or, at the most, only a faintly
yellowish liquid.——6. It is wholly destroyed by heat.
A solution of quinine in acidulated water, and solutions of its salts,
exhibit the following reactions:——1. Ammonia, potassa, and the alkaline
carbonates, give white, pulverulent precipitates, becoming crystalline
after some time (see _above_), and which are soluble in ammonia in excess,
and which, when ether is added after the ammonia, and the whole is
agitated, redissolve in the ether, whilst the clear liquid, on repose,
presents two distinct layers.——2. Bicarbonate of soda (avoiding excess)
gives a similar precipitate, both in acid and neutral solutions of
quinine, either at once or after a short time. The precipitate is soluble
in excess of the precipitant, and is again precipitated from the new
solution upon protracted ebullition. “Vigorous stirring of the liquid
promotes the separation of this precipitate.” (Fresenius.)——3. If recently
prepared chlorine be added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful
emerald-green colour is developed. (Ph. L.)——4. A concentrated solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium being added, in excess, after the chlorine,
instead of the ammonia, a dark red colour is instantly produced, which
after some time passes into green, especially when freely exposed to the
light. This reaction is not characteristic of quinine, for with quinidine
one gets the same reaction.——5. If caustic potassa be used instead of
ammonia (see _above_), the solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour.
“These reactions are restricted to this alkaloid.” (Dr Garrod.)
Flückiger[126] says;——“The most characteristic test for ascertaining the
presence of quinine is the formation of the splendid green compound called
_thalleiochine_, which is produced if solutions of the alkaloid or its
salts are mixed with chlorine water, and then a drop of ammonia added.”
[Footnote 126: In ‘Jahrb. f. Pharm.,’ April, 1872, 136 (‘Ph. Journ,’, 3rd
series, ii, 901).]
If one part of quinine is dissolved in 4000 parts of acidulated water, and
then about 1/10 of the volume of the liquid, of chlorine water, and a drop
of ammonia added, a green zone will be readily formed if the liquids are
cautiously placed in a flask without shaking.
If the solution of quinine contain no more than 1/5000, the green of one
may still be obtained, but in more diluted solutions the success becomes
more and more uncertain.
From a practical point of view we may state that 1/5000 of the alkaloid is
the smallest quantity whose presence can thus be discovered with
certainty; Kerner (1870) has succeeded with 1/20000 but I was not able to
corroborate this statement.
The author was also induced to try the action of bromine in place of
chlorine. The _thalleiochine_ is then, indeed, produced in solution which
contain only 1/20000 of quinine.
Yet the behaviour of bromine displays some striking differences. Chlorine
alone, as already stated, causes no immediate alteration of somewhat
diluted solutions of quinine, whereas they became turbid on addition of
bromine as long as there is about 1/2500 or more of quinine present. Now,
the precipitate which is produced by bromine in solution of quinine does
_not_ turn green if a little ammonia is subsequently added, or, at least,
the thalleiochine thus obtained is rather greyish. But in more dilute
solutions of quinine bromine acts more readily than chlorine. An excess of
bromine is to be carefully avoided.
This is easily performed if the vapour of bromine, not the liquid bromine
itself, is allowed to fall down on the surface of the solutions of
quinine; their superficial layer only must be saturated with bromine by
gently moving the liquid. Then a drop of ammonia will produce the green or
somewhat bluish zone, which is much more persistent than that due to
chlorine.
Consequently, for demonstration of the test under notice, chlorine is to
be used in comparatively concentrated solutions. In solutions containing
so little quinine (less than 1/2500) that it is no longer precipitated by
the vapour of bromine, the thalleiochine test succeeds much better with
bromine, and goes much further, as shown above.
The author also shows that morphine gives a dark, dingy brown colour with
chlorine and ammonia, which is capable of more or less masking the
reaction of quinine.
Another test for quinine is the formation of its iodosulphate, the
so-called herapathite. For this purpose the quinine is dissolved in 10
parts of proof spirit, acidulated with 1/20th part of sulphuric acid, and
to this solution an alcoholic solution of iodine is carefully added, and
the liquid in the meanwhile stirred with a glass rod. There appears either
immediately or after some minutes a black precipitate of iodosulphate of
quinine, which if redissolved in boiling proof spirit, forms in cooling
the beautiful crystals of herapathite. 100 parts of this herapathite, if
dried on a water bath, represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.
Dr de Vrij prefers the employment of the iodosulphate of chiniodine as a
reagent for the detection and estimation of quinine. In a communication to
the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ he writes:——“In estimating quinine in a
mixture of cinchona-alkaloids by means of an alcoholic solution of iodine
the reagent requires to be added in slight excess, in order to ensure
complete precipitation. An undue excess of the reagent, however, causes
the formation of a compound richer in iodine and much more soluble in
alcohol than herapathite, and thus renders the determination
inaccurate.”[127] For this reason the author suggests the application of
an alcoholic solution of iodosulphate of chiniodine (so-called sulphate of
amorphous quinine) in place of free iodine. The reagent is made as
following:——
[Footnote 127: 3rd series, vi, 461.]
