years old. He had been born and brought up at Athens, and in his youth
astonished every one by his remarkable beauty, which was of such a kind
that it seemed to indicate rare qualities of heart and mind. The wise
Socrates met him one day by chance, and was so much attracted by his
appearance that he invited him to join the company of his friends.
Socrates had a great number of friends, both young and old, with whom
he used every day to discuss all manner of questions, in order that he
might inspire them with a love of everything that was true and noble
and good. Xenophon became one of his favourite pupils, and the teaching
of Socrates fell on fruitful soil; the beautiful and gifted youth grew
up to be a wise and pious man.
It is said that some years afterwards, when Xenophon was about thirty
years of age, Socrates had once the opportunity of saving him from a
great danger. In a war between the Athenians and Bœotians, Xenophon was
serving his country as a cavalry soldier, Socrates was on foot. The
Athenians were beaten at Delium, and obliged to flee. In the bustle and
confusion, Xenophon fell wounded from his horse, and must either have
been trodden to death by his countrymen, or else killed by the enemy,
had not Socrates perceived his danger, and rushed to help him, carrying
him in his strong arms until he was far away from the place of battle.
Another of the friends of Xenophon was Proxenus the Bœotian, who was
ten years younger than himself. From a very early age it had been the
ambition of Proxenus to gain for himself a high place as leader of
the people, and with this end in view he had placed himself under the
instruction of the famous orator, Gorgias. But his fate led him in
another direction.
At the time that Cyrus was preparing for his expedition against
Artaxerxes, Proxenus happened to be staying at Sardis. He soon became
an honoured friend and guest of Cyrus, and was asked by the prince to
raise a company of Hellenes for his service, as had already been done
by many of his countrymen. This commission he agreed to accept.
For the position of general Proxenus was in many respects well fitted,
but his nature was so amiable that he lacked the power of being severe,
and he was quite unable to maintain discipline amongst unruly soldiers.
He considered it sufficient if the superior officer praised those who
did their duty, and simply withheld his praise from those who shirked
it. And so it came to pass, that he had more fear of being irksome to
his men than they had of incurring his displeasure, and that he took
more pains to avoid annoying them than they took to do their duty. The
good soldiers were devoted to him, but the bad ones did not scruple to
be inattentive to his orders, because they knew that he was easy-going.
Proxenus was in fact the exact opposite of the stern Clearchus.
Fired with affection and enthusiasm for Cyrus, Proxenus wrote to
Xenophon, pressing him to come at once to Sardis, and join the prince.
He said that he would introduce him to Cyrus, and that Xenophon would
never repent of accepting the invitation, and he added that he himself
loved Cyrus even more than he loved his home.
Whenever Xenophon was in doubt about any decision, he was accustomed
to ask the advice of Socrates, and did so on this occasion. Socrates
doubted whether it would be well for Xenophon to do as his friend
wished, for some years before, in the time of the Peloponnesian war
between the Athenians and the Spartans, Cyrus had taken the part of
the Spartans against the Athenians, and had helped them with large sums
of money. He thought therefore that the Athenians might take it ill
if Xenophon were to ally himself with their former enemy. It would be
best, he said, to go to the oracle at Delphi, and ask counsel of the
god.
Accordingly Xenophon repaired to Delphi, but he had already made up his
mind, and worded his question thus:--‘To which of the gods must I pray
and offer sacrifices, in order that I may prosper in the journey which
I have in view, and return home in safety?’
The oracle named the gods. But when Xenophon returned, and told what
he had done, Socrates said, ‘That was not the right way to put the
question. Since however you have so asked, and so been answered,
depart, and do the bidding of the oracle.’
Xenophon was well received at Sardis, and accompanied Cyrus on
his march. Yet, up to the day of the massacre of the Hellenes by
Tissaphernes, he had taken no active part in the expedition. He served
neither as general, nor as captain, nor as private soldier, but was
present merely as the friend of Proxenus and Cyrus. Nevertheless he
took the deepest interest in everything that befell the army, whether
for good or ill.
XXIII
ELECTION OF OFFICERS
Xenophon was deeply affected by the massacre of his countrymen, and all
the more so because of his friendship for Proxenus, who was one of the
five generals entrapped by Tissaphernes.
