allowed to continue their march unmolested, but soon the Persians were
again seen coming up behind them. Tissaphernes was now pursuing them
with all the forces under his command, determined that they should not
much longer escape his vengeance.
Keeping the main body of his army in the background, he brought to the
front his numerous companies of light infantry, and commanded them to
make use of their slings and bows. But the Hellenes, unawed by the
overpowering numbers of the enemy, quickly brought forward their little
band of Rhodians, whose leaden bullets carried farther than the heavy
shot of the Persian slingers, and before the enemy was near enough to
do them any harm, they had opened fire upon their close-packed ranks
where every shot was certain to tell. The archers too discharged
their arrows with equal effect, and so deadly was the assault, that
Tissaphernes was obliged to withdraw his men out of range, and for the
rest of that day, contented himself with following the Hellenes at a
safe distance.
Before retiring from the ground where the skirmish had taken place,
the Hellenes were careful to collect all the bows and arrows that had
belonged to the dead Persians. These bows, which were much stronger
than their own, were likely to be of great service to them, and in the
evening, when they reached the villages in which they were to spend the
night, they took great pains to practise using them with effect. They
were so fortunate moreover as to find in these same villages a store of
excellent bow-strings, and a quantity of lead, which they at once set
to work to make into bullets.
After resting for one whole day, they continued their march, and
now the road lay through a flat plain. Tissaphernes followed at a
distance, always on the lookout for any opportunity of attacking them
at a disadvantage, and so overwhelming was his superiority in point of
numbers that he was often able to inflict considerable loss, even upon
the brave Hellenes.
Sometimes for instance the road would narrow considerably, or a bridge
would have to be crossed, and then it was found that the plan of
marching in the form of a square had many drawbacks for a retreating
army with the enemy in pursuit. Confusion was sure to arise, both in
breaking up the square on arriving at the narrow part of the road, and
in re-forming it on coming out again into the open country, and by this
confusion Tissaphernes did not fail to profit.
The generals agreed that some new plan must be devised to meet the
difficulty, and they decided to form six small companies, each
consisting of a hundred men, and subdivided into half and quarter
companies, each with its own officer. When the square had to be
compressed for passing over a bridge or narrow road, these companies
fell out of their places in the wings, and wheeled round to the back
of the rear, returning again to the wings when the square widened out
again. By this means disorder was prevented, and for the next four days
the Hellenes continued their way with very little loss.
On the fifth day they came to the end of the flat country. They had now
to cross a range of hills, and at this they rejoiced, thinking that the
hilly ground would be disadvantageous for the Persian cavalry. But this
day was destined to be the most disastrous of any they had yet known.
Seeing in the distance a palace with several villages clustering round
it, they decided to make for it. The road lay over hilly ground,
and they had already climbed the first hill when they received an
unexpected check. As they descended the farther side, the enemy
appeared upon the height they had just left, and discharged a volley of
stones and arrows upon the light-armed infantry, killing and wounding
many of them.
To this the Hellenes replied by sending a detachment of hoplites to
march back up the hill, and dislodge the Persians. Their heavy armour
protected them to some extent, but made it impossible for them to
advance rapidly, and the nimble Persians quickly withdrew beyond their
reach, returning however as soon as the hoplites turned back to rejoin
their comrades, and discharging their shots and arrows as before.
[Illustration: THE HILL COUNTRY EAST OF THE TIGRIS.]
At the second hill, the same thing happened again, and now the Persian
cavalry were also brought into play, and directed to chase the Hellenes
at full speed down the steep descent. This they did, but only when
they had been driven to their work with whips. Meanwhile the hail of
stones and arrows continued, and made such havoc in the ranks of the
light-armed troops who wore neither helmet nor coat of mail, that it
became urgently necessary to find some means of diverting the attention
of the enemy.
Calling a short halt, the generals rapidly took counsel together, and
formed a plan by which the light infantry could be placed beyond the
reach of danger, and at the same time give assistance to their comrades.
Parallel with the range of hills over which the Hellenes were making
their way, was a range of mountains, from whence the road along the
hills could be overlooked. To these mountains the light-armed troops
were despatched, with instructions to keep pace with their comrades on
the lower level, and rain down shots and arrows upon the enemy whenever
they attempted to hinder them in their march. As soon as the Persians
perceived this device, they gave up the pursuit. The disadvantage was
now on their side, and they were afraid of being cut off from the main
body of their army.
So for the rest of that day the Hellenes continued their way in peace,
the light infantry on the mountains, the hoplites on the lower hills.
At last they reached the villages which they had perceived in the
distance, and now the first thing to be done was to see to the sick and
wounded, of whom there were a great many. They were carefully tended
by the eight surgeons who accompanied the Hellene force, and for three
days the army rested quietly in the villages. This was chiefly on
account of the sick, but partly also because they found there great
stores of wheat, barley, and wine, of which they took possession
without paying for them, because they were now at war, and in the
enemy’s country.