Two parts of sulphate of chiniodine are dissolved in eight parts of water
containing 5 per cent. of sulphuric acid. To this _clear_ solution,
contained in a large capsule, a solution of one part of iodine and two
parts of iodide of potassium, in 100 parts of water, is _slowly_ added
with continuous stirring, so that no part of the solution of chiniodine
comes into contact with excess of iodine. By this addition an
orange-coloured flocculent precipitate is formed of iodosulphate of
chiniodine, which either spontaneously, or by a slight elevation of
temperature, collapses into a dark brown, red-coloured, resinous
substance, whilst the supernatant liquor becomes clear and slightly yellow
coloured. This liquor is poured off, and the resinous substance is washed
by heating it on a water bath with distilled water. After washing, the
resinous substance is heated on the water bath till all the water has been
evaporated. It is then soft and tenacious at the temperature of boiling
water, but becomes hard and brittle after cooling. One part of this
substance is now treated with 6 parts of alcohol of 92 or 94 per cent.
until it is completely dissolved, and the solution allowed to cool. In
cooling a part of the dissolved substance is separated. The clear
dark-coloured solution is evaporated on a water bath, and the residue
dissolved in 5 parts of cold alcohol. This second solution leaves a small
part of insoluble substance. The clear dark-coloured solution obtained by
the separation of this insoluble matter, either by decantation or
filtration, constitutes the reagent which the author has used for some
time under the name of iodosulphate of chiniodine, both for the
qualitative and quantitative determination of _crystallisable_ quinine.
To determine a quantity of quinine contained in the mixed alkaloids
obtained from a sample of cinchona bark, 1 part of the alkaloid is
dissolved in 20 parts of alcohol, of 90 or 92 per cent., containing 1·6
per cent. of sulphuric acid, to obtain an alcoholic solution of the acid
sulphates of the alkaloids.
From this solution the quinine is separated by adding carefully, by means
of a pipette, the above-mentioned solution of the iodosulphate of
chiniodine, as long as a dark brown-red precipitate of iodosulphate of
quinine-herapathite is formed. As soon as all the quinine has been
precipitated, and a slight excess of the reagent has been added, the
liquor acquires an intense yellow colour. The beaker containing the liquor
with the precipitate is now covered by a watch-glass, and heated on a
water bath till the liquid _begins_ to boil.
After cooling, the beaker is weighed, to ascertain the amount of liquid
which is necessary in order to be able to apply later the above-mentioned
correction. For although quinine-herapathite is very little soluble in
alcohol, it is not insoluble, and therefore a correction must be applied
for the quantity which has been dissolved both by the alcohol used for the
solution of the alkaloids and the alcohol contained in the reagents.
The liquor is now filtered to collect the iodosulphate of quinine on a
small filter, where it is washed with a saturated solution of herapathite
in alcohol. After the washing has been completed, the weight of the funnel
with the moist filter is taken, and the filter allowed to dry in the
funnel. As soon as it is dry the weight is taken again, to ascertain the
amount of solution of herapathite which remained in the filter, and which
left the dissolved herapathite on the filter after the evaporation of the
alcohol.
This amount is subtracted from the total amount of liquid, and for the
remaining the correction is calculated with reference to the temperature
of the laboratory during the time of the analysis. The dry iodosulphate of
quinine is taken from the filter and dried on a water bath, in one of a
couple of large watch-glasses closing tightly upon each other, so that the
weight of the substance contained in the glass may be taken without the
access of air.
When, after repeatedly ascertaining the weight, it remains constant,
this weight is noted down, and to it is added the product of the
calculated correction. The sum of this addition is the total amount
of iodosulphate of quinine obtained from the mixed alkaloids
subjected to the operation, and from this weight the amount of
_crystallisable_ quinine can be calculated by the use of Hauer’s formula,
2C_{40}H_{24}N_{2}O_{4}3(HO_{1}SO_{3}), 31 (old notation), which the
author has found to be correct. According to this formula, 1 part of
iodosulphate of quinine, dried at 100° C., represents 0·5509 per cent. of
anhydrous quinine, or 0·7345 per cent. of disulphate of quinine.
The accuracy of this determination may be seen from the following
examples:
0·24 gram of anhydrous crystallised quinine gave 0·541 gram of herapathite
dried at 100° C. = 0·298 gram of quinine.
According to Hauer’s formula, 0·5336 gram of herapathite = 0·294 gram of
quinine, which ought to have been obtained.
1·048 gram of bitartrate of quinine gave 1·224 gram of herapathite =
0·674 gram of quinine.
According to the formula of the bitartrate,
C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{21}C_{4}H_{6}O_{6} + Aq. = 442; 1·048 of bitartrate
represents 0·69 of quinine, so that 1·255 gram of herapathite should have
been obtained.
Notwithstanding the different circumstances in which the reagent was
applied, the results are satisfactory.
The two following experiments were made with pure quinine, dried at 100°
C., at which temperature it still retains water, under identical
circumstances:——
1·0664 gram of hydrated quinine gave 1·7266 gram of herapathite = 164·5
per cent.
1·055 grams of the same hydrated quinine gave 1·7343 gram of herapathite =
164·3 per cent.