During the night that followed that ill-fated day, he could not sleep.
He had thrown himself upon the ground, overcome with grief and anxiety,
but could get no rest. At last however he fell into a troubled slumber,
and dreamt that it was thundering and lightning, and that his father’s
house was struck by the lightning and burst into flames.
He started up in horror, but found that it was a dream. Then, being
a pious man who believed that every event was brought about by the
direct intervention of the gods, he began to consider what the dream
could mean, for he doubted not that it was sent to him as a sign from
Zeus, the Ruler of all. But whether it betokened good or evil fortune,
he could not tell. The burning of the house would seem to foretell
misfortune, and yet, on the other hand, the light breaking suddenly out
of darkness might be taken to signify help in the hour of need.
Shaking off his despondency, he began to reason with himself. ‘Of
what avail is it,’ he said, ‘to lie here? The night creeps on apace.
To-morrow the enemy will attack us, and there is not one of us who
thinks of preparing for defence. All are lying prone, as if this were a
time for inaction and giving way to despair. For what should I wait, or
for whom? It is clear that I must help myself.’
With these words he sprang to his feet, and calling together the
captains of the company of Proxenus, he proceeded to address them,
saying, ‘I cannot sleep, and you in like manner are unable to close
your eyes for thinking of the perilous situation in which we find
ourselves. From the Great King we can look for nothing but fury and
vengeance, for we came hither to unseat him from his throne.
‘Nevertheless it seems to me that our condition is not such that we
should give way to despair, for the gods are angry with the Barbarians
because they have broken the peace they swore to maintain. The gods
will therefore be on our side. Moreover we can endure frost and heat
better than the weakly Persians, and are in every way, thank the
gods, made of better stuff. Let us therefore not delay, but at once
put our hands to the work. On us everything depends, for the soldiers
will follow our lead. If they see us wanting in courage they will be
faint-hearted, but if we show ourselves ready for anything that may be
in store for us, whether of toil or danger, and encourage a like spirit
in our comrades, the soldiers will follow our example and be ashamed of
their faint-heartedness.’
All the captains but one agreed with Xenophon, but there was one who
thought otherwise, a certain Apollonides, who appeared by his speech
to be a Bœotian. This man said that it was madness to dream of any
other deliverance than that which they might hope to gain by throwing
themselves upon the mercy of the Great King, and began to reckon up all
the hardships that lay before them.
But Xenophon cut him short. ‘Thou fool,’ he said, ‘thou hast eyes
and ears, but canst neither see nor hear. When the King demanded our
arms, and we refused to give them up and began to march away, was he
not then most anxious to enter into a treaty with us? And is it not
in consequence of having trusted in his promises that we have fallen
into this present distress? Ye captains, this man has not the mind of
a Hellene, he is a disgrace to our brave Hellas. Let us not endure him
among us any longer, he is only fit to be among the camp-followers and
carry the baggage.’
‘In truth,’ said one of the captains, ‘Apollonides is no Bœotian, nor
indeed a Hellene of any sort, but a Barbarian from Lydia. This you can
tell by looking at his ears, which have been pierced.’ So indeed it
proved, and Apollonides was turned away.
It was now midnight, and at the suggestion of Xenophon, the captains
of the company of Proxenus went through the camp, and summoned all the
generals and captains of the other companies to meet together and take
counsel as to what should be done.
When they were assembled, to the number of about a hundred, Xenophon
was asked to repeat in the hearing of all what he had already said to
the captains of the company of Proxenus. This he did, and then went on
to propose immediate action.
‘The first thing to be done,’ he said, ‘is to choose generals and
captains to replace those who have been taken from us, that the army
may not be left without responsible chiefs. For through order and
discipline an army is strong; slackness and disorder are the harbingers
of defeat. Let us first agree among ourselves who are the best men
to fill the vacant places, and then call together the soldiers to
confirm our decision. It will be well also to speak to them some words
of encouragement, for it is not numbers that ensure victory, but
confidence and courage. He who in war thinks only of saving his life is
the most likely to lose it, and his death is the death of a coward. But
he who, remembering that death is the common lot of all men, chooses
rather to die with honour than to live in shame, is far more likely to
attain old age, and while life lasts, lives nobly.’