XXVII
THE LAST OF TISSAPHERNES
During the time that the Hellenes rested in the villages Tissaphernes
disappeared from sight, but on the fourth day, when they came out from
under cover, they found him again pursuing them with his whole army.
It was an anxious time for the Hellenes, for a large number of them
were incapacitated from fighting. Besides the wounded, there were those
who carried the wounded in litters, and those again who carried the
armour of the litter-bearers. The wagons in which the sick might have
journeyed had been burnt when they had declared war against the Great
King.
The generals were of opinion that in this crippled condition they were
no match for the enemy in the open field, and that it would be useless
to attempt to march and fight at the same time, as hitherto. So when
they found that the Persians were coming against them, they determined
to halt at the first village they should reach, and place the wounded
in safety, while the able-bodied could easily put the Persians to
flight from under the cover of the huts. Once routed, they knew that
the Persians would give them no more trouble that night, for they were
so terribly afraid of being surprised by the Hellenes that they always
pitched their camp at least six miles away from them.
This plan was carried out, and the Persians were driven back from the
village. Then, as soon as they were out of sight, the Hellenes made a
fresh start, and marched on for another six miles before encamping for
the night, so that the next day when they began their march, they had
twelve miles start of the enemy.
All that day and all the next day they were able to march steadily on
without fighting, for the Barbarians were too far behind to attack
them, but during the third night Tissaphernes also made an extra, or as
it is called, a forced march.
The Satrap had the great advantage of being able to get every
information as to the districts through which they were marching, and
knowing that the flat plain that they had been traversing ever since
the last skirmish would now be succeeded by mountainous country, he
sent forward a detachment of his troops to get in advance of the
Hellenes by taking another road, and seize a hill overlooking the way
by which they must pass.
When the Hellene vanguard approached the hill, they found it already
in possession of the enemy, and Cheirisophus sent to the rear for
Xenophon. It was clear that the Persians must be dislodged without
a moment’s delay, for already the main body of the Barbarian army,
commanded by Tissaphernes himself, could be seen approaching in the
distance.
Xenophon looked long and carefully at the height occupied by the
Persians, and saw that from the very top of the mountain above it there
was a road leading down to the place. ‘We must get up to the top of
the mountain,’ he said, ‘and from thence charge down upon the enemy and
drive them from their post. There is not a moment to lose. If you will
remain here with the rest of the army, I will attack the mountain with
the light-armed troops, or else if you will lead them thither, I will
remain below.’
‘You may choose,’ said Cheirisophus.
‘Very well then,’ answered Xenophon, ‘I will climb the mountain, for I
am the younger.’
He set off at once with the troops assigned to him, and for a time they
were concealed from the enemy by the trees and bushes which clothed
the hillside. But as soon as the Persians perceived their intention,
they also made for the higher peak, hoping to reach it before the
Hellenes. And now began a race, Hellenes and Persians climbing each by
a different road, and watching eagerly the progress of the other party.
Now one side would seem to have the advantage and now the other, while
all the time incessant shouts from below stimulated their efforts, for
on both sides it was well known how much depended on the issue.
Xenophon rode on horseback beside his men, urging them to do their
utmost. ‘Remember,’ he said, ‘that this toil is to make it possible
for you to return to your homes, your wives, and your children. Yet a
little more effort, and all the rest will be easy.’
One of the soldiers, who was named Soteridas, was a lazy, sullen
fellow, and looking enviously at Xenophon, he said, ‘It is all very
well for you to talk, Xenophon, for you can ride at your ease, but I am
groaning beneath the weight of this heavy shield.’
Instantly Xenophon sprang from his horse, seized the shield of
Soteridas, pushed him aside, and taking his place in the ranks,
struggled up the hill like a private soldier, although he was
encumbered with the heavy armour worn for riding.
The other men were delighted at this, and they did not scruple to
express their contempt for Soteridas by blows as well as taunts, until
at last the unhappy man was constrained to implore Xenophon to let him
take back his shield and share the toil of his comrades.
To this Xenophon consented, and remounting his horse, he rode as long
as it was possible to do so, but soon the road became so bad that he
was obliged to dismount and climb on foot for the rest of the way.
The Persians were but a very little distance from the crest of the
mountain when the first Hellenes reached it. The advantage was now
with them, and they at once charged. Back fled the Persians by any
path they could find, and soon there was no longer a trace either of
the detachment that had been posted on the hill, or of the main army
advancing along the plain.
The road was free, and a short march brought the Hellenes to some
villages where they could rest after the fatigues of the day. There
they found abundance of food, and were able moreover to take as spoil a
number of cows and other animals, for it happened, fortunately for the
Hellenes, that a great number were just then collected at that place in
order to be ferried across the Tigris.