The author further states that the iodosulphate of quinine and of
quinidine prepared by means of his new reagent have an analogous
composition, and are identical with the compound described by Herapath,
whilst the iodosulphates of cinchonine and cinchonidine have a different
composition from the former, and both require more iodine to be converted
into the optical iodosulphates described by Herapath. Of all these
iodosulphates that of quinine is by far the most insoluble in alcohol, and
is precipitated first and free from the others by a judicious application
of the iodosulphate of chinioidine.
Quinine is distinguished from both cinchonine and quinidine by its
comparatively free solubility in ether; the last of these being very
sparingly soluble, and the other wholly insoluble, in that menstruum. The
presence of cinchonine may also be positively determined by reference to
the behaviour of that alkaloid. Quinidine is also distinguished from
quinine by the different crystallisation, greater specific gravity, and
freer solubility of its salts in cold water.[128]
[Footnote 128: An extremely elegant and highly sensitive method of testing
for quinine and quinidine by means of the microscope, &c., is described at
considerable length, by Dr Herapath, in the ‘Pharm. Journ.’ for November,
1853.]
_Estim._ See QUINOMETRY.
_Uses, &c._ Pure quinine is but rarely used in medicine, but several of
its salts are employed as remedies, on account of their great stimulant,
tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a tonic in dyspeptic affections, and for
restoring strength and vigour to morbidly weakened habits, and as an
antiperiodic or agent to counteract febrile action, it appears to be
superior to all other remedies, provided no abnormal irritability of the
mucous membranes, or of the circulatory organs, exists. The dose of the
salts of quinine, as a tonic, is 1/2 to 1 gr., twice or thrice daily; as
an antiperiodic, 2 to 5 gr., or even more, every second or third hour,
during the intervals of the paroxysms of ague, and of other intermittent
or periodic affections; also in acute rheumatism. The sulphate
(disulphate) is the salt generally used; this and other salts are most
effective when taken in solution.
The nature of the influence exerted upon blood by quinine was, in 1872,
made the subject of a fresh investigation by Schulte.[129] Its
extraordinary power of stopping fermentation and putrefaction, by
destroying low organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, has been before
pointed out. It is supposed to diminish the formation of pus in
inflammation by arresting the motions and preventing the exit from the
blood-vessels of the white blood-corpuscles, the accumulation of which,
according to Cohnheim, constitutes pus.
[Footnote 129: ‘N. Rep. Pharm.,’ xx, 539 (‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, ii,
629).]
By depriving the red blood-corpuscles of the power to produce ozone, it
diminishes the change of tissue in the body, and thereby lessens the
production of heat. Ranke and Kerner have shown the waste of tissue is
reduced when large doses of quinine are administered, as indicated in the
small proportion of uric acid and urea excreted.
With the object of ascertaining whether this effect is referable to the
direct influence of quinine on oxidation in the blood, or to its indirect
influence through the nervous system, Schulte employed a method, based
upon the changes occurring in the alkalinity of the blood, observed by
Zuntz, who had noticed that a considerable formation of acid takes place
in freshly-drawn blood, and continues in a less degree till putrefaction
commences.
The amount of acid formed was estimated from the diminished alkalinity of
the blood, as comparatively shown by the quantity of dilute phosphoric
acid required for exact saturation.
A sufficient quantity of chloride of sodium was added to the phosphoric
acid to prevent the blood-corpuscles from being dissolved, and interfering
with the reaction by their colouring matter. The point of saturation was
fixed at the point of transient reddening of carefully prepared test paper
by the carbonic acid. Schulte has thus been enabled to confirm the
experiments of Zuntz and Scharrenbroich, showing that quinine and
berberine lessen the production of acid, and that quinine can stop it both
before and after coagulation; that sodium nitropicrate has an action
similar to, and nearly as powerful as, quinine; while the action of
cinchonine is much less energetic. Harley has shown that whilst quinine
lessens oxidation in blood, some substances, such as snake poisons,
increase it. Binz found that when putrid fluids were injected into the
circulation of an animal, the temperature rose; but that this increase of
temperature could be more or less prevented by the addition of quinine to
the putrid liquid, or the simultaneous injection of the quinine.
With respect to the influences of quinine on the change of tissue,
Schulte gives the result of some careful experiments made by Zuntz, who
found that after taking three 0·6 gram doses of hydrochlorate of quinine
for two days, the amount of urine he excreted was increased by one third,
and then decreased as much, the specific gravity falling from 1018 to
1012; the urea also showed a marked decrease.
The salts of quinine may be made by simply saturating the dilute acids
with the base, so that part of the latter remains undissolved, and gently
evaporating the solutions for crystals, or to dryness. Prince Lucien
Bonaparte recommends all these salts to be prepared by the addition of a
strong alcoholic solution of quinine to a cold solution of the acid. We
have tried this method with success.
=Quinine, Ac′etate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ACETAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Mix
quinine, 2 parts, with water, 3 parts; heat the mixture, and add of acetic
acid, q. s. to dissolve the alkaloid, and to render the solution slightly
acid; lastly, decant or filter the solution whilst boiling hot, and set it
aside to crystallise. The mother water, on evaporation, will yield a
second crop of the acetate.
2. Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts, is dissolved in boiling
water, and mixed with crystallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The acetate
of quinine crystallises.
_Prop., &c._ Satiny, acicular crystals, which are rather more soluble in
water than those of the sulphate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 5 grains.
=Quinine, Arse′′niate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ARSENIAS, L. _Prep._ (Bourières.)
Arsenic acid, 1-1/2 dr.; quinine, 5 dr.; distilled water, 6 fl. oz.; boil
them together in a covered glass vessel until the alkaloid is dissolved,
then set the solution aside to crystallise.
_Uses, &c._ Recommended by Dr Neligan, and others, as being more
powerfully antiperiodic than the other preparations of quinine.——_Dose_,
1/12 to 1/4 gr., made into pills; in agues, neuralgia, &c.; also in
cancer.
=Quinine, Ar′senite of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ARSENIS, L. _Prep._ Sulphate of
quinine, 100 parts, is dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with
arsenious acid, 14 parts. The liquid is then filtered. The poisonous salt
is deposited in the crystalline form as the liquid cools.
_Uses, &c._ As the last.
=Quinine, Chlo′′ride of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see _below_).
=Quinine, Ci′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ CITRAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By mixing a hot
solution of sulphate of quinine with a like solution of citrate of soda.
2. From quinine and citric acid, as the acetate. Needle-shaped
prisms.——_Dose, &c._ As the sulphate or disulphate.
=Quinine, Disulphate of.= Sulphate of quinine (see _below_).
=Quinine, Ferrocy′anide of.= _Syn._ CYANIDE OF IRON AND QUININE; QUINÆ
HYDROFERROCYANAS, QUINÆ FERRO-PRUSSIAS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Sulphate of
quinine, 100 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium, 31 parts; distilled water,
2500 parts; boil for a few minutes, and, when cold, separate the impure
salt which floats as an oily mass on the surface, wash it with a little
cold water, and dissolve it in boiling alcohol; the solution will deposit
crystals as it cools.
_Obs._ This compound is by some said to be the most efficacious of all the
salts of quinia. Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine mixed with some
Prussian blue.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.
=Quinine, Ferrosul′phate of.= See QUININE AND IRON, SULPHATE OF (_below_).
=Quinine, Hydri′odate of.= _Syn._ IODIDE OF QUININE; QUINÆ HYDRIODAS, Q.
IODIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concentrated solution of
iodide of potassium to a like solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and
drying the precipitate in the shade; or heat the liquid nearly to the
boiling point, and allow it to crystallise.
2. (Parrish.) Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 5 parts, dissolved in
alcohol, and decomposed by an alcoholic solution of 3 parts of iodide of
potassium, precipitates sulphate of potassa, and yields, on cooling and
evaporating, hydriodate of quinine in fine crystalline needles.[130]
[Footnote 130: “1 and 2 are not identical; 1 is an acid salt which readily
crystallises, but 2 is a normal salt which I never saw crystallise, but
always like a fluid resin, quite amorphous.”——De Vrij.]
3. (IODURETTED——Bouchardat.) From an acid solution of quinia and a
solution of iodide of iron containing a slight excess of iron, as No. 1.
_Obs._ The above are reputed alterative, tonic, and antiperiodic.——_Dose_,
1 to 4 gr.; in obstinate intermittents, and in the scrofulous affections
of debilitated subjects.
=Quinine, Hydrochlo′′rate of.= _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF QUININE, MURIATE OF
QUININE†; QUINÆ HYDROCHLORAS, QUINÆ MURIAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By neutralising
dilute hydrochloric acid with the base, as above.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Chloride of barium, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 lb.; dissolve,
add, gradually, of sulphate of quinine, 2 oz.; boil gently for a few
minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and set it aside that crystals
may form.
3. (QUINÆ MURIAS——Ph. D.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 123 gr., in
distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved
in boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; mix, evaporate the solution to one half,
filter, and again evaporate until spiculæ begin to appear; next allow the
liquid to cool, collect the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper. The
mother liquor, by further concentration and cooling, will yield an
additional product.
_Obs._ Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in snow-white groups of feathery
crystals, of a mother-of-pearl lustre, which are more freely soluble than
those of the disulphate.
=Quinine and Iodide of Iron.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM.
(Bouchardat.) _Prep._ Pour a strong solution of acid sulphate of quinine
into a fresh solution of iodide of iron; collect the precipitate, dry it
quickly by pressing it between blotting paper, and keep it from the air.
=Quinine, Ki′nate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ KINAS, L. _Prep._ By saturating a
solution of kinic acid with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation out
of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is obtained in crystalline warts,
soluble in 4 parts of water and 8 parts of alcohol.
=Quinine, Lac′tate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ LACTAS, L. _Prep._ As the ACETATE or
CITRATE. By spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may be obtained. Said to
agree better with dyspeptic patients than the other salts of quinine.
=Quinine, Mu′′riate of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see _above_).
=Quinine, Neutral Hydrobromate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ HYDROBROMAS. (M. Boille.)
