To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is merely necessary to preserve

them from damp or moisture. In the shops, small articles in steel are,

commonly, either varnished or enclosed in quick-lime finely pulverised;

large articles are generally protected with a coating of plumbago, or of

boiled oil, or some cheap varnish, applied to them, previously gently

heated. Surgical instruments are frequently slightly smeared with a little

strong mercurial ointment, with the same intention.

Spots of rust may be removed from the surface of polished iron or steel by

rubbing them with a little tripoli or very fine emery made into a paste

with sweet oil; or, chemically, by a mixture of polisher’s putty-powder

with a little oxalic acid, applied with water. When the last is employed,

the articles should be afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then wiped

dry, and finished off with a warm and dry rubber, in order to remove every

trace of acid.

=RUTHENIC ACID.= _Syn._ RUTHENIC ANHYDRIDE (RuO_{3}). This may be procured

by heating any of the preceding oxides with potassic nitrate. Ruthenic

acid is insoluble in water.

=Ruthenic Sesquioxide= (Ru_{2}O_{3}); occurs in the anhydrous form when

the metal is ignited in a current of air. It is the most stable of the

basic oxides of the metal. Alkalies fail to dissolve it. With acids it

forms soluble salts of a yellow colour; when, to a solution of these, an

alkali is added, a bulky blackish-brown precipitate of the hydrated oxide,

having the composition Ru_{2}O_{3},8H_{2}O, is thrown down.

There are three chlorides of ruthenium:——RuCl_{2}; RuCl_{3}; and RuCl_{4}.

=RUTHEN′IUM.= (Ru. = 104·2.) A metal discovered by Claus, associated with

iridium, in the residue from crude platinum, which is insoluble in aqua

regia. It forms small angular masses, with a metallic lustre; is very

brittle and infusible; resists the action of acids, but readily oxidises

when heated in the air. Sp. gr. 11 to 11·4.

In Fremy’s process for separating osmium from the residues of platinum

ore, ruthenium occurs in a dioxide. By heating this dioxide in a current

of oxygen, the metal may be obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey

colour.

With oxygen, ruthenium forms four compounds:——RuO; Ru_{2}O_{3}; RuO_{2};

and RuO_{3}.

=Ruthenium Trichloride= (RuCl_{3}), which is the most important of the

chlorides, may be procured by dissolving the sesquioxide in hydrochloric

acid. The solution being evaporated, the trichloride occurs as a

greenish-blue deliquescent mass, which is soluble in alcohol.

_Tests._ In solutions of the trichloride, hydrogen sulphide gives a brown

precipitate of ruthenic sesquisulphide, the supernatant liquid being of a

bright blue colour. This reaction is a very delicate as well as a very

characteristic one.

Metallic zinc reduces the yellow trichloride to the blue dichloride, the

metal being afterwards precipitated as a black powder. Plumbic acetate

gives a purplish-red precipitate, mercuric cyanide a blue one, the

supernatant liquid being also blue. The caustic and carbonated alkalies

throw down a black precipitate of sesquioxide of ruthenium, which is

insoluble in excess of the precipitant. If the salts of ruthenium are

boiled with sodic formiate or oxalate the solution becomes colourless, but

no precipitate of reduced metal takes place.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.——Transverse section of testa, &c. × 108.

FIG. 2.——Coats _in situ_ from without, × 170. _a_, External; _b_, Middle;

_c_, Internal coat; _d_, Starch grains, × 108.]

=RYE.= _Syn._ SECALE, L. The seed of _Secale cereale_, a gramineous

plant, the native country of which is undetermined. It is a more certain

crop and requires less culture and manure than wheat, and is hence largely

cultivated in Germany, Russia, and in the northern parts of Europe, where

it is extensively employed for bread. When roasted it is occasionally used

as a substitute for coffee. It furnishes an excellent malt for the

distillation of spirit, and is much used in the making of Hollands.

Rye bread is very likely to cause diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to

partake of it. By continued use, however, this inconvenience disappears.

Rye bread is acid and dark in colour. It is about equal in nutritive power

to wheat. It is less abundant than wheat in fibrin, but richer in casein

and albumen.

The foregoing plate represents the microscopic appearance of rye.

Sommer recommends the microscopic examination of rye flour to be conducted

as follows:——The flour is placed on a glass slide, and moistened with

water; a single drop of oil of vitriol is added, and a small disc is laid

upon it. If, now, it be viewed with a magnifying power of 200, the starch

grains of wheat and rye are seen to dissolve in a uniform manner, but the

grains of barley starch, after losing their external coat, break up into a

number of polyhedrons before their solution is completed.

=Rye, Spurred.= See ERGOT.

=SABADIL′LA.= _Syn._ CEBADILLA, CEVADILLA, SABADILLA (B. P., Ph. E.), L.

The dried fruit (_Asagræa officinalis_). A drastic and dangerous

cathartic, occasionally used in tapeworm; and, externally, to destroy

pediculi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp has been denuded or

ulcerated, it has sometimes caused death. It is now used chiefly as a

source of VERATRINE.

=SA′BLE.= The _Mustella Zibellina_ (Linn.), a small quadruped of the

martin-cat family, found in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable for its

fine quality and rich colour, and for the hairs turning with equal ease in

every direction. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., dressed, painted, and

lustred, are sold under the name of COMMON or MOCK SABLE.

=SABOTIÈRE.= [Fr.] An apparatus of peculiar construction, employed by the

French confectioners for making ices. It consists of a pail to contain a

freezing mixture, and an inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may be

used with a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or any other freezing

mixture. The pail and cream vessels being loaded, and closely covered, an

alternate rotatory motion is given to the apparatus by means of the

handle, for 10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occasionally scrape down

the frozen portion of the cream from the sides, by means of a wooden

spoon. See ICES and REFRIGERATION.

=SACCHAR′IC ACID.= _Syn._ OXALHYDRIC ACID†. A compound, resulting from

the action of dilate nitric acid on sugar.

=SAC′CHARINE.= The technical name of the uncrystallisable sugar found in

malt-wort.

=SACCHARINE FERMENTATION.= This occurs during the germination and

kiln-drying of grain in the operation of malting, and in the mashing of

malt in brewing. The sweetening of bread during its exposure to heat in

the oven is also included under this head by many writers.

The substance which most powerfully excites the sugar fermentation was

first shown by Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle to which they

have given the name of ‘DIASTASE,’ This is always present in good malt,

and possesses the singular property of converting STARCH successively into

gum (dextrin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging between 149° and 168°

Fahr. During the action of this substance on starch it is itself

decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation ceases it is found to have

entirely disappeared. It is the presence of diastase in malt which alone

converts the starch of the grain into sugar during the operation of

mashing with hot water; and hence the absolute necessity of employing

water at the proper temperature, as on this depends the strength and

sweetness of the wort, and consequently its fitness for undergoing the

vinous fermentation, and for making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten

also possess the property of exciting the saccharine fermentation, but in

a considerably inferior degree to diastase.

The sugar formed during the germination of seeds containing starch results

from the action of diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre

(lignin), which has a similar constitution, is developed, forming the

skeleton of the young plant. (Liebig.) See BREWING, DIASTASE, DEXTRIN, &c.

=SACCHAROM′ETER.= An instrument similar in principle to the common spirit

hydrometer, but so weighted and graduated as to adapt it for the

indication of the richness of malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine,

expressed in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity over that of

water, the last being taken at 1000. See BREWING, SYRUP, WORT, &c.

=SACH′ET.= _Syn._ SACCULUS, L. Sachets (SACCULI) are little bags

containing dry substances, used for the external medication of parts, or

for communicating agreeable perfumes to wearing apparel, drawers,

furniture, &c. Those belonging to perfumery are commonly filled with

mixtures of fragrant vegetable substances, reduced to coarse powder, and

differ from those employed for _pot pourri_ chiefly in being used in the

dry state. Sacculi are now seldom employed in this country in legitimate

medicine. See POWDERS (Scented), &c.

=Sachet, Ammoniacal.= _Syn._ SACCULUS AMMONIACALIS. _Prep._ Equal parts of

sal ammoniac and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled between cotton

wadding, which is to be quilted in muslin.

=Sachet, Anodyne.= (Quincy.) _Syn._ SACCULUS ANODYNUS. _Prep._ Chamomiles,

1 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; lavender flower, 1/2 oz.; henbane seed, 1 dr.;

opium, 1 dr. To be dipped in hot spirits.

