heralds, and asked, rather curtly, what they wanted. When they had
delivered their message, he answered, ‘Say to the King that another
battle will be necessary before we can think about a treaty. For we
have nothing to eat, and I cannot speak to my men about a treaty until
their hunger is stayed.’
The heralds rode away, but quickly returned, which proved that the King
was near at hand. They brought with them guides, and said that in case
the Hellenes were willing to agree to a truce, they were to conduct
them to a place where food could be obtained.
Clearchus and the other generals withdrew to consider this proposal,
and they very quickly decided to conclude the truce at once. But
nevertheless they again kept the heralds waiting for some time, so that
it might appear as if it had been a good while before they could make
up their minds to agree to the King’s proposals.
[Illustration: THE GREAT KING FIGHTING WITH A MONSTER.
_See page 3._]
At last the decision was communicated to the heralds, and the two
armies set out under the direction of the King’s guides, marching
by a road which was one of the very worst that the Hellenes had ever
seen. The district through which they were passing was part of the
province of Babylonia, and was crossed in all directions by an infinite
number of canals and ditches which kept the country well watered, and
made it abundantly fruitful. At this time of year they were not usually
full of water, but in order to make the march as difficult as possible
for the Hellenes, the Persians had opened all the sluices. Consequently
the canals could not be crossed except by bridges, of which there were
none.
The Barbarians had been anxious to give the Hellenes a practical
example of the endless difficulties that they might expect to meet with
in the course of their retreat. But if they hoped that this would have
the effect of making them humble and ready to submit, they were much
mistaken; Clearchus was not the man to be beaten by a difficulty of
this sort, and under his direction the Hellenes set cheerily to work
to make temporary bridges wherever they were required. In many places
fallen trunks of date-palms lay ready to hand, and where these did not
suffice, others were quickly felled.
All soldiers under the age of thirty years were ordered to the work, in
order that it might be carried through as fast as possible. Clearchus
himself acted as overseer, moving about briskly among the soldiers
with a staff in the right hand and a spear in the left, and whenever
he saw a man loitering over his task, he did not hesitate to give him
a beating. Although he was more than fifty years old, he laboured with
his own hands with the utmost diligence, and this example was followed
by many other of the older men.
At last the toil was over, and the Hellenes reached some villages where
a little money could buy food in abundance. Inexhaustible seemed the
immense stores of corn, dates, and palm-wine, as well as of a kind of
acid drink made also from the date-palm, which they found in these
villages. The food, moreover, was as good as it was plentiful. Dates
better than any that the Hellenes had ever eaten at home were here food
for slaves; those put aside for the masters were of immense size and
exquisite flavour. Delicious too was the sweet juice of the date-palm,
but unhappily it was apt to give head-ache.
[Illustration: COIN OF A SATRAP, PROBABLY TISSAPHERNES.]
In this district the Hellene army encamped, together with their
Barbarian allies. For two days they heard nothing of the enemy, but
on the third day Tissaphernes arrived, with a brother-in-law of the
Great King and three other Persian noblemen, attended by many slaves.
Tissaphernes demanded an interview with the Hellene generals, and when
they had presented themselves, he began to address them in a friendly
manner, by means of an interpreter who understood both Persian and
Hellene speech.
‘You know,’ said Tissaphernes, ‘that I am the nearest neighbour of your
country, and as I see that you are now in great straits, I am anxious
to obtain the permission of the Great King to conduct you to your
homes in safety. By so doing I hope not only to gain your gratitude,
but also that of all Hellas. The King knows and values the services I
have rendered him. I was the first to bring him news of the revolt of
Cyrus, and the only one who did not fly before you in the battle. He
has promised me therefore to grant my request on your behalf, but at
the same time he desires me to ask you for what reason you have taken
the field against him. As your friend I advise you to be careful in
giving your answer, that I may not fail in my endeavour to help you.’