This salt is prepared by double decomposition of bromide of barium and
neutral sulphate of quinia, and is thus easily obtained pure and free from
chloride, the great solubility of bromide of barium in alcohol
facilitating the removal of any chloride which is insoluble.
The two salts are dissolved separately in alcohol and the solutions
filtered. The neutral sulphate of quinia solution is gradually added, in
slight excess, to the bromide of barium solution until a precipitate
ceases to form.
The solutions, diluted with water, are distilled to recover the alcohol,
afterwards filtered to separate the sulphate of quinia which has been
precipitated by the water, and then concentrated sufficiently to induce
rapid crystallisation. The addition of water is indispensable for the
concentration and crystallisation; the hydrobromate, being soluble in
alcohol of all proportions, redissolves as the alcoholic liquor is
concentrated. M. Boille claims for his neutral hydrobromate of quinine its
much readier solubility over the officinal sulphate, as well as its
superior richness in quinine.
=Quinine, Ni′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ NITRAS, L. _Prep._ As the
HYDROCHLORATE, substituting dilute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta (P.
Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of barium.
=Quinine, Phos′phate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ PHOSPHAS, L. As the ACETATE. Silky,
needle-shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has been highly
recommended in intermittents, &c., associated with rickets and stomach
affections.
=Quinine, Salicylate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ SALICYLAS. This may be made by
mixing an alcoholic solution of quinine with an alcoholic solution of
salicylic acid to complete saturation, and afterwards allowing the alcohol
slowly to evaporate.
=Quinine, Sul′phates of.= The salt often called ‘disulphate of quinine’ is
now generally regarded as the normal sulphate, while the soluble salt,
often called the ‘neutral sulphate’ is considered to be an acid salt.
This change in nomenclature results from doubling the atomic weight of the
alkaloid quinine:——
1. =Quinine Acid, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}P_{24}N_{3}O_{2}.H_{2}SO_{4}.7Aq.)
_Syn._ SULPHATE OF QUININE†, NEUTRAL SULPHATE OF QUININE†, SOLUBLE S. OF
Q.; QUINÆ SULPHAS SOLUBILIS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz.,
dissolved, by the aid of heat, in water, 1/2 pint, previously acidulated
with dilute sulphuric acid, 5 fl. dr.; the solution affords crystals on
cooling, and more on evaporation.
_Obs._ This salt possesses the advantage of being soluble in about 10
parts of water at 60° Fahr.; but it is seldom used in the crystalline
form; still, as the officinal sulphate (‘disulphate’) is generally
prescribed along with a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to render
it soluble, this acid sulphate is, in fact, the compound which is commonly
given. It is the ‘bisulphate,’ ‘supersulphate,’ or ‘acid sulphate of
quina’ of Soubeiran and other Continental chemists.
2. =Quinine, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2})_{2}.2H_{2}SO_{4}.7Aq.
_Syn._ NORMAL SULPHATE OF QUININE, DISULPHATE OF Q., QUININE; QUINÆ
DISULPHAS (Ph. L.), QUINÆ SULPHAS (Ph. E., D., & U. S., & P. Cod.), QUINÆ
SULPHAS (B. P.), L.; SULPHATE DE QUININE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.)
Take of yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 7 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 4-1/4 oz.;
(diluted with) water, 6 galls.; boil them for 1 hour, and strain; repeat
this a second time for 1 hour, with a like quantity of acid and water, and
again strain; next boil the bark for 3 hours, in water, 8 galls., and
strain; wash the residue with fresh quantities of boiling distilled water;
to the mixed decoctions and washings, add moist hydrated oxide of lead to
saturation, decant the supernatant fluid, and wash the sediment with
distilled water; boil down the liquor for 15 minutes, and strain, then
precipitate the quina with liquor of ammonia and wash the precipitate
(with very cold water) until nothing alkaline is perceptible; saturate
what remains with sulphuric acid, 1/2 oz., diluted with water, q. s.,
digest with animal charcoal, 2 oz., and strain; lastly, the charcoal being
well washed, evaporate the mixed liquors, that crystals may form.
2. (Ph. E.) This process varies from the last one, in the bark (1 lb.)
being first boiled in water (4 pints) along with carbonate of soda (4
oz.); the residuum, being pressed, is moistened with water, and again
pressed, and this operation is repeated a second and a third time, the
object being to remove, as much as possible, the acids, colouring matter,
gum, and extractive, before proceeding to extract the alkaloid. Carbonate
of soda is also used as the precipitant, instead of ammonia, and the
precipitate is formed into a sulphate (disulphate) by being stirred with
boiling water, 1 pint, to which sulphuric acid, 1 fl. scruple, or q. s.,
is subsequently added. The crystals, after digestion with prepared animal
charcoal, 2 dr., are ordered to be dried at a heat not higher than 140°
Fahr.