=Sachet, Anti-phthisic.= _Syn._ SACCULUS ANTI-PHTHISICUS, L. _Prep._

Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz., in strong decoction of fresh rue, 1/2 pint; next

fold a piece of soft muslin in eight folds large enough to cover the chest

and part of the stomach; steep this in the decoction, and dry it in the

shade; lastly, place in a small bag, one side of which is formed of

scarlet silk or wool, and the other, intended to be worn next the skin, of

the finest net or gauze. A celebrated domestic remedy for consumption and

asthma. It is intended to be constantly worn on the chest.

=Sachet, Resolv′ent.= _Syn._ MELTING BAG; SACCULUS RESOLVENS, L. _Prep._

1. (Dr Breslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; dry,

and reduce each separately to fine powder; mix them, and enclose 1/2 oz.

to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small bag of linen or silk. Used as a

resolvent to indolent tumours, especially goitres and scrofulous

indurations. It should be worn on the part night and day for some time.

The part next the skin should be well pricked with a needle, and the

powder shaken up and readjusted every 2 or 3 days; and it should be

renewed about once a fortnight.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; burnt sponge, 4

parts; fine sawdust, 5 parts; as before.

=Sachet, Sponge.= _Syn._ SACCULUS SPONGII, COLLIER DE MORAND. _Prep._

Muriate of ammonia, chloride of sodium, burnt sponge, of each 1 oz.; mix,

sprinkle the powder on a piece of cotton wool, and quilt between muslin,

in the form of a cravat. To be worn constantly in goitre or bronchocele,

renewing it every month.

=Sachet, Stomachic.= (Fuller.) _Syn._ SACCULUS. _Prep._ Mint, 4 drm.;

wormwood, thyme, red roses, each 2 drm.; balastines, angelica root,

caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, cloves, of each 1 drm. Coarsely powder the

ingredients, and put them into a bag, to be moistened with hot red wine

when applied for flatulence.

=SACK.= (From SEC, Fr., dry.) A wine used by our ancestors, supposed by

some to have been Rhenish or Canary; but, with more probability, by

others, to have been dry mountain——vin d’Espagne; vin sec——(Howell, ‘Fr.

and Eng. Dict.,’ 1650). Falstaff[140] calls it ‘sherris sack’ (sherry

sack), from Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of sack (wine)

is made. (Blount.) At a later period the term came to be used as a

general name for all sweet wines.

[Footnote 140: In Shakespeare’s day sack was occasionally adulterated with

lime, as we learn from Falstaff’s speech to the Drawer: “You rogue,

there’s lime in this sack.”]

=SAF′FLOWER.= _Syn._ BASTARD SAFFRON, DYER’S S.; CARTHAMUS, L. The florets

of _Carthamus tinctorius_, a plant cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the

Levant. It contains two colouring principles——the one yellow, and the

other red. The first is removed by water, and is rejected. The second is

easily dissolved out by weak solutions of the carbonated alkalies, and is

again precipitated on the addition of an acid. This property is taken

advantage of in the manufacture of rouge, and in dyeing silk and cotton.

The most lively tints of cherry, flame, flesh, orange-red, poppy, and rose

colour, are imparted to silk by the following process, modified to suit

the particular shade required:——The safflower (previously deprived of its

yellow colouring matter by water) is exhausted with water containing

either carbonate of soda or of potassa, in the proportion of about 5% of

the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on; the resulting liquid is

next treated with pure lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich

red colour; the silk is then introduced and turned about as long as it is

perceived to take up colour, a little more lemon juice being added as may

appear necessary; for deep shades this is repeated with one or more fresh

baths, the silk being dried and rinsed between each immersion; it is,

lastly, brightened by turning it for a few minutes through a bath of warm

water, to which a little lemon juice has been previously added. For flame

colour the silk should receive a slight shade with annotta before putting

it into the safflower bath. For the deeper shades, when expense is an

object, a little archil is commonly added to the first and second bath.

See CATHARMIN.

=SAF′FRON.= The prepared stigmata or stigmas of the _Crocus sativus_, or

saffron crocus. There are two principal varieties known in commerce:——

1. (SAFFRON, HAY’S.; CROCUS IN FŒNO, C. HISPANIOLUS, CROCISTIGMATA;

CROCUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) This consisted of the stigmas, with part

of the styles, carefully picked from the other parts of the flowers, and

then dried on paper by a very gentle heat, generally in a portable oven

constructed for the purpose.

2. (CAKE SAFFRON; CROCUS IN PLACENTÂ.) This, professedly, merely varies

from the last, it being compressed into a cake after it has become

softened by the fire, and being then dried in that condition. The ‘cake

saffron’ of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not entirely, composed of

safflower made into a paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled out on

paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or 10 broad, and about 1/8th

of an inch thick, and then dried. “I can detect neither saffron nor

marigold in them.” (Dr Pereira.)

_Pur._ Saffron, of all the articles of commerce, except French brandy, is,

perhaps, the one most largely and constantly adulterated. Abroad it is

frequently mixed with safflower, and in England with ‘prepared marigolds,’

or ‘French (mock) saffron.’ These frauds may be detected by the

inferiority of the colour, and by soaking the leaves in water, when the

stigmas of the _Crocus sativus_ may be readily distinguished from the

florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds. Winckler and Grüner

proposed to detect these substances by means of a solution of nitrate of

silver or of sesquichloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron is not

altered by those reagents, but that of either of the above-mentioned

adulterants is rendered opaque, and is at length precipitated. “It

consists of tripartite filaments, of an orange-red colour, with the small

filaments towards the apex dilated.” (Ph. E.) In the wholesale drug trade

prepared marigolds are not only employed to mix with genuine saffron, but

are extensively sold to the country dealers for that purpose. Old and dry

saffron is ‘freshened up’ by rubbing it between the hands slightly oiled,

and then repicking it.

The late Mr D. Hanbury, F.R.S., found that the article known in commerce

as alicante saffron was largely sophisticated with carbonate of lime,

which he says had been made to adhere to the thread-like saffron without

in the least altering its general appearance. To ascertain the amount of

earthy matter thus fraudulently added, he subjected several specimens of

saffron to incineration, each having in the first instance been dried in

warm air until it caused it to lose its weight. The result indicated that

while good Valentia saffron yields from 4 to 6 per cent. of ash, the

alicante furnishes from 12 to 28 per cent. The method of taking a sample

of saffron for earthy adulteration which Mr Hanbury recommends is

this:——Place in a watch glass a small quantity (say 1 grain) of the

saffron, and drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of water; lightly touch the

saffron with the tip of the finger, so as to cause the water to wet it. If

the drug is free from earthy matter, a clear bright-yellow solution will

be immediately obtained; if adulterated, a white powder will instantly

separate, causing the water to appear turbid; and if a drop of

hydrochloric acid be now added, a brisk effervescence will take place.

Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost always contains a few of the pale

yellow stamens, accidentally gathered; but the pollen from them which is

detached when the drug is wetted, but which is minute in quantity, is

easily distinguished from carbonate of lime, by not dissolving when

hydrochloric acid is added. Moreover, the form of pollen grains may be

easily recognised under the microscope.

Mr Hanbury furthermore states that an effectual method of examination is

to scatter a very small pinch of saffron on the surface of a glass of warm

water. The stigma of the saffron-crocus immediately expands, and exhibits

a form so characteristic that it cannot be confounded with the flowerets

of safflower, marigold, or arnica, or with the stamens of crocus

itself.[141]

[Footnote 141: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

_Prop., &c._ Saffron is anodyne, cordial, emmenagogue, and exhilarant; but

is now seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in medicine. Amongst cooks,

confectioners, and liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its fine

colour.

=Saffron, Mead′ow.= See COLCHICUM.

=SAGAPE′NUM.= This substance is described in the London Pharmacopœia as a

gum resin, the production of an uncertain species of _Ferula_. The mass of

the sagapenum sold to the retail trader is, however, a factitious article,

formed by softening a mixture of assafœtida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15

parts, over a water or steam bath, and then stirring in about 1/17th of

their weight of oil of turpentine, with a little oil of juniper. This

mixture is labelled ‘Gum Sagapeni Opt.’ an inferior sort being made by

adding sundry portions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to the

above.

PREPARED SAGAPENUM (SAGAPENUM PRÆPARATUM——Ph. L.) is ordered to be

prepared in the same manner as ‘prepared ammoniacum.’

_Obs._ Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the fetid gum resins.——_Dose_, 5

to 15 gr., made into pills; as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.