After conferring with the other generals, Clearchus answered, ‘We knew
not that Cyrus intended to lead us against the Great King. But when
he who had shown us much kindness was in need of our help, we should
have been shamed before gods and men had we then deserted him. Cyrus is
now dead, and we have no further quarrel with the King, nor any wish
to injure his subjects. If we are allowed to go on our way in peace,
we will return quietly to our home, and for any kindness that we may
receive we shall prove ourselves grateful. But if we are treated as
enemies, then by the help of the gods, we shall know how to defend our
lives.’
With this answer Tissaphernes professed himself satisfied, and he rode
away, saying, ‘Let there be a truce between us until I come again.’
Three days afterwards he again made his appearance. ‘It was far from
easy,’ he said, ‘to dispose the King in your favour, but at last I
have succeeded, and we are ready to conclude a treaty with you to this
effect:--You are to be allowed to pass through the King’s dominions in
peace, and where there is food to be bought you shall be supplied with
it in exchange for your money; where they refuse to sell it, you can
take what you require. On your side, you must swear that you will act
the part of friends and not enemies towards the people of the countries
through which you march.’
These conditions having been agreed to, Tissaphernes and the Persian
nobles gave their right hands to the generals and captains of the
Hellenes, and all swore by the most sacred oaths that they would
faithfully keep the treaty. Then Tissaphernes departed, saying, ‘I
shall very soon bring my army to escort you on your way to Hellas,
whilst I return myself to my own province.’
XIX
THE DEFECTION OF ARIÆUS
But although Tissaphernes had promised to return very shortly, day
after day went by, and still he did not come.
Meanwhile there was constant communication between the King’s troops
and those of Ariæus, who had sworn to be the faithful friends and
allies of the Hellenes, and who were encamped beside them among the
Babylonian villages. The brothers and other relations of the general
rode over to see him, and in like manner all the troops of Ariæus,
down to the humblest private soldier, received and returned the visits
of their friends in the King’s army, which was encamped at no great
distance.
All this was for a purpose, and for the same purpose Tissaphernes
continued to delay his coming. The King’s party were anxious to sow
dissension between the allies, in order that the Hellenes might be
utterly without friends. To this end, promises of free pardon to all
subjects of the Great King who would now return to their duty, were
diligently circulated, and Tissaphernes was careful to put off his
coming, so that the Persians of the King’s army might have time to
alienate Ariæus and his men from their former friends.
The Hellenes could not but perceive that the tone of their allies was
changing rapidly, and many of them warned Clearchus that there was
something wrong. ‘Why do we remain here?’ they asked him. ‘Do we not
know that the King wishes above all things to destroy us? To him it
would be unendurable that we should reach home in safety, and boast
that we, a handful of Hellenes, have defeated the Great King in the
very heart of his empire, and have then escaped out of his hands after
defying him openly. He pretends just now to be inclined for peace, but
he is only waiting until all his forces are assembled, and then he will
put forth his whole power to crush us.’
Clearchus saw the danger of their position, but it seemed to him that
to go forward was even more perilous than to stay still. ‘If we fold up
our tents and depart,’ he said, ‘the King may say that we have broken
the treaty, and declared war against him. Who will then give us guides
to lead us through this unknown land? What other rivers may lie before
us, I know not, but in any case there is the broad Euphrates, which it
would be impossible to cross if an enemy were to dispute our way. It
seems to me moreover that if the King really meant to destroy us, he
would hardly have thought it necessary to perjure himself by swearing
to a treaty which he all the time intended to break.’
At last, after a delay of twenty days, Tissaphernes arrived with his
force, to escort the allied armies on their journey home. The double
camp was broken up, and in five days they reached the Tigris, which was
crossed by a bridge of boats.
Soon afterwards they came to some villages which belonged to Parysatis,
the Queen-mother, and Tissaphernes, who was delighted to have the
opportunity of doing her an injury, desired the Hellenes to plunder
the villages. He had always envied and hated Cyrus, and because she
had done everything in her power to help her younger son, he hated
Parysatis also. It gave additional zest to his revenge that her
villages should be plundered by the Hellenes for whom Cyrus had always
shown such marked partiality. They found them well-stocked with food,
and were able to take away a great number of sheep, and a quantity of
barley.