This was their last encounter with Tissaphernes. Since his shameful
betrayal of their generals, he had for twenty days been following in
their track, as a pack of hounds pursues a noble stag, who nevertheless
saves himself by his courage and endurance. Taking into consideration
the enormous difference in point of numbers, the loss sustained by the
Hellenes during these twenty days was very slight. They had been more
than a match for Tissaphernes and his great army, and might well feel
proud of their superiority to the cowardly mob of Barbarians.
XXVIII
THE RIVER OR THE MOUNTAINS?
But although they had now seen the last of Tissaphernes, the Hellenes
were still a very long way from the end of their journey. Difficulties
of another and more serious kind still lay before them, and the
question of their further route caused the generals great anxiety. For
in front of the fruitful valley in which they were encamped, there
stretched before them a stern and rugged mountain-country inhabited by
a nation of savages.
The limit of this mountain district was the river Tigris, and the only
way of avoiding it was by crossing the Tigris. No path could be found
by which they could pass between the mountains and the river, for
immense rocks stretched out far over the water, so that there was not
space for even a single person to go by.
But the river was far too deep and broad to be forded, and they had
no other means of crossing. When they tried to measure its depth with
their long spears, they could not reach the bottom, even close to the
shore.
Whilst the generals were consulting together as to what could be done,
a Rhodian soldier came to them to ask for an audience, and said, ‘If
you will promise me a talent of silver,[15] and provide me with all
that I shall need for carrying out my plan, I will build you a bridge
over the Tigris capable of bearing two thousand hoplites.’
[15] A talent was equal to 243_l._ 15_s._ of our money.
Then he went on to explain his plan. ‘We have here,’ he said, ‘a great
many cows, sheep, goats and asses. All these animals must give me
their skins, for I shall want two thousand leather bags. I shall also
want all the straps used for the baggage animals. The skins must be
inflated, and tied up securely. I shall then attach one of the straps
to either end of each skin so that it can be fastened to the next
one, and steady it in the water with large stones let down from the
under side to serve as anchors. When the skins are all in their places
and fastened together, I shall cover them thoroughly with earth and
brushwood to prevent them from being slippery, and the bridge will be
complete. Each skin will bear the weight of two men, so that you will
have a bridge able to carry four thousand.’
The generals agreed that it was an excellent idea, but unhappily they
could not turn it to any account, for on the further side of the river,
troops of Persian cavalry were already collected to oppose their
crossing, and by them the men employed in working at the bridge would
be shot down one by one, long before it was sufficiently finished to
carry the soldiers across.
The crossing of the river was thus out of the question, and there
remained nothing but the road over the mountains, although they knew
not whither it led. They were like mariners driven out of their course
by violent storms, who neither know where they are, nor what is before,
or behind, or on either side of them. Gladly would the Hellenes have
given a good deal of their scanty store of money for a small sheet of
paper which to-day can be bought anywhere for a few pence,--a map of
the country that lay before them. But in those days no such thing had
ever been heard of.
All they could do was to question the prisoners, and from them they
learnt that southwards, in the direction from whence they had come,
were the provinces of Babylonia and Media, to the east were the cities
of Susa and Babylon, to the west the provinces of Lydia and Ionia, and
that the road northwards over the mountains would lead them through the
land of the Carduchians, a fierce, war-loving race, who had never been
conquered. Once the Great King had sent into their country an army of
120,000 men, to subdue them, but of all that great host not one had
ever seen his home again.
If the Hellenes should succeed in getting through the country of the
Carduchians, they would then reach the province of Armenia, and after
that they would be able to journey on without further hindrance.
XXIX
THE CARDUCHIANS
Although in themselves not very formidable enemies, within the limits
of their own country the Carduchians were almost invincible. It was
a mountainous district, in which the hills rose sheer and steep from
the rich, fertile valleys lying far below, where the Carduchians built
their houses and pastured their flocks.
They seldom risked coming to close quarters with their enemies, but
contented themselves with shooting from a distance at any intruders who
might be rash enough to enter their country. This method of warfare was
the more effective as they had considerable skill as marksmen, and were
beyond the possibility of pursuit. Every path and every recess of their
wild mountain country was familiar to them, and they were extremely
agile, being accustomed from their childhood to clamber up and down the
rocks like cats. Moreover they had the advantage of being burdened with
no armour and but little clothing, and they carried no weapons but bows
and slings.
Their bows and arrows were unusually large, the bow measuring nearly
three cubits in length, and the arrows more than two cubits. In order
to shoot, they rested the lower end of the bow on the ground, and
placed one foot upon it; then, drawing back the string as far as it
would go, they discharged the arrow with such force that it was able
to pierce right through a leather jerkin, and penetrate deep into the
flesh beneath.