The suggestion was acted upon without delay. Xenophon was chosen to
take the place of his friend Proxenus, and for the four other missing
generals successors were appointed from among the captains of their
companies. In the same way, soldiers were elected to replace the dead
captains and those newly promoted, so that as far as the officers were
concerned, each company was made up to its former strength.
By this time it was almost daybreak, and a herald was sent round the
camp to summon all the soldiers to a general meeting, the precaution
being meanwhile taken of placing outposts at regular intervals outside
the camp, with instructions to bring in news at once, if they should
perceive any sign of the enemy’s approach.
XXIV
XENOPHON ADDRESSES THE TROOPS
When the soldiers were assembled, Xenophon appeared among them clad
in his most beautiful armour, as if for a feast, with a serene
countenance, and eyes that glowed with hope and courage. When he was
asked to speak, he addressed them in a clear, penetrating voice that
all could hear. ‘Soldiers,’ he said, ‘in the terrible disaster that has
befallen us, you see the result of trusting to the oaths of Barbarians.
From henceforth we must regard them, not as allies, but as enemies, and
fight to avenge the murder of our comrades. Thus by the help of the
gods may we hope to be delivered out of their hands.’
[Illustration: ZEUS.]
At this moment it chanced that one of the soldiers sneezed loudly.
Nothing could have been more fortunate, for the Hellenes believed that
a sneeze was a sign sent by the gods to confirm the word that had just
been spoken. Such a good omen could not fail to cheer the downcast
soldiers, and Xenophon paused in his speech, and proposed that all
should unite in making a vow to Zeus the Saviour, from whom the sign
had come, that as soon as they should again find themselves in a land
of friends, they would offer thank-offerings to Zeus and the other
gods. The proposal was accepted with acclamation, and all prayed
together, and sang a hymn of praise.
After this, Xenophon continued to speak. ‘Our hope,’ he said, ‘rests on
a sure foundation. We have been true to the oath sworn in the name of
the gods, while the Barbarians have perjured themselves. The gods will
not allow them to go unpunished; their anger will be turned against our
enemies, and their help will be with us. They can humble the mighty and
exalt the weak, and can, if they will, save us out of our distress.
‘Let us not form too high an estimate of the Persian resources. The
Mysians and the little nation of Pisidians defy the Great King. In the
midst of his empire they live as free men, and have many large and
flourishing cities. Are we at all inferior to Mysians or Pisidians?
Think of our forefathers, and of the world-famed victories which they
won. The Persians came with a mighty army to lay Athens in the dust,
but the little band of Athenians met them with undaunted courage, and
drove them back in disgraceful flight. After that came Xerxes with an
army, countless as the sand of the sea. And what happened to him? Our
forefathers overcame that army by sea and by land, and the glorious
results of their victories continue to this very day. To this day our
cities are free, and over us we acknowledge no other lords but only the
eternal gods.
‘You yourselves moreover have been put to the test, and have not
been found wanting. It is but a short time since you confronted the
descendants of those same Barbarians. Their number was many times
greater than yours, but with the help of the gods you smote them and
they were scattered like chaff before the wind, not one of them could
look you in the face. And at that time you were fighting for Cyrus, a
stranger, to set him upon the throne. With how much greater zeal will
you fight now, when the battle is for your own salvation!
‘In the last place, let each one of us take heed to do his part. Our
new chiefs must be even more vigilant and cautious than those we have
lost; the soldiers must be more strictly obedient than hitherto. If
every man will keep his eye upon the rest, and allow nothing to be done
that is against the rule, then will our enemies be disappointed of
their hope that in depriving us of our officers they have robbed us of
all discipline.’
As of an heroic deed, so too of an inspiring speech it may with truth
be said that it ‘begets courage, even in a coward.’ The brave words of
Xenophon put to flight the dark cloud of despair that had threatened to
paralyse the energy of the soldiers, and prepared the way for a dawning
of new confidence, and a hope that in their case also the old saying
might once again prove true, that ‘Fortune helps the brave.’