It was one of the provisions of the treaty that the Hellenes should be
supplied with food; this they were able to procure by buying it in the
market established in the Barbarian camp. Nevertheless their distrust
of Tissaphernes was constantly on the increase, and they always marched
at a prudent distance behind the Barbarians, having separate guides of
their own. At night the two camps were pitched at a distance of two or
three miles apart.
The army of Ariæus had by this time openly joined Tissaphernes, and now
kept itself close to his force and away from the Hellenes, regardless
of all the sacred oaths by which, after the battle of Cunaxa, the two
armies had sworn to stand by one another and act as faithful friends
and allies.
We cannot but condemn the treachery of Ariæus, and yet we must
remember, as some excuse for him, the difficult position in which he
was placed. For, had he remained true to the Hellenes, they would have
marched together as far as Ionia, and then the Hellenes would have gone
away over the sea to their own country, leaving him alone to bear the
full brunt of the King’s fury.
XX
A CONFERENCE WITH TISSAPHERNES
For about three weeks the two armies continued marching, one behind the
other, neither good friends nor yet open enemies. The mutual distrust
resulted in constant quarrels, and if the soldiers from both armies
were cutting wood in the same forest, or gathering grass from the same
fields, there was sure to be a fight.
Clearchus did not however believe that the Persians had any deliberate
intention of breaking the treaty to which they had sworn, and in the
hope of putting an end to a state of affairs which was every day
getting worse, he resolved if possible to come to an understanding with
Tissaphernes. He sent word therefore that he wished to speak with him.
Tissaphernes accordingly invited him to a conference in his tent, and
Clearchus spoke as follows--
‘You regard us,’ he said, ‘as enemies, and consequently we think it
necessary to stand on our guard against you. These mutual suspicions
may easily lead to actual war, and therefore I am anxious to convince
you that you have no reason to doubt us.
‘First, and before all things, we are prevented by our oath from
thinking of you in any other light than that of friends. He who breaks
an oath plunges himself into the greatest misery, for who is swift
enough to outrun the wrath of the gods? In what darkness could he hide
himself from them? What fortress would protect him, were it ever so
strong? For to the gods all things are subject, and they have power
over all, everywhere alike.
‘But more than this, you are of all others the man who is best able to
help us. Without you our way is shrouded in shades of night, for we
know not your land. The inhabited districts we should fear to enter,
but far more should we dread the barren waste lands, where there would
be none to help us. But with your good-will every way is open to us,
every river can be crossed, we shall be among friends, and food will
not fail. If we were mad enough to think of taking your life, we should
be destroying our best friend, and should expose ourselves to the fury
of the Great King who would hasten to avenge your death.
‘And now I will tell you what services we can render in return for your
friendship. We know that you are harassed by the Mysians, the Pisidians
and other nations, and moreover that the Egyptians have risen against
you. But if we Hellenes are your friends, and fight as comrades by your
side, what people can hope to withstand you?
‘Taking all things into consideration, it seems incredible that you
should suspect us, and I can only suppose that some mischief-maker has
been at work, causing you to question our good faith.’
In his own mind Clearchus had little doubt that the mischief-maker was
Menon, one of the other generals. Menon was a rival of Clearchus, and
wished to supersede him as commander-in-chief of the Hellene army,
while Clearchus was by no means inclined to make way for him. Clearchus
suspected that Menon had been trying to induce the Satrap to insist
upon his being given the first place, and that in return for this, he
had promised to bring over the Hellenes to the party of Tissaphernes.
Of such a plan the selfish Menon[13] was certainly capable, and it
afterwards appeared that he was not entirely innocent of intrigues with
the Persians. But it is very possible that Clearchus may have been
misled by jealousy into over-estimating the extent of his guilt.
[13] See p. 55.
To the speech of Clearchus, Tissaphernes made a hypocritical reply. ‘I
rejoice,’ he said, ‘to hear that you know how to value our friendship.