3. (Ph. D.) Yellow bark, 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hours in water, 2
quarts, acidulated with oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr., and then boiled for
half an hour, after which the fluid is decanted; this is repeated a second
and a third time with water, 2 quarts, and oil of vitriol, 1 fl. dr.; the
decanted (or strained) liquors are evaporated to a quart, and filtered,
and slaked lime, 1 oz., or q. s., added to the solution until it exhibits
a decidedly alkaline reaction; the precipitate is next collected on a
calico filter, and, after having been washed with cold water, partially
dried on porous bricks, and subjected to powerful pressure enveloped in
blotting paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified spirit, 1 pint, and
the liquid, after subsidence, decanted; this is repeated a second and a
third time with a fresh pint of spirit, and the residuum being well
pressed, the mixed liquors are filtered, and the spirit removed by
distillation; the brown viscid residuum is dissolved in boiling water, 16
fl. oz., boiled, and dilute sulphuric acid, 1/2 fl. oz, or q. s., added to
render the solution neutral or only slightly acid; animal charcoal, 1/2
oz., is next stirred in, the mixture boiled for about 5 minutes, filtered,
and set aside to crystallise; the crystals are dried on blotting paper by
mere exposure to a dry atmosphere.
4. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 16; hydrochloric acid,
3; distilled water, a sufficiency; solution of soda, 80; dilute sulphuric
acid, a sufficiency. Dilute the hydrochloric acid with 10 pints of the
water. Place the bark in a porcelain basin, and add to it as much of the
diluted hydrochloric acid as will render it thoroughly moist. After
maceration, with occasional stirring, for twenty-four hours, place the
bark in a displacement apparatus, and percolate with the diluted
hydrochloric acid until the solution which drops through is nearly
destitute of bitter taste. Into this liquid (hydrochlorate of quinine)
pour the solution of soda, agitate well, let the precipitate (quinine)
completely subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate
on a filter, and wash it with cold distilled water until the washings
cease to have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a porcelain dish
containing a pint of distilled water, and, applying to this the heat of a
water bath, gradually add diluted sulphuric acid until very nearly the
whole of the precipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral liquid has been
obtained. (Or add about half the precipitated quinine to some water in an
evaporating basin, warm the mixture and pour in diluted sulphuric acid
until the precipitate has dissolved and the liquid is neutral or only
faintly acid, then add the other half, stir well, and again heat liquid.)
Filter the solution (sulphate of quinine), while hot, through paper, wash
the filter with boiling distilled water, concentrate till a film forms on
the surface of the solution, and set it aside to crystallise. The
crystals should be dried on filtering paper without the application of
heat.
5. “Those who are well acquainted with the chemistry of the
cinchona-alkaloids all agree with me in condemning the boiling of bark
with dilute acids. I prefer the following method, which can also be used
on a small scale for quinometry:——
“Yellow bark, or any other bark in which quinine prevails, like, for
instance, that of _Cinchona officinalis_, 1 lb., is mixed with milk of
lime, made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 oz. of water. After drying this
mixture it is exhausted with strong methylated spirit (the strongest
possible) and the slightly coloured solution neutralised with sulphuric
acid, so that the liquor has a slight acid reaction upon blue litmus
paper. After filtering or subsiding, the clear liquid is distilled and the
residue in the still dissolved in water, carefully neutralised, so that
the solution has a slight alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper, treated
with charcoal and crystallised, &c.”——De Vrij.
6. (‘HOSPITAL SULPHATE’——Mr E. Herring.) The crushed bark is boiled in a
solution of caustic soda or potassa, to extract colouring matter and gum;
it is then pressed, washed with cold water, a second time boiled with a
solution of caustic alkali, and again pressed, washed, and pressed; the
decoloured and purified bark is next exhausted by coction with acidulated
water, in the usual way, and the filtered mixed decoctions are
precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitated quina is then
dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid, to saturation, when the ‘HOSPITAL
SULPHATE’ crystallises out as the solution cools; this is, lastly, washed
with a little cold water, drained, and dried.——The advantage of this
process is the non-use of animal charcoal as a bleacher, and the
consequent less cost of the product. In the preparation of his ‘WHITE
SULPHATE,’ Mr Herring uses benzol as a solvent, instead of alcohol. Patent
dated July 28th, 1853.
_Prop._ When pure, sulphate of quinine forms very light, delicate,
flexible, white needles, which are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely
bitter; it is soluble in 740 parts of water at 60°, and in 30 parts at
212° Fahr.; it takes about 80 parts of cold rectified spirit for its
solution, but is freely soluble in boiling alcohol and in acidulated
water; it melts at 240° Fahr., and is charred and destroyed at a heat
below that of redness. The crystals contain 76·1% of quinine, 8·7% of
sulphuric acid, and 15·2% of water; of the last, they lose about 3-4ths by
exposure to dry air, and nearly the whole when kept in a state of fusion
for some time.
_Pur._ This may not be inferred from the form of its crystallisation, for
the sulphates of quinidine and of cinchonidine may be obtained in the same
form of crystallisation. As mentioned already, the reaction with chlorine
and ammonia does not distinguish quinine from quinidine, as both give the
same green colour. “It is entirely soluble in water (hot), and more
readily so when an acid is present. Precipitated by ammonia, the residuary
liquid, after evaporation, should not taste of sugar. By a gentle heat it
loses 8% or 10% of water. It is wholly consumed by heat. If chlorine be
first added, and then ammonia, it becomes green.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “On
adding chloride of barium to 100 gr. of this salt, dissolved in water
mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26·6 gr. of sulphate of baryta, dried at a
red heat, are prepared.” (Ph. L. 1851.) “A solution of 10 gr., in 1 fl.
oz. of distilled water, and 2 or 3 drops of sulphuric acid, if decomposed
by a solution of 1/2 oz. of carbonate of soda, in two waters, and heated
until the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass,
which, when dry, weighs 7·4 gr. and when reduced to powder, dissolves
entirely in a solution of oxalic acid.” (Ph. E.)