=SA′GO.= _Syn._ SAGO (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The fæcula (starch) from the

stem of _Sagus lœvis_, _S. Rumphii_, and, perhaps, of other species of

palms.” (Ph. L.) It forms the principal portion of the pith of the Sago

palms, the Gommuti palm, the Talipot palm, and other allied trees. Its

properties and uses, for the most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It

is used for making puddings, jellies, &c.

Under the microscope the starch-grains of sago present an elongated form,

rounded at the larger ends, and compressed at the smaller. They differ

altogether in appearance from potato starch.

The pilum of the sago starch-grains is a point, or, more frequently, a

crop, slit, or star, and is seated at the smaller end, whilst in the

marsanta arrow-root the pilum is situated at the larger end. Rings are

more or less clearly seen.

=Sa′go, To Prepare.= Wash an ounce of pearl sago in cold water; then boil

it very gently in a pint of fresh water, stirring it frequently till

dissolved. It may be flavoured with wine, spices, and sugar. For children,

and for consumptive and debilitated persons, it will be found advantageous

to substitute milk for water. The common sago being in larger grains, more

time is required to dissolve it, and it is usually steeped for some hours

before boiling it.

=Sa′go Milk.= (See _above_.)

[Illustration: Sago of commerce, magnified 147 times.]

=Sa′go Posset.= (For invalids.) Macerate a table-spoonful of sago in a

pint of water for two hours on the hob of a stove, then boil for 15

minutes, assiduously stirring. Add sugar, with an aromatic, such as ginger

or nutmeg, and a table-spoonful or more of white wine. If white wine be

not permitted flavour with lemon juice.

=ST VITUS’ DANCE.= See CHOREA.

=SAL.= [L.] Salt. A word much used in compound names, handed down to us

from the old chemists.

=Sal Absin′thii.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Sal Acetosel′læ.= Binoxalate and quadroxalate of potassium.

=Sal Alem′broth.= Ammoniated mercury (white precipitate).

=Sal Ammo′′niac.= Chloride of ammonium.

=Sal de Duobus.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Diure′ticus.= Acetate of potassium.

=Sal Enix′um.= Crude bisulphate of potassium.

=Sal Gem′mæ.= Rock or fossil salt (chloride of sodium).

=Sal Mar′tis.= Sulphate of iron.

=Sal Mirab′ile.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Sal Perla′tum.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Sal Polycrest′us.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Prunel′la.= _Syn._ SORE-THROAT SALT, CRYSTAL MINERAL; POTASSÆ NITRAS

FUSA, NITRUM TABULATUM, SAL PRUNELLÆ, L. From nitre fused in a Hessian

crucible, and poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulds, to cool. Its

usual form and size is that of an ordinary musket bullet, with the tail,

in which state it is known in the drug trade as ‘sal prunellæ globosum.’

When in cakes it is often called ‘sal p. in placentis,’ or ‘s. p.

tabulatum.’ A small portion allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, the

saliva being slowly swallowed, often removes incipient inflammatory sore

throat.

=Sal Saturn′i.= Sugar of lead (neutral acetate of lead).

=Sal Seignette′.= Rochelle salt (tartrate of potassium and sodium).

=Sal Volat′ile.= Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The name is commonly used as

an abbreviation of aromatic spirit of ammonia. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).

=SAL′ADS= are generally made of esculent vegetables, either singly or

mixed, chosen according to taste or time of year, and ‘dressed’ with oil,

vinegar, and salt, and sometimes also with mustard and other condiments.

Sliced boiled egg is a common addition.

Sydney Smith’s recipe for salad dressing:——

To make this condiment your poet begs

The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled eggs;

Two boiled potatoes passed through kitchen-sieve

Smoothness and softness to the salad give;

Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl,

And, half suspected, animate the whole;

Of mordant mustard add a single spoon

(Distrust the condiment that bites too soon);

But deem it not, thou man of taste, a fault

To add a double quantity of salt;

And, lastly, o’er the flavoured compound toss

A magic soupçon of anchovy sauce.

Oh! green and glorious! Oh! herbaceous treat!

’Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat;

Back to the world he’d turn his fleeting soul,

And plunge his finger in the salad bowl;

Serenely full the epicure would say,

“Fate cannot harm me, I have dined today.”[142]

[Footnote 142: The poet has inadvertently ignored the oil and vinegar.]

Another recipe for salad dressing:——Yolk of two eggs; table salt, 1/4 oz.;

salad oil, 4 oz.; mustard, 1/2 oz.; best vinegar, 6 oz.; isinglass, 1 dr.;

soluble cayenne, 10 grams. (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Cold meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, with some cucumber or celery,

and a little onion or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some pickles,

make a very relishing salad. Fish are also employed in the same manner.

Mr C. J. Robinson, writing to ‘Nature’[143] on our salad herbs,

says:——“There is, perhaps, no country in the world so rich as England in

native materials for salad making, and none in which ignorance and

prejudice have more restricted their employment. At every season of the

year the peasant may cull from the field and hedgerow wholesome herbs

which would impart a pleasant variety to his monotonous meal, and save his

store of potatoes from premature exhaustion. Besides there can be no

question that in hot seasons a judicious admixture of fresh green food is

as salutary as it is agreeable. Much has been said lately about the

advantage which the labouring man would derive from an accurate

acquaintance with the various forms of fungus; he has been gravely told

that the _Fistulina hepatica_ is an admirable substitute for beef-steak,

the _Agaricus gambosus_ for the equally unknown veal cutlet.

[Footnote 143: August 18th, 1870.]

“But deep-seated suspicion is not easily eradicated, and there will always

be a certain amount of hazard in dealing with a class of products in which

the distinctions between noxious and innocuous are not very clearly

marked.

“There is not this difficulty with regard to salad herbs, and we conceive

that the diffusion of a little knowledge as to their properties and value

would be an unmixed benefit to our rural population.

“The first place must be assigned on the score of antiquity to the sorrel

plant (_Rumex acetosa_), which in some districts still preserves the name

of ‘green sauce,’ assigned to it in early times, when it formed almost the

only dinner vegetable.

“Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more delicate in flavour than that of

the wood-sorrel (_Oxalis acetosella_), which, however, is used for table

purposes in France and Germany. Chervil (_Anthriscus cerefolium_) is often

found in a wild state, and is an admirable addition to the salad bowl; and

it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the virtues of celery (_Apium

graveolens_) when improved by cultivation.”

John Ray, writing in 1663, says that “the Italians use several herbs for

sallets, which are not yet, or have not been used lately, but in England,

viz. _Selleri_, which is nothing else but the sweet smallage; the young

shoots whereof, with a little of the head of the root, cut off, they eat

raw with oil and pepper,” and to this we may add that the alisander

(_Smyrnium olusattrum_) is no bad substitute for its better-known

congener. The dandelion, which in France is blanched for the purpose,

affords that _amarie aliquid_ which the professed salad maker finds in the

leaves of the endive, and the same essential ingredient may be supplied by

the avens (_Geum urbanum_), the bladder campion (_Silene inflata_), and

the tender shoots of the wild hop. Most people are familiar with the

properties of the watercress (_Nasturtium officinale_), garlic hedge

mustard (_Erysimum aliaria_), but it may not be generally known that the

common shepherd’s purse (_Eupsulla Bursa-pastoris_) and the lady’s-smock

(_Cardamine pratensis_) are pleasant additions, whose merits have long

been recognised by our foreign neighbours. In fact, there is scarcely a

herb that grows which has not some culinary virtue in a French peasant’s

eyes. Out of the blanched shoots of the wild chicory (_Cichorium Intybus_)

he forms the well-known _barbe de capucius_, and dignifies with the title

of _Salade de chamoine_ our own neglected corn-salad (_Fedia olitaria_).

It would be very easy to extend the dimensions of our list of native salad

herbs, for there are, perhaps, some palates to which the strong flavours

of the chives (_Allium schœnoprasum_) and stonecrop (_Sedum reflexum_) may

commend themselves; but enough has been said to show that nature has not

dealt niggardly with us, and that only knowledge is needful to make the

riches she offers available.

If the British peasant can be taught to discover hidden virtues in these

plants, with whose outward forms he has had life-long familiarity, we do

not despair of his acquiring the one secret of salad-making, viz. the

judicious employment of oil, so as to correct the acrid juices of the

plants, and yet preserve their several flavours unimpaired.

=Salad, Let′tuce.= _Prep._ Take two large lettuces, remove the faded

leaves and the coarser green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull each

leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water, cut it lengthways, and then

into four or ten pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle over them,

with your fingers, 1 small teaspoonful of salt, 1/2 do. of pepper, 3 do.

of salad oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar; then with the

spoon and fork turn the salad lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed;

the less it is handled the better. A teaspoonful each of chopped chervil

and tarragon is an immense improvement.