But now, on the other hand, have we not long since given you proofs of
our sincerity?
‘If we wished to do you an injury, have we not foot-soldiers and
horsemen enough to overpower you? Is there any lack of favourable
places for falling upon you? Could I not seize the mountains to block
your way? Or prevent you from crossing a river? Or, surest means of all
to compass your ruin, could I not set fire to the country far and wide
around you, and having destroyed all the fruits of the earth, leave
you to die of hunger? Why have I not done this? Because I love the
Hellenes, and hope, by means of their friendship, to attain my highest
wish.
‘The Great King,’ he added, ‘is the only one who may wear the tiara
upright upon his head, but with your help, another may wear it upright
in his heart.’
By these mysterious words he meant to signify that he aspired to
fight himself for the throne, as Cyrus had done. He also hinted that
Clearchus was quite right in suspecting one of his fellow-officers, and
asked him to bring all the generals and captains to a meeting in his
tent, when he promised to point out the traitor.
All difficulties appeared now to have been smoothed away. Tissaphernes
assumed a most friendly manner, and begged Clearchus to remain with him
for supper, and be his guest for the night.
XXI
THE TREACHERY OF TISSAPHERNES
On the next day Clearchus returned to the camp, and reported the good
understanding that he had established with Tissaphernes. But when he
said that Tissaphernes wished all the officers to assemble in his tent,
the Hellenes objected, for they did not trust the Satrap, and did not
care to let their best men run any risk of falling into his clutches.
Clearchus however was so confident that all would go well, and pressed
his opinion with such persistence, that after a long discussion it was
at last decided to send five generals and twenty captains to take part
in the conference. Clearchus was of course one of the five generals,
so also was Menon. They were accompanied by two hundred soldiers who
wished to buy provisions in the Barbarian camp, but all were unarmed,
for it was to be a friendly meeting.
Some hours passed by, and the Hellenes did not return. Those who were
left behind began to look out anxiously for their comrades, but they
could see nothing but a number of Persian horsemen galloping about
separately in all directions upon the heath, which lay between the
two camps. They did not understand what this could mean, but soon the
horrible explanation was brought to them by a badly-wounded Hellene,
who made his way back to the camp as fast as he was able, and told them
what had happened.
On reaching the tent of Tissaphernes, the five generals had been
invited to go within; the captains were left standing at the door.
Presently a blood-red flag was hoisted above the tent, and at this
signal, the Barbarians fell upon the captains and the two hundred
soldiers who were all unarmed, and massacred them. Those who attempted
to flee were cut down by horsemen sent in pursuit of them, and killed
upon the heath. Of the fate of the generals who had gone within the
tent, the wounded man knew nothing.
On hearing this terrible news, the Hellenes rushed to seize their
arms, for they naturally expected an immediate attack. This did not
however take place, but Ariæus, with some other nobles, and about three
hundred Persian cavalry, rode towards the camp, and demanded to speak
with one of the generals. When he was within hearing, Ariæus cried
out, ‘Clearchus was a traitor, he had broken the oath, and has been
punished. To you I bring an order from the Great King to deliver up
your arms, for they belonged to Cyrus, who was his slave.’ Every one in
the Persian empire was considered a slave, except the King himself.
But one of the generals answered with spirit befitting the occasion.
‘Thou miserable Ariæus,’ he cried, ‘and you others who were the friends
of Cyrus, you are the most wicked of men, you who formerly swore that
our friends should be your friends, and our enemies your enemies, and
have now entered into a covenant with the godless Tissaphernes to
destroy us.’
To this the Persians could make no reply, and they turned back to their
own camp.
The night that followed was a terrible one for the Hellenes. The
infamous crime that had been committed could only be regarded as the
first of a series planned long ago by Tissaphernes. Now that Clearchus
was gone, who was to command the little band of Hellenes, left as sheep
without a shepherd? If the treacherous Barbarians were bent upon their
destruction, what was to hinder them from taking them by surprise again
and again, until at last they were reduced to the choice of death or
slavery?