The next thing to be done was to make preparations for continuing the
march. Xenophon was asked for his advice, and he answered, ‘Before
everything else, it will be necessary to provide ourselves with food,
now that we can no longer buy it in the Barbarian camp, and I hear
that there are villages in the neighbourhood where we shall find what
we want. The Barbarians will pursue us like cowardly curs, who run
after a man, snapping at his heels. If he turns round upon them, they
immediately run away, but as soon as he continues to go forward, they
are after him again as before.
‘I propose therefore that we adopt the form of a hollow square, and
place in the centre the camp-followers and baggage-animals, that there
may be no risk of their being cut off by the enemy. Let Cheirisophus
take the post of honour and lead the van, as is fitting, for he is a
Spartan,[14] and let the two eldest generals take charge of the wings,
while Timasion and myself command the rear. If after a time we wish
to make any alteration, it will always be easy to change. He who has
something better than this to propose, let him now speak.’
[14] Sparta was at this time the leading state in Hellas.
All were silent.
‘Hold up hands then, those who agree to my plan,’ cried Xenophon.
Every hand was raised, and the proposal was accordingly carried.
There was another matter to which Xenophon was anxious to call the
attention of his comrades. He knew how serious a disadvantage it is to
an army in the field to be encumbered with a quantity of baggage, and
advised that everything not absolutely needed for the march should be
burnt.
‘He who would enrich himself with spoil,’ he said, ‘must overcome the
enemy. Only conquerors can hold their own, and take the spoil of the
vanquished. Whichever of you would see again those who are most dear to
him, let him remember that he must prove himself a man.’
This proposal was also carried by a show of hands, and the meeting
being at an end, the soldiers dispersed to overlook their possessions,
and choose from among them such things as were indispensable. If any
of them had possessions which they themselves did not need, but which
others lacked, they gave them to their comrades. Then a great bonfire
was lighted, and into it were cast all the rest of the things, together
with the tents and the wagons.
From this time forward the recognised heads of the army were
Cheirisophus the Spartan and Xenophon the Athenian, but more especially
Xenophon. All alike were agreed in thinking that these two men were the
best fitted to command, and the other generals felt that by carrying
out with alacrity whatever was proposed by them, they could most surely
promote the present well-being and ultimate salvation of the brave Ten
Thousand.
XXV
ANNOYED BY MITHRIDATES
The sun had now risen, and the Hellenes were about to prepare their
morning meal, when the scouts brought in word that the satrap
Mithridates was riding towards the camp with an escort of thirty
horsemen.
Having arrived within speaking distance, Mithridates called out to the
generals to come forward and hear what he had to say. Then he proceeded
to address them in an apparently friendly manner. ‘Men of Hellas,’ he
said, ‘I was, as you know, upon the side of Cyrus, and am now your
friend. I do not wish to remain with Tissaphernes, for I fear his
vengeance, and if you will let me know your plans, I will gladly join
you with all my following, and march by your side. Tell me therefore
what you have decided to do.’
The generals conferred together, and agreed that Cheirisophus, their
spokesman, should answer Mithridates as they had already so often
answered the Persian envoys. ‘If we are allowed to return in peace to
our home, we will pursue our way with as little injury as possible to
the inhabitants of the countries through which we pass. But if we are
hindered in our march, we will fight to the death.’
To this Mithridates replied by trying to persuade them that they could
have no hope of escape except by making peace with the Great King,
and it soon became clear that he had been sent by the enemy to feign
friendship, for the purpose of finding out their plans. They refused
therefore to listen to him any longer, and Mithridates was obliged to
ride away without having succeeded in his mission.
The generals had been confirmed in their suspicion of Mithridates
by recognising among his escort a man belonging to the suite of
Tissaphernes, who had evidently been sent with him as a spy, so that
he might not be able to say anything to the Hellenes except such words
as had been dictated by Tissaphernes. And as some Persians had already
succeeded in making their way into the camp, and had induced one of the
captains to desert with twenty of his men, they proceeded to pass a
resolution, that in future there was to be open war with the Persians,
and that they would receive no more ambassadors coming in the name of
the Great King.