_Obs._ The above seasoning is said to be enough for 1/4 lb. of lettuce.

According to Soyer, it is “such as the Italian count used to make some

years since, by which he made a fortune in dressing salads for the tables

of the aristocracy.” The above may be varied by the addition of 2 eggs,

boiled hard, and sliced, a little eschalot, or a few chives or young

onions. Several other salad herbs, especially endive, water-cresses, and

mustard-and-cress, may be ‘dressed’ in the same manner; always remembering

that the excellence of a salad depends chiefly on the vegetables which

compose them being recently gathered and carefully cleansed.

To improve the appearance of the above and other salads, when on the table

or sideboard, before being used, the gay flower of the nasturtium or

marigold, with a little sliced beet-root or radish, and sliced cucumber,

may be tastefully intermixed with them.

=Salad, Lobs′ter.= _Prep._ (Soyer.) “Have the bowl half filled with any

kind of salad herb you like, as endive, lettuce, &c.; then break a lobster

in two, open the tail, extract the meat in one piece, break the claws, cut

the meat of both in small slices, about a quarter of an inch thick, and

arrange these tastefully on the salad; next take out all the soft part

from the belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teaspoonful of salt, half do. of

pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do. of oil; stir these well together, and

pour the mixture on the salad; lastly, cover it with 2 hard eggs, cut into

slices, and a few slices of cucumber.” “To vary this, a few capers and

some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred lightly, and then served

either with or without some salad sauce. If for a dinner ornament it with

some flowers of the nasturtium and marigold.”

=SAL′EP.= _Syn._ SALOP, SALOOP. The tuberous roots of _Orchis mascula_,

and other allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards reduced to coarse

powder. That imported from Persia and Asia Minor occurs in small oval

grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often semitranslucent, with a faint,

peculiar smell, and a taste somewhat resembling gum tragacanth. It

consists, chiefly, of bassorin and starch, is very nutritious, and is

reputed aphrodisiac. It is employed in the same way as sago. A decoction

of about 1 oz. of this substance in a pint of water was formerly sold at

street-stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, flavoured with milk and

coarse brown sugar or treacle, was also sold in the same way, and under

the same name.

FRENCH SALEP is prepared from the potato. Dr Ure says that the _Orchis

mascula_ of our own country, properly treated, would afford an article of

salep equal to the Turkey, and at a vastly lower price.

=SAL′ICIN.= C_{13}H_{18}O_{7}. A white, crystalline substance discovered

by Le Roux and Buchner in the bark and leaves of several species of

_Salix_ and _Populus_. It occurs most abundantly in the white willow

(_Salix alba_) and the aspen (_Salix helix_), but is also found in all the

bitter poplars and willows. From willow bark which is fresh, and rich in

salicin, it may be obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold

aqueous infusion.

_Prep._ 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated coction with water,

concentrate the mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge until the

liquid is nearly decoloured; filter, remove the dissolved oxide of lead,

first by sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of barium; filter,

and evaporate, that crystals may form; the crystals must be purified by

re-solution and recrystallisation.

2. As No 1, but using a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, to free the

solution from lead.

3. (P. Codex.) To a strong filtered decoction of willow bark add milk of

lime, to throw down the colour; filter, evaporate the liquor to a syrupy

consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. ·847), to separate the gummy matter,

filter, distil off the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and set it aside in

a cool place to crystallise; the crystals are purified by solution in

boiling water, agitation with a little animal charcoal, and

recrystallisation.

_Prop., &c._ Salicin forms white, silky needles and plates; it is

intensely bitter; inodorous; neutral; non-basic; fuses at 230° Fahr., with

decomposition; burns with a bright flame; is soluble in 5-1/2 parts of

water at 60°, and in much less at 212°; dissolves readily in alcohol, but

is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like sulphate of quinine, but less

liable to irritate the stomach. It is given in indigestion and

intermittent diseases, in from 5- to 10-gr. doses.

Salicin has lately been used with considerable advantage in acute

rheumatism.

Dr Maclagan[144] states that he found when administered in doses of 10 gr.

to 1/2 dr., every 2 to 4 hours, the pain and fever ceased in the course of

48 hours. The results are stated to have been quite as favorable as those

following the employment of salicylic acid. It was found to effect with

certainty a great reduction in the bodily temperature.

[Footnote 144: ‘Lancet,’ March 4th and 11th, 1876.]

_Pur. & Tests._——1. It is entirely soluble in water and rectified

spirit.——2. When strongly heated it is wholly dissipated, and, if kindled,

burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky charcoal.——3. Its solution is

absolutely neutral to test-paper.——4. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes

it to agglutinate into resin-like lumps, with the accession of an intense

blood-red colour.——5. When its aqueous solution is mixed with some

hydrochloric acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, and the mixture is boiled for

a short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid, and deposits SALIRETIN,

under the form of a granular crystalline precipitate. This is

characteristic.——6. No reagent deposits salicin without decomposition. See

SALICYLIC and SALICYLOUS ACIDS.

=SAL′ICYL.= C_{7}H_{4}O. A compound radical, forming the basis of the

so-called SALICYL-COMPOUNDS, or SALICYL-SERIES. It is known only in

combination. The volatile oil of meadow-sweet is a natural hydride of

salicyl, a substance which, when artificially prepared, is better known

under the name of SALICYLOUS ACID. (See _below_.)

=SALICYL′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3}. A peculiar volatile,

crystallisable acid, discovered by Piria. It is obtained by fusing

salicylous acid with solid hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until the

mixture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treating a solution of the

residuum with hydrochloric acid, in slight excess to separate the potassa;

the salicylic acid separates in crystals, which are purified by solution

in hot water. It may also be obtained from the oil of partridge-berry

(_Gaultheria procumbens_), by acting on it with a strong and hot solution

of potassa, and afterwards separating the acid as before. This oil is

methylo-salicylic ether, or salicylate of methyl. In its general

properties, salicylic acid closely resembles benzoic acid.

The greater part, if not the whole, of the salicylic acid of commerce is

now obtained by a method invented by Professor Kolbe. This process, which

consists in acting on sodium carbolate with carbonic acid, is thus

described in the ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 3rd series, v, 445.[145] In a strong

crude soda liquor of known strength is dissolved a sufficiency of

previously melted crystals of carbolic acid to saturate the soda.

[Footnote 145: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, v, 421.]

The solution is then evaporated in an iron capsule, and by means of

stirring brought to a dry powder. The sodium carbolate so obtained is

gradually heated in a retort to a temperature of from 220° to 250° C., in

a continuous current of dry carbonic anhydride.

The reaction is ended when at the above-mentioned temperature no more

carbolic acid passes over. It might have been expected that, the reaction

going forward in this manner, a molecule of carbonic anhydride would have

been introduced into the molecule of sodium carbonate, and thus a molecule

of sodium salicylate be formed.

This, however, is not the case, only half the sodium carbolate being

converted into salicylate. The reaction proceeds according to the

following equation:——

2NaC_{6}H_{5}O + CO_{2} = Na_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3} + HC_{6}H_{5}O.

The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water and decomposed by

hydrochloric acid. Salicylic acid then separates in crystalline films and

may be purified by recrystallisation out of its solution in hot water.

_Props._——Salicylic acid is a white solid which forms acicular crystals;

it melts at from 155°-156° C.; it dissolves in about 1800 parts of cold

water, but is more soluble in boiling water as well as in alcohol and in

ether. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid mixed with one of a ferric

salt produces a deep violet colour.

Professor Kolbe surmised that from the constitution of salicylic acid, as

revealed by his synthetical process, that it would split up with heat into

carbonic anhydrate and carbolic acid, and hence that it might be employed

as an antiseptic and antiputrefactive agent. He quotes the following

experiments as confirmatory of his views on this point:——Mustard meal,

which, in a few minutes after being mixed with warm water, gave off a

strong smell of mustard oil, formed with water a scentless mixture, when a

little salicylic acid had been previously added. No fermentation was set

up by yeast in a fermentation of grape sugar, to which salicylic acid had

been added; whilst in a sugar solution already in fermentation the action

stopped after the addition of some salicylic acid. The preservation

influence of this acid upon fresh meat is also recorded.