_Adult._ Sulphate of quinine is said to be often adulterated with starch,
magnesia, gum, sugar, cinchonine, quinidine, &c.; but, according to De
Vrij, those with starch, magnesia, gum, and sugar, are very rare if ever
they were really observed. Very frequent are those with the sulphates of
the other cinchona-alkaloids, and these become even still more frequent,
as very different kinds of bark are used for the manufacture of quinine.
Salicin is, if ever, but very seldom used for adulteration of quinine. The
best practical test for the purity of sulphate of quinine is the
following:——A saturated solution of the salt is made at 60° Fahr., and one
part of this solution is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated
solution of iodide of potassium, whilst another part is mixed with 2 or 3
minims of a concentrated solution of tartrate of potash and soda. If the
sulphate of quinine is pure its solution will remain unaltered by both
reagents, even after rubbing the sides of the test tube with a glass rod
and standing many hours. But if it contains one or more of the other
cinchona-alkaloids there will appear either precipitates or striæ on the
glass where it has been rubbed by the glass rod. Iodide of potassium
indicates particularly the presence of even traces of quinidine, but also
of cinchonidine and cinchonine, provided their quantity be not too small.
Tartrate of potash and soda indicate, under these circumstances, only the
presence of cinchonidine. The first three remain undissolved when the salt
is digested in spirit; the fourth is dissolved out by cold water; the
fifth may be detected by its total insolubility in ether; or, by
precipitating the quinine by solution of potassa, and dissolving the
precipitate in boiling alcohol; cinchonine crystallises out as the
solution cools, but the quinine remains in the mother liquor; and the
last, by the greater solubility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c. If the sample
disengages ammoniacal fumes when treated with liquor of potassa, it
contains sal ammoniac. The presence of most foreign organic substances is
also shown by the sample being turned brown, and being soon charred when
treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. If it turn red it
contains salicin, a substance which is now frequently used to adulterate
sulphate of quinine. The pure sulphate is not discoloured by this reagent.
_Uses, &c._ The sulphate is more extensively employed than any of the
other salts of quinine, and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them. It
is the article intended to be used whenever ‘sulphate’ or ‘disulphate’ of
quinine, or even ‘quinine,’ is ordered for medicinal purposes, unless the
name is qualified by some other term. It is a most valuable stomachic, in
doses of 1/4 to 1 gr.; as a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; and as a febrifuge, 2 to 20
gr.
=Quinine, Sulpho-tar′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ SULPHO-TARTRAS, L. _Prep._
From sulphate of quinine, 4 parts; tartaric acid, 5 parts; distilled
water, 20 parts; mix, gently evaporate to dryness, and powder the
residuum.
=Quinine, Tan′nate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ TANNAS, L. _Prep._ Dissolve sulphate
of quinine in slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of tannic acid
as long as a precipitate forms; wash this with a little cold water, and
dry it. The Ph. Græca orders infusion of galls to be used as the
precipitant. In intermittent neuralgia.
=Quinine, Tar′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ TARTRAS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From
tartaric acid and quinine, as the acetate.
=Quinine, Vale′′rianate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._
1. As the acetate or citrate.
2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 gr., distilled water, 2 fl. oz.;
dissolve; also dissolve hydrochlorate of quinine, 7 dr., in distilled
water, 14 fl. oz.; next heat each solution to 120° (not higher), mix them,
and set the vessel aside for 24 hours; lastly, press the mass of crystals
thus obtained, and dry them, without the application of artificial heat.
_Prop., &c._ Silky needles and prisms; its solution suffers decomposition
when heated much above 120° Fahr. It is powerfully antispasmodic,
antiperiodic, and nervine.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr., every two hours, or 1 to 3
gr. twice or thrice daily; in epilepsy, hemicrania, hysteria, neuralgia,
and other nervous affections.
=QUININE AND COD-LIVER OIL.= _Syn._ COD-LIVER OIL WITH QUININE,
QUINIARETTED COD-LIVER OIL; OLEUM MORRHUÆ CUM QUINÂ, OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI
CUM QUINÂ, L. This medicine is a solution of pure anhydrous quinine in
pure cod-liver oil.
_Prep._ 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently precipitated) is fused in a
glass or porcelain capsule by the heat of an oil or sand bath, carefully
applied, by which it assumes a brown colour and the appearance of a resin;
it is then allowed to cool out of contact with the air, after which it is
reduced to powder in a dry mortar, and added to pure pale Newfoundland
cod-liver oil, gently heated in a closed glass vessel over a water bath;
the solution of the alkaloid is promoted by constant agitation, and, when
complete, the vessel, still corked, is set aside in a dark situation to
cool; when the ‘quiniaretted oil’ is quite cold it is put into bottles, in
the usual manner, and preserved as much as possible from the light and
air.