With this barbarous people the Hellenes were most anxious to remain
at peace, and they desired nothing better than to be allowed to pass
quietly through the country, paying for everything that they might be
obliged to take, in order to supply themselves with food. The prisoners
who had told them about the defeat of the Persian army, had spoken also
of an alliance made by the Carduchians with the satrap of the province
nearest their country. With him they had established an occasional
exchange of friendly intercourse, but as they hated all the other
Persians as bitterly as ever, the Hellenes hoped that on the principle
that ‘The enemy of my enemy is my friend,’ the Carduchians might be
inclined to regard them with favour, and make a treaty with them.
Nevertheless they resolved to enter the country very cautiously, and
after having offered sacrifices and prayers to the gods, that their
enterprise might be brought to a successful issue, they set out
while it was still dark in the hope of crossing the first mountain
unperceived. By daybreak they were in the country of the Carduchians,
Cheirisophus leading the van, which included all the light-armed
troops, Xenophon in the rear commanding the hoplites, while the
camp-followers as usual marched in the centre.
Cheirisophus passed unobserved over the crest of the mountain, and
on the further side, found several villages scattered about in the
ravines and recesses of the country. Great was the astonishment of the
inhabitants at the unexpected appearance of the Hellene soldiers. They
came pouring out of their houses, and although the Hellenes made signs
of friendliness, and called out that they had no wish to injure them,
they would not stop to listen, but fled away into the mountains with
their wives and children.
Meanwhile the rear was still crossing the height over which
Cheirisophus had just passed in safety. The road was narrow, and
the long line of combatants and camp-followers could make but slow
progress. Night had fallen before those in the extreme rear could reach
the villages, and on their way, they were attacked by the terrified
Carduchians who had fled at the approach of Cheirisophus. Some of them
were killed, and others wounded, with stones and arrows. Happily the
enemy were as yet but few in number, or they might have sustained more
serious loss.
The Hellenes established themselves for the night in the villages of
which they had been left in possession, and found in the houses many
vessels and utensils of brass, but as they still hoped to enter into
peaceful relations with the Carduchians, they took no spoil, excepting
only such food as was necessary. There was no one from whom to buy, and
so they were obliged to help themselves.
During the night they were left undisturbed, but great bonfires could
be seen flaming away upon the tops of the mountains. They had been set
alight by the Carduchians in order that the signal might be passed on
from point to point, all over the country, to call together all the
people to defend their land from the strangers who had entered it.
There could no longer be any doubt that the Carduchians were determined
to regard the Hellenes as enemies, and again the generals and captains
met in consultation. As on the occasion when they had declared war
against the Great King, they determined to leave behind everything
that could possibly be spared. All prisoners were set free, and of the
transport animals they retained only such of the strongest as were
quite indispensable. By this means it became possible to reduce the
quantity of provisions to be carried, and moreover the men who had been
formerly employed in attending to the discarded animals could now be
added to the fighting force.
The soldiers were informed of the decision arrived at, and desired to
be ready for a fresh start immediately after the morning meal. Then the
generals placed themselves at a narrow part of the road, and as the
army marched past, took away from the men anything that they might have
tried to carry off in defiance of the order.
The day did not pass without several skirmishes with the Carduchians,
but for the most part they were able to march on steadily without
serious fighting.
XXX
SEIZING A PASS
On the following day a great snow-storm made it difficult for the
Hellenes to continue their march. Nevertheless they were obliged to go
forward, as they had not a sufficient supply of food. The Carduchians
now beset them in greater numbers than before, and harassed them with
showers of stones and arrows, especially whenever they were hindered by
coming to a part of the road that was particularly narrow.
Xenophon, who led the rear-guard, was several times obliged to halt and
drive back the enemy, giving as he did so, a signal with the trumpets,
in order that Cheirisophus and the van might wait for him. No sooner
did the Hellenes turn and prepare to charge, than the Carduchians
disappeared as if by magic, but in a very short time they were again in
the rear, shooting at them as before.
At first Cheirisophus waited for the hoplites, so that they had no
great difficulty in keeping up with the rest of the army, but after a
time he took no more notice of the signals, and the distance between
the van and the rear became greater and greater, until at last the
march of Xenophon and his men was more like a flight than a retreat,
whilst all the time they were exposed to the arrows and missiles of the
enemy.
When in the evening they rejoined their comrades, Xenophon complained
to Cheirisophus of the want of consideration he had shown in obliging
the men to run and fight at the same time. In consequence of this,
several of them, he said, had fallen, amongst whom were two of the
best, and moreover it had been impossible to rescue their bodies.
Among the Hellenes it was regarded as a terrible calamity if anything
interfered to prevent the dead from receiving funeral honours. If
nothing else could be done, the corpse must at least be solemnly
sprinkled with earth in the name of the gods, or the shade of the dead
man would find no rest in the Lower World.