The following, among other experiments, in their results, illustrate the

physiological action of salicylic acid:——

Solution of amygdalin mixed with emulsion of sweet almonds developed no

smell of bitter almonds if some salicylic acid were added. Beer, to which

salicylic acid, in the proportion of 1 to 1000, was added, was thereby

prevented from being spoiled by fungoid growth.

Fresh pure cow’s milk, mixed with 0·04 per cent. of salicylic acid, and

allowed to stand in an open vessel at a temperature of 18° C., curdled

thirty-six hours later than a similar quantity of milk standing by the

side of it, but containing no salicylic acid. The milk remained of a good

flavour, the small quantity of salicylic acid present not being

perceptible to the palate.

Some fresh urine was divided into two portions, and placed in separate

vessels, after some salicylic acid had been added to one portion.

The urine containing the acid was on the third day still clear and free

from ammoniacal odour, whilst the other portion was far advanced in

putrefaction.

Professor Thiersch has investigated the antiseptic action of this acid,

specially in relation to surgery. He has found that as a powder, either

alone or mixed with starch, it destroys for a long time the fetid odour of

cancerous surfaces or uncleansed wounds, without setting up any

inflammatory symptoms. A solution of one part of salicylic acid, and three

parts of sodium phosphate in fifty parts of water, promotes the healing of

granulated surfaces.

According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic acid may be applied to the

following industrial purposes:——

If a concentrated aqueous solution of salicylic acid be applied to fresh

meat, and the meat be then placed in well-closed vessels, it will remain

perfectly fresh for a long period. This solution is also very useful in

the manufacture of sausages and such food. Butter containing a bitter

salicylic acid will remain fresh for months, even in the hottest weather.

The same acid prevents the moulding of preserved fruits. In the

manufacture of vinegar this acid is of great utility.

The addition of a little salicylic acid renders glue more tenacious. The

acid also prevents decomposition in gut and parchment during their

manufacture.

Skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if

steeped in a dilute solution of salicylic acid.

Weaver’s or bookbinder’s glue and other allied substances may be preserved

for a long period by treating them with a solution of this acid.

Albumen may be preserved by the same means.

This acid is a very delicate test reagent for iron.

The methyl ether and amyl ether of salicylic acid are used as perfumes.

The calcium salt on keeping and distilling with water yields a liquid

which has a strong odour of roses.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, contends that the antiseptic powers of

salicylic acid have been much overrated. He states that he had tried it

for the preservation of the syrups of marshmallow, raspberry juice, and

milk, and that it was a failure. Professor Salkowsky regards it as of less

value as an antiseptic than benzoic acid.

Dr Muter gives the following method for estimating the value of commercial

samples of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and similar organic

solutions:——A standard solution of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid

dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represents 1 mgm. of acid)

is prepared; the _indicator_ solution consists of a solution of pure

neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by

drop, to 50 c.c. of standard acid, just ceases to give any increase in

intensity of colour; 1 gram of the commercial sample is then dissolved in

1 litre of water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube; to this 1 c.c.

of ferric solution is added, and the colour observed after standing for

five minutes, some of the standard acid is also poured into another tube,

and made up to 50 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride

added. When the colours are alike the amount of pure acid present in the

sample is equal to the amount of pure acid added. All mineral acids should

be absent, even acetic acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence

of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces of these liquids are

dialysed for twelve hours in a pint of distilled water; if after that time

salicylic acid is still found to be present, the dialysis must be

continued for forty-eight hours. The amount present is determined in the

manner above stated.

=SALICYL′OUS ACID.= C_{7}H_{6}O_{2}. _Syn._ SALICYLOL, HYDROSALICYLIC

ACID†, HYDRIDE OF SALICYL, ARTIFICIAL OIL OF MEADOW-SWEET. A nearly

colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the

volatile oil of _Spiræa ulmaria_ (meadow-sweet), which, when pure,

entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as a product of the decomposition

of salicin.

_Prep._ The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed with a strong solution of caustic

potassa, and the yellow crystalline mass which separates on agitation is

purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper and recrystallisation

from alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of potassium) are then

decomposed by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil

separated from the water, and freed from moisture by careful distillation

from chloride of calcium.

_Prop., &c._ Salicylous acid is soluble in ether and alcohol, and slightly

so in water, to which it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the

characteristic property of striking a deep violet colour with the

sesquisalts of iron. It is distinguished from salicylic acid, which also

exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and odour.

=SALI′VA.= See MASTICATION.

=SALM′ON.= _Syn._ SALMO, L. The _Salmo Salar_ (Linn.), a well-known,

soft-finned abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary

of the larger rivers of the northern seas, which, during the breeding

season, it ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, against all

obstacles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn.

The salmon is an excellent and highly esteemed fish; but it is rich, oily,

and difficult of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the delicate or

dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or smoked it is only fitted for persons

of very strong stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as a great

delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition:——

Nitrogenous matter 16·1

Fat 5·5

Saline matter 1·4

Water 77·

———————

100·0

Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One weighing 10 lbs. will require

to be gently simmered for about an hour, reckoning from the time the water

commences boiling. For fish of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb.

may be allowed. See FISH, &c.

=SALOOP′.= Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured with milk and sugar. A

wholesome and useful drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See

SALEP.

=SALT.= _Syn._ SAL, L.; SEL, Fr. Salts may be regarded as acids in which

one or more atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true acids,

are replaced by a metal or other basic radical. This relationship between

acids and salts will be better understood by reference to the subjoined

list of acids and their corresponding potassium and ammonium salts:——

Acids. Salts.

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) —— KCl (Chloride of potassium).

” ” ” —— NH_{4}Cl (Chloride of ammonium).

HNO_{3} (Nitric acid) —— KNO_{3} (Nitrate of potassium).

” ” ” —— NH_{4}NO_{3} (Nitrate of ammonium).

H_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphuric acid) —— K{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of potassium).

” ” ” —— (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of

ammonium).

Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-called DOUBLE SALTS are,

according to one view, combinations of two salts of the same acid, but of

different basic radicles; thus, common alum is a compound of sulphate of

aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are a most important class of bodies, and their applications and

uses in the arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. See

NOMENCLATURE, &c.

=Salt of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF BARK, DRIED.

=Salt, Bitter Pur′ging.= Epsom salt.

=Salt, Cathar′tic.= Of GLAUBER, sulphate of sodium; ENGLISH or BITTER S.,

sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salt).

=Salt, Common.= _Syn._ CULINARY SALT. Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Diuret′ic.= Acetate of potassium.

=Salt, Ep′som.= Sulphate of magnesium.

=Salt, Feb′rifuge.= Chloride of potassium.

=Salt, Fu′′sible.= Phosphate of ammonium.

=Salt, Glauber’s.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Salt, Macqueer’s.= Binarseniate of potassium.

=Salt, Microcos′mic.= Phosphate of sodium and ammonium.

=Salt, Red.= Common salt wetted with an infusion of beet-root, or

cochineal, or tincture of red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed through

a sieve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also

gives a beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been proposed to colour

Epsom salt in this way, to distinguish it from oxalic acid.

=Salt, Rochelle.= Tartrate of potassium and sodium.

=Salt, Sea.= Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Sed′ative.= Boracic acid.

=Salt, Smelling.= See SALTS (_below_).

=Salt, Sore-throat.= Sal prunella.

=Salt, Taste′less.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Salt, Veg′etable.= Tartrate of potassium.

=Salt, Vol′atile.= Common carbonate of ammonium.

=Salt of Lem′ons.= _Syn._ SAL LIMONUM, L. Citric acid. That sold in the

shops for the removal of ink spots from linen is binoxalate or

quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed with one half its weight

of cream of tartar.

=Salt of Sor′rel.= Binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium.

=Salt of Steel.= Sulphate of iron.

=Salt of Tar′tar.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Salt of Vit′riol.= Sulphate of zinc.

=Salt of Wormwood.= Carbonate of potassium.

=SALT′ING.= PICKLING. _Syn_. This is an easy method of preserving

butcher’s meat, fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It is performed

in two ways:——

1. (DRY SALTING.) This, as practised in Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in

various large establishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rubbing

ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the meat,

until every crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, afterwards, sprinkling

some over it, and placing it on a board or in a trough, in such a manner

that the brine may drain off. On the small scale, in private families, a

mixture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1-1/2 or 2 oz., either with or

without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is commonly used for the

purpose, and imparts a fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces

are turned every day, or every other day, until sufficiently cured, a

little fresh salt being added as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is

packed at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or bay salt. This

method is that commonly adopted for sea stores.