They then returned to their interrupted meal, and when this was over,
set out upon the march, forming themselves, as already agreed upon,
in a hollow square. But they had not gone far when Mithridates again
appeared with two hundred horsemen and four hundred archers and
slingers, who advanced towards them as if with friendly intentions. As
soon however as they had come within arrow range, they opened fire, and
the Hellenes found themselves suddenly beset with a storm of arrows and
darts, which wounded many of them.
For a time Xenophon pursued his way without taking any notice, for he
was anxious not to delay the progress of the march, but finding that
the shots came thicker and thicker, he called a halt, and commanded
the rear-guard to charge the enemy. No sooner had they done so than
the Barbarians were in full flight, but the heavy armed hoplites could
not pursue them far, and each time that they re-formed their ranks and
turned to continue the march, the Barbarians were after them as before.
This occurred so often that it was late in the day before they reached
the villages where they were to halt, although the distance was little
more than three miles.
When at last they were established for the night in the villages,
Cheirisophus and the other generals reproached Xenophon with having
so seriously delayed the march, without having gained any advantage.
They did not, perhaps, fully realise the difficulty, but instead of
retorting that they were inconsiderate, Xenophon answered quietly,
admitting that they had cause for annoyance, and proposing a plan by
which he hoped to remedy the evil.
‘To-day,’ he said, ‘we have to thank the gods that we have only had a
small force to deal with, that could not do us any great injury; and we
have also to thank the enemy for having shown us where we are weak. The
Persian slingers and archers can make their missiles carry to a greater
distance than ours, and moreover the enemy have cavalry, while we are
without. Under such circumstances the struggle must always be unequal,
with the disadvantage on our side.
‘Happily however we have it in our power to improve our position in
this respect. Among the troops there are several Rhodians, and we know
that the men of Rhodes are famed for their skill in slinging. Their
shots carry moreover twice as far as those of the Persians, for instead
of great stones the size of a fist, they use little bullets of lead. I
propose that we find out if any of these men possess slings, or know
how to make new slings. With their help we may be able to form a band
of slingers capable of doing good service.
‘Then as regards our want of cavalry. Fortunately we have horses. I
have a few, there are some that belonged to Clearchus, and others that
have been captured, and are now used for transport, besides those
belonging to private persons. Any one willing to give up his horse for
the public service could have the loss made good to him by receiving in
exchange other baggage animals.’
All the proposals made by Xenophon were accepted, and carried into
execution during the night. By the next day the army was supplemented
with a company of five hundred Rhodian slingers and a troop of fifty
horsemen, all fully equipped,--the command of the cavalry being
entrusted to an Athenian named Lycius.
[Illustration: HELLENE HORSEMAN: COIN OF ALEXANDER OF PHERÆ.]
The Hellenes remained one more day in the villages, and then, on the
third morning, set out at earliest dawn to continue their march. There
lay before them a wooded ravine which it would be difficult to go
through in fighting order, and they were anxious to get as far beyond
it as possible, before they should be overtaken by the Persians.
The early start met with its due reward, for the Hellenes were already
a good distance beyond the ravine when Mithridates again appeared, this
time with a much larger force than before.
He had been very much pleased with the success of his first attempt
to harass the Hellenes, for his small band of slingers and archers
had sustained but little injury, whereas they had, as he believed,
inflicted considerable loss. Expecting to find the Hellenes still
at the same disadvantage, he had assured Tissaphernes that if he
were supplied with a thousand horsemen and four thousand archers and
slingers, he would make an end of them altogether.
But now they were prepared for him. They let him pass unhindered
through the ravine, and advance beyond it until he was almost within
arrow-shot. Then the trumpets sounded, and the newly formed cavalry and
light infantry charged forward upon the advancing foe.
At this wholly unexpected attack, the Barbarians were seized with
panic, and fled precipitately. But on reaching the ravine, their
flight was impeded by the trees and bushes, and many of them were
killed by the Hellene cavalry who came after them in full pursuit.
Eighteen horsemen were captured, together with their horses, and many
more of the enemy were killed, whose bodies the Hellenes mutilated in
a horrible manner in order to strike terror into the breasts of the
Persians.
From this time they saw no more of Mithridates. His place was now to be
taken by a still more powerful enemy.
XXVI
HARASSED BY TISSAPHERNES