2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in a little anhydrous ether before
adding it to the oil, which in this case need not be heated, as the union
is effected by simple agitation; should this not take place, it may be
gently warmed for a few minutes.
3. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in anhydrous alcohol, and after
being added to the oil, the whole is gently heated, in an open vessel, by
the heat of a water bath, until the alcohol is expelled; agitation, &c.,
being had recourse to as in No. 1.
_Prop., &c._ The above preparation resembles ordinary cod-liver oil,
except in having a pale yellowish colour and a slightly bitter taste,
similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to possess all the properties
of cod-liver oil combined with those peculiar to quinine, by which the
tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities of the latter are associated,
in one remedy, with the genial supporting, and alterative action of the
other. The common strength is 2 gr. of quinine per oz.
=QUININE AND I′RON.= These two important medicinal agents are combined
together in various ways. The following compound salts are often
prescribed.
=Quinine and Iron, Cit′rate of.= _Syn._ CITRATE OF IRON AND QUININE; FERRI
ET QUINÆ CITRAS, B. P. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron,
4-1/2; sulphate of quinia, 1; dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2; citric acid,
3; solution of ammonia and distilled water, of each a sufficiency; mix 8
of the solution of ammonia with 40 of the water, and to this add the
solution of persulphate of iron, previously diluted with 40 of the water,
stirring them constantly and briskly. Let the mixture stand for 2 hours,
stirring it occasionally, then put it on a calico filter, and when the
liquid has drained away, wash the precipitate with distilled water until
that which passes through the filter ceases to give a precipitate with
chloride of barium. Mix the sulphate of quinia with 8 of the water, add
the sulphuric acid, and when the salt is dissolved, precipitate the quinia
with a slight excess of solution of ammonia. Collect the precipitate on a
filter, and wash it with 30 of the water. Dissolve the citric acid in 5 of
the water, and having applied the heat of a water bath, add the oxide of
iron, previously well drained; stir them together, and when the oxalic
acid has dissolved, add the precipitated quinia, continuing the agitation
until this also has dissolved. Let the solution cool, then add, in small
quantities at a time, 1-1/2 solution of ammonia, dilute with 2 of the
water, stirring the solution briskly, and allowing the quinia which
separates with each addition of ammonia to dissolve before the next
addition is made. Filter the solution, evaporate it to the consistence of
a thin syrup, then dry it in layers on flat porcelain or glass plates, at
the temperature of 100° Fahr., remove the dry salt in flakes, and keep it
in a stoppered bottle. Solubility, 2 in 1.——_Test._ Taste bitter as well
as chalybeate. When burned with exposure to air, it leaves a residue
(oxide of iron) which yields nothing to water. 50 gr., dissolved in an
ounce of water, and treated with a slight excess of ammonia, gives a white
precipitate (quinia) which, when collected on a filter and dried, weighs 8
gr. The precipitate is entirely soluble in pure ether, indicating absence
of quinidia and cinchonia. When burned it leaves no residue. When
dissolved by the aid of an acid it forms a solution which, after
decolorisation by a little purified animal charcoal, turns the plane of
polarisation strongly to the left (cinchona turns it to the
right).——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. as a tonic, three times a day, in solution or
in pill.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Triturate sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., with distilled water,
6 fl. oz., and having added sufficient diluted sulphuric acid to dissolve
it, cautiously pour into the solution water of ammonia with constant
stirring, until in slight excess. Wash the precipitated quinine on a
filter, and having added solution of citrate of iron, 10 fl. oz., keep the
whole at a temperature of 120° by means of a water bath, and stir
constantly until the alkaloid is dissolved. Lastly, evaporate the solution
to the consistence of a syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that,
on drying, the salt may be obtained in scales.——_Dose_, 2 gr. to 5 gr.
=Quinine and Iron, I′odide of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM, L. _Prep._
From protiodide of iron, 2 parts; hydriodate of quinine, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 12 parts; heat them together, and either evaporate to dryness or
crystallise by refrigeration. A powder, or crystalline scales.
=Quinine and Iron, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ FERROSULPHATE OF QUININE; QUINÆ
FERRO-SULPHAS, QUINÆ ET FERRI SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ From solutions of the
sulphates of iron and quinine, in atomic proportions, mixed whilst hot,
and the crystals which form as the liquid cools carefully dried and
preserved from the air.
QUININE AND MERCURY. See MERCURIC AND QUININE CHLORIDE.
=QUINOA.= The seed of this plant (a species of _Chenopodium_) is largely
consumed by the people who dwell in the elevated regions of Chili and
Peru, in which countries it is found growing at a height of some 13,000
feet above the sea-level. Mr Johnston says there are two varieties of it,
a sweet and a bitter one. It is a highly nutritious cereal, resembling
ointment in properties.
According to Voelker, quinoa has the following composition:
Quinoa seeds dried Quinoa
at 212° F. flour.
Nitrogenous matter 22·86 19
Starch 56·80 60
Fatty matter 5·74 5
Vegetable fibre 9·53 ——
Ash 5·05 ——
Water —— 16