2. (WET SALTING, or PICKLING IN BRINE.) When the meat is allowed to lie in

the liquor that runs from it (see _above_), or is at once plunged into

strong brine, it is said to be ‘pickled,’ or ‘wet salted.’ On the small

scale, this is most conveniently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with

salt, &c., as above, and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it into a

pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 oz. of

saltpetre in 1 gall. of water, either with or without the addition of 1/2

to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor gets weaker by use, and

should, therefore, be occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, at

the same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. Three to ten days,

depending on the size, is sufficiently long to keep meat in the brine.

When it is taken out it should be hung up to dry, after which it may be

packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be

desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, and brown

sugar improves the flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially flesh, are salted after

being killed, the better, as they then possess considerable absorbent

power, which they gradually lose by age. See PUTREFACTION, SCURVY,

SMOKING, &c.

=SALTPE′TRE.= Nitrate of potassium.

=SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral Waters.= AERATED, OR CARBONATE

WATERS. These require the aid of the powerful machine employed by

soda-water manufacturers, to charge the waters strongly with carbonic-acid

gas. The gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric acid, and is

forced by a pump into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is produced

by the mutual action of the ingredients introduced into the bottle of

water, which must be instantly closed; but this method is found

practically inconvenient, and is only adopted in the absence of proper

apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced is directed, in the French and

American pharmacopœias, in most cases, to be 5 times the volume of liquid.

For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters the water should be previously

deprived of the air it naturally contains, by boiling, and allowing it to

cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated-water machines, and of syphon

bottles for holding these waters when made. The names and addresses of

these makers may be found in any trade directory.

SIMPLE AERATED WATER. Carbonic-acid gas water. Water charged with five or

more volumes of carbonic-acid gas, as above.

ALKALINE AERATED WATERS. Aerated soda and potash waters should be made by

dissolving a drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of water, and

charging it strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The soda water of the shops

generally contains but little (or no) soda.

AERATED MAGNESIA WATER. This is made of various strengths.

MURRAY’S and DINNEFORD’S FLUID MAGNESIA may be thus made:——To a boiling

solution of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water add a

solution of 19 oz. of crystallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity

of water; boil the mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring constantly;

then set it aside to settle; pour off the liquid, and wash the precipitate

on a cotton or linen cloth, with warm water, till the latter passes

tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a gallon of water,

and force carbonic-acid gas into it under strong pressure, till a complete

solution is effected. The _Eau Magnésienne_ of the French codex is about a

third of this strength; and we have met with some prepared in this country

not much stronger.

CARBONATED LIME WATER. Carrara water. Lime water (prepared from lime made

by calcining Carrara marble) is supersaturated by strong pressure with

carbonic acid, so that the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is

redissolved. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. oz. of

water.

AERATED LITHIA WATER. This may be conveniently made from the fresh

precipitated carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed for

fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithic properties promise to be

useful.

SALINE CARBONATED WATERS.

The following afford approximate imitations of these waters. The earthy

salts, with the salts of iron, should be dissolved together in the

smallest quantity of water. The other ingredients to be dissolved in the

larger portion of the water, and the solution impregnated with the gas.

The first solution may be then added or be previously introduced into the

bottles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, are to be crystallised.

BADEN WATER. Chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 40 gr.;

perchloride of iron, 1/4 gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); chloride of

sodium, 30 gr.; sulphate of soda, 10 gr.; carbonate of soda, 1 gr.; water,

1 pint; carbonic-acid gas, 5 volumes.

CARLSBAD WATER. Chloride of calcium, 8 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron,

1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 gr.; carbonate of soda, 60 gr.; chloride of

sodium, 8 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

EGER. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; sulphate of soda, 4 scruples; chloride of

sodium, 10 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5 gr.;

carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be made without apparatus,

thus:——Bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; sulphate of

magnesia, 3 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry

bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.)

EMS. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of potash, 1 gr.; sulphate of

magnesia, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.;

carbonated water, a pint.

MARIENBAD. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr.;

sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; chloride of

calcium, 10 gr.; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50

gr.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; sulphate of

magnesia, 10 gr.; dissolve in a pint of water, add 25 gr. of dry

bisulphate of soda, and cork immediately.)

MARIENBAD PURGING SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 5 oz.; dried sulphate of

soda, 12 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 oz.; sulphate of magnesia,

dried, 2 oz.; dried bisulphate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Mix the salts,

previously dried, separately, and keep them carefully from the air.

PULLNA WATER. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.;

chloride of calcium, 15 gr.; chloride of magnesium (dry), a scruple;

chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; water,

slightly carbonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of the purgative

saline waters.

PULLNA WATER WITHOUT THE MACHINE. Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of

magnesia, 4 dr.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; chloride of sodium, a scruple;

dissolve in a pint of water; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of

soda, and close the bottle immediately.

SALTS FOR MAKING PULLNA WATER. Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; exsiccated

sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; dry

chloride of sodium, 2 dr.; dry tartaric acid, 3/4 oz. (or rather dry

bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).

SEIDLITZ WATER. This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a solution

of 2 dr. of sulphate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also made with

4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a pint of water.

SEIDLITZ POWDER. The common seidlitz powders do not resemble the water. A

closer imitation would be made by using effloresced sulphate of magnesia

instead of the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound will

be the following:——Effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; bicarbonate of

soda, 1/2 oz.; dry bisulphate of soda, 1/2 oz.; mix, and keep in a close

bottle.

SEIDSCHUTZ WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium,

nitrate of lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr.; sulphate of potash,

5 gr.; aerated water, 1 pint.

SELTZER WATER. Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, of each 4

gr.; dissolve these in a small quantity of water, and add it to a similar

solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2

gr. of phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of 1/4 gr. of sulphate

of iron; put the mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with

aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water sold is said to be nothing more

than simple carbonated water, containing a little chloride of sodium. An

imitation of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a stone Seltzer

bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric

acid in crystals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders are

sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

VICHY WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.;

sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; tincture of chloride

of iron, 2 drops; aerated water, a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of

bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, 1/5 gr. sulphate of

iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of

water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an effervescing water is

obtained.

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Longchamps, imitates Vichy water

by the following combination:——Bicarbonate of soda, 135 gr.; chloride of

sodium, 2-1/2 gr.; cryst. chloride of calcium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda,

11-1/2 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3-3/4 gr.; tartrate of iron and potash,

1/8 gr.; water, 2-1/10 pints (1 litre); carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5

litres). Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and add

the sulph. magnes. and then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water.

Charge now with the carbonic-acid gas under pressure.

VICHY SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.;

effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1

scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz.

(or dry bisulphate of soda); mix the powders, previously dried, and keep

them in a close bottle.

SALINE WATERS, &C., NOT CARBONATED.

SEA WATER. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; chloride of

calcium, 1/4 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 4

gr.; bromide of potassium, 2 gr.; water, a gallon. A common substitute for

sea water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common salt in a

gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept for the immediate

production of a good imitation of sea water:——Chloride of sodium (that

obtained from evaporating sea water, and not recrystallised, in

preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz.; dry chloride

of calcium, 4 oz.; dry chloride of magnesium, 16 oz.; iodide of potassium,

2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a

gallon of water.

BALARUC WATER. Chloride of sodium, 1 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.;

chloride of magnesium, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; bicarbonate of

soda, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.; water, a gallon. Chiefly used

for baths.

SULPHURETTED WATERS.

SIMPLE SULPHURETTED WATERS. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water

(previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed vessel)

till it ceases to be absorbed.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodium, 25

gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; simple

sulphuretted water, 2-1/2 oz.; water, slightly carbonated, 17-1/2 oz.

BARÈGES WATER. (Cauterets, Bagnères de Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur,

may be made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised

carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 1-1/2 gr.; water (freed

from air), a pint. A stronger solution for adding to baths is thus

made:——Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda,

and chloride of sodium, of each 2 oz.; water, 10 oz.; dissolve. To be

added to a common bath at the time of using.

NAPLES WATER. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 15 gr.; fluid magnesia, 1

oz.; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the

sulphuretted water into the bottle last.

HARROGATE WATER. Chloride of sodium, 100 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.;

chloride of magnesium, 6 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr.; water, 18-1/2

oz. Dissolve, and add simple sulphuretted water, 1-1/2 oz.

CHALYBEATE WATERS.

SIMPLE CHALYBEATE WATER. Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate

of iron, 1/2 gr.

AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4

gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint.

Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of

soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to

4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

BRIGHTON CHALYBEATE. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of

calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1

pint.