Throughout the whole camp reigned discouragement, despondency, even
despair. Only a few of the soldiers could rouse themselves to take food
or kindle a fire. Wherever they chanced to be, they threw themselves
down upon the ground, and passed a sleepless night, kept awake by
brooding care for what the next day might bring forth, and for sick
longing for their country, their parents, their wives, their children,
whom they feared they should never see again.
* * * * *
On entering the tent of Tissaphernes, the five generals had been
surprised and made prisoners, and were forthwith sent to Susa, there
to await the King’s pleasure. Menon was set at liberty, but the rest
languished for a year in prison, and were then beheaded.
[Illustration: ARCHERS OF THE ROYAL BODY-GUARD.
(_From a frieze in the palace at Susa._)
See p. 2.]
For Clearchus, who had been the most intimate friend of her dearly
loved Cyrus, Parysatis, the Queen-mother, did everything in her power.
Through the medium of her physician, she was able to supply him with
many comforts in his prison, and she even hoped that her influence
with Artaxerxes would prevail to save his life. But in Statira, the
Queen-consort, she had a rival whose influence was even greater than
her own. Statira succeeded in convincing her husband that it was
indispensable to the dignity of the Persian throne to pass sentence of
death upon the most active and distinguished adherent of the usurper
Cyrus, and Clearchus was consequently executed.
Mother-in-law and daughter-in-law had long been consumed by mutual
jealousy and hatred, and this last struggle filled the cup to
overflowing. In order to revenge herself for the death of Clearchus,
Parysatis bribed a servant to give poison to Statira, and thus caused
her death. As a punishment for the murder, she was banished for a time
from Babylon.
For a year Menon was at liberty, and went about as he pleased in Susa,
but at the end of that time he also was executed, after having been
cruelly tortured. The freedom that he enjoyed at first seems to prove
that, as Clearchus suspected, he had really rendered some service
to the Great King, to the disadvantage of his countrymen. And his
subsequent death shows that, cunning as he was, he was not cunning
enough to provide against all contingencies. It is very possible that
here also the influence of Parysatis may have been at work.
XXII
XENOPHON
In the history of Rome there is a story which tells how King Tarquin
desired, once upon a time, to conquer the town of Gabii. As he was
unable to overcome it by fair fighting, he determined to have recourse
to treachery, and in order to carry out his purpose, sent his son to
the city.
The son knocked at the city gate, and when from within they asked who
was there, he said that he was the son of Tarquin, but that he came as
a friend, not an enemy, for his father had ill-treated him shamefully,
and he wished now to revenge himself by helping the Gabians to defend
their city.
The townsmen let him in, and after having seen him, time after time,
fighting bravely in their ranks, they gave him their full confidence,
and finally chose him to be their general-in-chief.
So far he had succeeded, but he did not know what was the next thing
to be done, and therefore sent a trusted slave to ask his father’s
advice. The king took the slave into his garden, where there was a bed
of poppies in full bloom, and walking up and down beside the bed, he
struck off the heads of the tallest poppies, one by one. Then he said
to the slave, ‘Go back and tell my son what you have seen.’
The slave did not know how this could be an answer to the question
that had been asked, but when he had carefully described to his master
what he had seen, the son understood very well what it meant. One
after another, he impeached in turn all the chief men of the city upon
some frivolous pretext or other, and he did it so cleverly that their
fellow-townsmen believed them to be traitors, and condemned them either
to death or banishment. When the city had been deprived of all its best
men, it was easy enough for him to give it up into the hands of his
father.
In like manner Tissaphernes thought that by the removal of their
officers, the Hellenes would be left helpless, and would no longer have
the heart to fight for their lives and their freedom. But it fell out
otherwise, for the officers who had been betrayed by Tissaphernes were
succeeded by others still more able. Above all, Xenophon the Athenian,
a man hitherto almost unnoticed in the crowd, came forward, and by his
inspiring presence, his sound judgment, and his unfailing courage,
gained the confidence of his comrades, and brought them at last through
all their difficulties to a place of safety.