NEPAL PROPER.
Name.—History previous to the Conquest by the Gorkhalis.—Extent and
Topography.—Population.—Buildings.—Revenue.—Trade.—Coins.—Weights.—
Measures.—Agriculture.—Tenures.—Crown Lands.—Lands held for
Service.—Charity Lands.—Tenants.—Implements.—Crops.—Manufactures.—Price
of Labour.—Slaves.—Diet.
I must next proceed to describe Nepal Proper, which is bounded on the
east, south, and south-west, by the territory above mentioned. I have to
regret, that various restraints, by which my inquiries were checked,
while at Kathmandu, prevented me from obtaining much information that I
was anxious to procure. In particular, I obtained little or no
information concerning the history of the princes who governed Nepal at
the time of the conquest; except that the Newars had been long subject to
a family of their own nation, all the members of which assumed the name
of Mal, and, for some time previous to the conquest, had separated into
three lordships, Kathmandu or Kathmaro, Lalita Patan, and Bhatgang, which
circumstance greatly facilitated the enterprise of the chief of Gorkha.
Nepal is a country celebrated in Hindu fable, and is said to be written
thus in the Purans, attributed to Vyas; but in the country itself, it is
commonly said, that its proper name is Niyampal, derived from a certain
Niyam, a Muni, or very holy person, the Nymuni of Colonel Kirkpatrick.
{187a} This, however, is probably some modern conceit, as the Brahmans
of both south and north agree in writing the name Nepala, or Nepal, and
as the fables on which this etymology is built, as Colonel Kirkpatrick
justly observes, {187b} merit no attention.
As I myself procured little or no historical account of Nepal Proper,
previous to its conquest by the Raja of Gorkha, I might altogether refer
on the subject to Colonel Kirkpatrick’s account, contained in his eighth
chapter; but for the sake of connection, and in order to communicate my
opinions on the subject, I shall here give an abstract of Colonel
Kirkpatrick’s account, referring to his own work for particulars.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {187c} quotes books, which he calls Hurrumunt Khund
and Ooter Khund, probably portions of the Sri Bhagwat, for copious
details concerning Nepal, during the time that it continued one of the
favourite haunts of the Hindu deities, that is, during the Satya Yug, or
Golden age; nor have we any reason to regret, that, instead of detailing
such idle fables, he has contented himself with a mere reference to this
work. Afterwards he goes on to give a series of princes, who are said to
have governed Nepal in subsequent ages, commencing with Niyam Muni, or as
he writes Nymuni. In this part of his work Colonel Kirkpatrick quotes no
authority; but, as he brings the lists down to the termination of the
Newar dynasty in 1767, his authorities are probably quite modern, and, as
he supports the doctrine of the Newars having come from Gar Samaran,
which they deny, his authorities must be founded on the legends of the
Brahmans, much of which probably may be inventions perfectly recent, but
some foundation may have been taken from ancient works, mangled to suit
them for modern systems of Hindu chronology.
However this may be, Niyam Muni and his eight descendants are said {188a}
to have governed during the Treta and Dwapar Yugs, or the Silver and
Brazen Ages, which, according to the present system, lasted for many
hundred thousand years. The eight successors of Niyam Muni governed
{188b} four hundred and ninety-one one-third years, which requires rather
an unwarrantable stretch of faith to believe; but, even admitting this,
what remains to Niyam Muni is altogether beyond measure. This, perhaps,
is owing to the works originally consulted having been composed before
the present system of chronology was invented. It is more to the purpose
to observe, that these princes have Sangskrita names, and therefore
probably came from the plains; and that, except Niyam and his immediate
successor, all of them are called Gupt; which shows that they were of the
cow-herd tribe.
This dynasty was deprived of power by Bhul Singh of the Rajput tribe, and
descended of Mehip Gopal, who came from Semrounghur (Gar Samaran) and
Jamnukpou, (Janakipur.) He and his two descendants both having
Sangskrita names, governed a hundred and eleven seven-twelfth years. Gar
Samaran, it must be observed, was not built for many ages after the time
of this dynasty; but Bhul Singh may have come from Janakipur, which was
in the vicinity of the place where Gar Samaran was afterwards built.
Whatever title these princes may have assumed, there is no reason to
suppose that they were of the ancient Kshatriyas, descended of the sun,
who resided at Janakipur, and governed Mithila, as no such name as Mehip
Gopal appears in any list of the princes of Mithila that I have seen.