BUSSANG, FORGES, PROVINS, and other similar waters, may be imitated by

dissolving from 1/2 to 2/3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr.

of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of

sodium, in a pint of aerated water.

MONT D’OR WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2/3 gr.;

chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1/2 gr.; chloride of

calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PASSY WATER. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate

of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PYRMONT WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.;

chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron,

2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint.

VARIOUS AERATED MEDICINAL WATERS NOT RESEMBLING ANY NATURAL SPRING.

MIALHE’S AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.;

citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.

TROSSEAU’S MARTIAL AERATED WATER. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.;

artificial Seltzer water, a pint.

BOUCHARDAT’S GASEOUS PURGATIVE. Phosphate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonated

water, a pint.

MIALHE’S IODURETTED GASEOUS WATER. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.;

bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric

acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately.

DUPASQUIER’S GASEOUS WATER OF IODIDE OF IRON. Solution of iodide of iron

(containing 1/10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 2-1/2 oz.;

aerated water, 17-1/2 oz.

=SALTS (Smelling).= _Syn._ SAL VOLATILIS OLEOSUS, L. Sesquicarbonate of

ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the

addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill

‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the

carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following

formulæ:——

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender

(Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/4 oz.; rub

them together, and sublime; keep the product in well-stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot

and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last.

3. Carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of

verbena, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, 3/4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each

1/2 oz.; essence de petit grain, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before.

5. (Extemporaneous.)——_a._ From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.;

grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of

cloves, 3 or 4 drops.——_b._ From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia

(bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.

According to Dr Paris, GODFREY’S SMELLING SALTS are made by resubliming

volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine

(and essential oil).

=SALVE.= A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent,

greasy preparation used in medicine.

=Salve, Lip-.= _Syn._ CERATUM LABIALE, L.

_Prep._ 1. (RED or PERUVIAN.) From spermaceti ointment, 1/2 lb.; alkanet

root, 1/2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain,

and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3

dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the

dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets

rancid.

2. (ROSE.) See CERATE.

3. (WHITE.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely

powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12

drops, or q. s.

_Obs._ Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like

articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The

perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very

small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. FRENCH

LIP-SALVE is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and GERMAN LIP-SALVE is

said to be made of cacao butter. See CERATE, POMMADE, and OINTMENT.

=SAND.= _Syn._ ARENA, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely

divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime.

That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore,

selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal,

and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of

every fertile soil.

=SAND PAPER.= The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for

making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal cost:

“The device for making sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has

occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken

(that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine,

after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees

of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough

paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than

is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper,

allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse

glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.”

=SAN′DAL WOOD.= 1. (RED SANDERS WOOD, R. SAUNDERS W.; LIGNUM SANTALI

RUBRI, LIGNUM SANTALINUM RUBRUM, PTEROCARPUS——Ph. L. & E.) The wood of

_Pterocarpus santilinus_. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It

is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. WOOL may be dyed a

carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an

acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar,

and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a

reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See SANTALIN.

2. (WHITE SANDAL WOOD, WHITE SANDERS; SANTALUM ALBUM.) The young timber,

or, according to others, the outside wood of _Santalum album_. (Linn.)

3. (YELLOW SANDAL WOOD; SANTALUM CITRINUM, S. FLAVUM.) The old timber, or,

according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much

esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential

oil.

=SAN′DARACH.= _Syn._ SANDRAC, GUMS. A resin obtained from _Thuja

articulata_, and _Juniperus communis_ (in warm climates). It is slightly

fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05

to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.

=SAN′DERS WOOD.= See SANDAL WOOD.

=SAN′DIVER.= _Syn._ GLASS GALL; FELL VITRI, SAL VITRI, L. The saline scum

that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth

powders.

=SANGUINA′RINE.= _Syn._ SANGUINARINA, L. Obtained from the root of

_Sanguinaria Canadensis_ (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in

anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating

by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate

of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be

decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly

substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in

ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for

their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in

medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain.

The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating

a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain

proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish-brown colour. See

RESINOIDS.

=SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS.= With the exception of the

metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and

rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and

rural authorities.

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an

urban authority in England:——

----------------------------------------+---------------------

_Urban Districts._ | _Urban Authority._

----------------------------------------+---------------------

Borough, constituted such either before | The mayor, aldermen,

or after the passing of this Act. | and burgesses,

| acting by the

| council.

|

Improvement act district, constituted | The improvement

such before the passing of the Public | commissioners.

Health Act, 1872, and having no |

part of its area situated within a |

borough or local government district. |

|

Local government district constituted | The local board.

such either before or after the passing |

of this Act, having no part of |

its area situated within a borough, |

and not coincident in area with a |

borough or improvement act district. |

----------------------------------------+---------------------

Provided that——

1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local

government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act

district which is included in and forms part of a local government

district, and any local government district which is included in and forms

part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act,

be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included,

or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local

board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban

authority therein; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local

government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board,

shall be the urban authority there; and

3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a

borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government

district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such

improvement act district or of such local government district so partly

situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue

subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this

Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by

provisional order otherwise directs.

For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford,

Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of

Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs.

The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the

borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of

Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of

Folkestone.

An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the

Public Health Act (sec. 9):——

“The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban

district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section

called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of

the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural

district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of

such district, provided that——

“1. An _ex officio_ guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish

belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is

situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which

guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority,

unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural

district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for

the union.

“2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and

forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote

in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the

rural authority.

“3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated

in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such

parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be

elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the

due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural

district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of

such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same

manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in,

the urban district.”

Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section

disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is

less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order

nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that

number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural

district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for

the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote

as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal

provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in

their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this

Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body

as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority

act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are:——The City of Dublin, other corporate

towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local

Acts.

And urban authorities are:——

In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and

Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town council.

In towns exceeding 6000, having commissioners under the Lighting,

Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners

under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns

Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said

commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively.

In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or

township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3).

The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous

to the English.

In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police

commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board

of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have

not yet been applied to them.

Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united

districts; for example:

Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it

appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage

of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any

contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into

a united district for all or any of the purposes following:——

1. The procuring a common supply of water; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage

for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or

3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by

provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a

united district.

All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a

united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to

be a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in

pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act.

Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and

should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a

first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united

district is governed by a joint board consisting of such _ex officio_, and

of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a

sanitary authority.

The joint board is a body corporate having a name——determined by the

provisional order——a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having

power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint

board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed.

With the exception of these special objects, the component districts

continue as before to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of

any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the

performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution

and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well

as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts

when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board

having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any

local government district, and may merge any such district in some other

district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or

a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be

included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a

local government district immediately adjoining a rural district to be

included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area

shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part

of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining

part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected

by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would

have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the

Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an

improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such

district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve

such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of

the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such

district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the

Public Health Act.

3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage

district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public

Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised,

and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in

the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only

do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by

the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec.

278).

Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage

only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district

has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in

pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or

district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government

Board may constitute it a united district, subject to the jurisdiction of

a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323).

The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural

district to be a local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a

rural authority with urban powers as follows:

“The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of

any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the

assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the

net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein,

by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner

as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this

Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or

contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the

powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an

urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either

unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board

as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in

which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and

obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the

Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons

rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest

the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such

contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276).

_Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities._ In England urban sanitary

authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health

Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse

Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also

have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring

Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers,

rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The

powers of any local act for sanitary purposes (except a River Conservancy

Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under

the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse

Regulation Act.

The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary

Authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given

without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply

to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health,

inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c.

Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are

invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty

consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they

have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in

all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of

nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health.

The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority

which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government

Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due

performance of whatever it may deem necessary.

=SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS——Gesundheitskräuter-Bitter.= An indispensable

household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the

bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases,

constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants

(Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of

about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)

=SANITARY LIQUEUR——Gesundheits Liqueur.= Swedish elixir of life, with

rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit.

(Hager.)

=SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS.= It is a popular sanitary error to think that

the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe

that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude

that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To

imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the

presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep

in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better

is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat

without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to

gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night

of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’).

=SANITARY RATAFIA——Gesundheits Ratafia.= For removing all stomach, chest,

and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence,

dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps

containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water,

100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and

tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and

tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and

some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.)

=SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.——Gesundheitsblumengeist.= A mixture of

spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender,

and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1

part. (Hager.)

=SANITATION, DOMESTIC.= Not one of the least creditable or important

benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and

enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been

the erection——in cities and large towns more particularly——of healthy

houses for them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the

architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound

sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means

of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide

residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages,

they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer,

upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the

way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so

many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to

recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary

hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight,

scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit

those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London

is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only

14 in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read

before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H.

Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the

metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the

enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its

suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial

towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings

and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public

Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the

various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr

Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented

houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to

many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the

passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his parliamentary

duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following

extract:——“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a

mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I

was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the

principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of

it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be

connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I

found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black

sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the

examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right

angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having

a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet

they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was

left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure

the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under

the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and

cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in

sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to

the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of

impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had

indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been

so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the

house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his

lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had

at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a

few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled

with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’

sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully

connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been

satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object

in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on

the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through

a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also

opened by a window to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the

roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of

examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of

the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of

the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.”

Let us take another example:——“A few years ago a client of mine, who

resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife

and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied

their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial

result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a

rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way

defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in

making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the

joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery,

which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly

opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the

cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to

be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and

trapped with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or trap of which I found

broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening,

also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent

headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no

surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from

the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and

drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing

to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper

water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other,

off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The

bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the

best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of

closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at

bottom. The water-closets were pan closets, and were trapped by D traps.

The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps

leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter

was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the

house-drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were

practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was

distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease

was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to

recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice,

relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was

carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of

illness.”

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial

poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools

in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently

nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be

insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the

construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to

the following conditions as essential:——“All subsoil should be properly

drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the

foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth

should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and

ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock

brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick;

internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement

should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or

cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof

should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating

through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be

insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be

allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to

prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main

drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent

inconvenience to adjoining owners from any obstruction, they should be

laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access

thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to

the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be

constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good

steep gradients to the sewer.

All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the

same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should

discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which

should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The

basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible

positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of

alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron,

and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows

discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They

should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services

therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and

should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered

free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than

is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under

dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up

should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and

ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should

be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors

and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of

the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the

kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of

combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same,

from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may

be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet

ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in

a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will

then serve only their legitimate objects of admitting light, and of

affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase

should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially

necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure,

and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top;

and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into

the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can

periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a

movable inner, ornamental flat light.

Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection

with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to

the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage

must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and

return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made

with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact

with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if

any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should

turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to

prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the

basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as

before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the

nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and

down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment

which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads

should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent

draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between

the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided;

they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers

they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and

prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for

those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as

‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth,

which remains in them for years to taint and poison the atmosphere.”

Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles DRAINS,

DUSTBINS, CESSPOOLS, TANKS, TRAPS, WATER-CLOSETS.

=SAN′TALIN.= The colouring principle of red sanders wood.

=SAN′TONIN.= C_{15}H_{18}O_{3}. _Syn._ SANTONIC ACID; SANTONINUM, L. The

crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties

of _Artemisia_.

_Prep._ (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime,

1-1/2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths

of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the

boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and

afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with

a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts,

decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter;

the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these

are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result

from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual

derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds

that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became

conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow

haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of

a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale

lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly

distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of

definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who

had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is

tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine

resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently

stains linen of a light yellow colour.

The best test for santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of

which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in

depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be

the preferable alkali.

_Prop., &c._ Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only

slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and

about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether;

freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm

medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round

worms).——_Dose_, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed

by a brisk purge.

(Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled

water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an

hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue

with 1/2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an

hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them

settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 2-1/2

pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric

acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it

aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming,

any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the

greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper

filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass

colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 1/2 fl. oz. of

solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water,

and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless.

Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering

paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the

filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9

fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten

minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling

spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to

crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate

to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals, let them drain,

redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution

crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the

dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light.

=SAP GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SAPONIFICA′TION.= See SOAP.

=SAP′ONIN.= _Syn._ SAPONINUM, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance,

obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of _Saponaria

officinalis_ (Linn.), or soapwort.

_Prop., &c._ Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths

strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent

sneezing.

=SARCOCOL′LA.= A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants

of the natural order _Renæaceæ_, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat

resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol,

and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery.

=SAR′COSINE.= C_{3}H_{7}O_{2}N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by

boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms

colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in

alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised.

=SARSAPARIL′LA.= _Syn._ SARSÆ RADIX (B. P.), RADIX SARZÆ, RADIX

SARSAPARILLÆ, SARZA (Ph. L. & E.), SARSAPARILLA (Ph. D. & U. S.), L.

“Jamaica sarza. The root of _Smilax officinalis_, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and

probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)

The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two

classes:——‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first

are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras;

the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by “the mealy character of the

inner cortical layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The meal or

starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of

white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also

frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red

or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner

than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a

transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex

and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding

varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered

in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is

somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of

iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a

little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid,

nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with

the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties.

The JAMAICA, RED JAMAICA, or RED-BEARDED SARSAPARILLA (SARZA

JAMAICENSIS——Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in

medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract

(Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other

varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a

marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not

mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).——Ph.

L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of

sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are

frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the

preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products

are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to

those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla,

when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few

hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong

decoction, after exposure for a single night, in as active a state of

fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most

disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling.

When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in

extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently

allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should

be——always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of

other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely

and entirely, the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative,

diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic

rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis,

secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases;

and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to

remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often

falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be

kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been

greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in

northern climates.——_Dose._ In substance, 1/2 to 1 dr., three or four

times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States

sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the

decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and

marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff,

but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even

the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened

with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally,

preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I

have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous

symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real

sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles

referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=SARSAPARIL′LIN.= _Syn._ PARIGLIN, PARILLIC ACID, SALSAPARIN, SMILACIN. A

white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance,

discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla.

_Prep._ The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified

spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by

distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst

boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to

crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot

rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a

little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure

smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water.

_Prop., &c._ A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small

quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is

especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this

property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of

sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of

sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and

diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity

taken.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is

given.

=SAS′SAFRAS.= _Syn._ SASSAFRAS RADIX (B. P.), SASSAFRAS RADIX, SASSAFRAS

(Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of _Sassafras officinale_, Nees. _Laurus

sassafras_, Linn.”——Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish

aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative,

diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras

chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’

in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=SATURA′TION.= The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or

chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or

which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an

acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.

=SAUCERS (for Dyeing).= _Prep._ 1. (BLUE.) From blue carmine, made into a

paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers,

and dried.

2. (PINK.)——_a._ From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda,

then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last.

_b._ Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2

gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch

rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution

of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small

quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the

above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.

=SAUCE.= A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The

following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader:

=Sauce, Ancho′vy.= 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped

small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls;

flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it

through a coarse hair sleeve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in

the same manner.

=Sauce, Apple.= From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful

or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little

good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the

same manner.

=Sauce, Aristocratique.= From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal

parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of

juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 1/2

pint of port wine, 1/4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole

stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.

=Bech′amel.= A species of fine white broth or consommée, thickened with

cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’

=Sauce, Caper.= Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a

stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1

oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan

round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and

salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce.

=Sauce, Chut′ney.= 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown

sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red

chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each

1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon

juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour

off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either

hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’

‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a

stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard.

2. (BENGAL CHITNI.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples,

and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

=Cor′atch.= From good mushroom ketchup, 1/2 gal.; walnut ketchup, 3/4

pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each 1/2 pint; essence of

anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.

=Sauce, Epicurienne.= To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of

each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies

(bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.

=Sauce, Fish.= From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut

ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48

shallots, scraped horseradish, 1-1/2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1

oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.

=Ketchup.= See under that name.

=Sauce, Kitchener’s.= _Syn._ KITCHENER’S RELISH. From salt, 3 oz.; black

pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.;

burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all

bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.

=Lem′on Pickle.= From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised

ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.;

salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest

for 14 days.

=Sauce, Lobs′ter.= From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Sauce, Mint.= From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with

vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

=Sauce, On′ion.= From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with

melted butter and a little warm milk.

=Sauce, Oys′ter.= From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter,

with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred

together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served.

=Sauce, Piquante.= From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine,

1/2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and let them stand for

7 or 8 days before bottling.

=Sauce, Quin’s.= From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint;

mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each

2 dozen; soy, 1/2 pint; cayenne, 1/4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes,

and in a fortnight strain, and bottle.