Indeed, the title Gopal rather implies, that, like the former dynasty,
the descendants of Mehip belonged to the low tribe of cow-herds.
This dynasty, whatever may have been its origin, was expelled by the
Kerrats, (Kiratas,) of whom 27 princes governed 1630 years. The names of
these princes, as might be expected, from what I have said of the tribe
Kirata, are entirely barbarous.
The barbarian Kiratas were expelled by Nevesit, a Chetree (Kshatriya) of
the Surejbunsi (Suryabangsi) race, of whose descendants 33 princes
governed 1702 years. These princes had Sangskrita names, although
Colonel Kirkpatrick, {189a} speaking of one of them, who built the temple
of Sambhunath, says, that they were Thibetians, who, after having been
expelled by the Newars, obtained the name of Khat Bhotiyas, which they
preserve to this day. Many of them took the title of Burmah, {189b} on
which account Colonel Kirkpatrick calls them Burmahs, probably meaning
Varmas; and it is probable that these are the Varmas celebrated in the
Purans, and had no connection with the Burmas of Ava, as Dr Leyden
supposed. {189c} Both, indeed, were of the sect of Buddha, who are
usually called Brahmas by the Hindus, and the word Burma, Burmah, or
Birmah, is probably a corruption of that appellation.
The Ahirs, (Ahiras, another name for cow-herds,) who were originally the
sovereigns of Nepal, then recovered their dominions, and three of them
governed 175 years. These must have been descendants of Niyam Muni.
They have Sangskrita names, with the addition of Gupt, to mark their
descent and tribe.
After these the Burmahs, descended of Nevesit, again recovered Nepal, and
during 46 reigns governed 1869-1/6th years, which, by some error in the
printing, or addition, is made 2869-1/12 years. Three sons of the last
of these 46 princes governed successively, but the length of their reigns
is not stated. One of them left a daughter, named Suttey Naik Deby,
(probably Satya Nayeka Devi,) and married to Harrir Chander Deo,
(probably Harihara Chandra Deva,) Raja of Banaras, by whom she had a
daughter, Raj Letchmi, (Raya Lakshmi,) who was queen of Nepal.
This lady was succeeded by Hurr Singh Deo Raja of Semrour, (Hari Singha
Deva of Samaran,) who introduced the Newars, and {190} expelled the
Thibetians, now called Kath Bhotiyas, who since occupy chiefly the
mountains near Kuti. This event happened in the Newar year 444, (A.D.
1323.)
The length of time allotted in the preceding account to these reigns is
quite inadmissible, and on an average, I think, that more than ten years
should not be allowed for each. According to this, we may form the
following estimate.
Niyam and his eight descendants would govern 90 years, beginning A.D. 33,
nearly about the time that Sakya introduced the doctrine of the Buddhas
into these mountainous regions, and it was he who probably introduced
Sangskrita names, and any considerable degree of civility among the
mountain tribes. We know abundantly, that most of the successors of
Niyam continued to adhere to the doctrine of Sakiya, as the Kiratas
Burmahs and Newars occupy by far the greatest portion of the subsequent
space, and were no doubt of the sect of Bouddha.
The three descendants of Mehip Gopal would govern 30 years, beginning
A.D. 173.
The Kiratas would govern 270 years, commencing A.D. 303.
The Bhotiyas, descended of Nevesit, would govern at first 330 years,
beginning A.D. 473.
The descendants of Niyam Muni, after recovering their old patrimony,
would govern 30 years, beginning A.D. 803.
The Bhotiyas would again govern 490 years, beginning A.D. 833.
In the account of the Newars I have already stated, that this people
totally deny their having come from the plains, or that their princes
were descended of Hari Singha of Gar Samaran, and the people of Mithila,
in which Gar Samaran is situated, altogether deny that Hari Singha ever
left their country. I am therefore inclined to suppose, that the Mal
family, which afterwards governed Nepal, are in fact the descendants of
the last queen of the Burmah race, who, under the influence of her father
from Banaras, may have introduced the doctrine of cast, and other
customs, in which the Newars differ from the Thibetians, and thus
separated their subjects from that portion of their tribe who retained
their ancient customs, and who were afterwards distinguished by the name
of Khat Bhotiyas.
Jat Mull, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick, {191} in the sixth generation
from the founder of the Newar dynasty, was a great conqueror; but divided
his kingdom into the three principalities which existed when the country
was conquered by the Gorkhalis. Runjeet Mull (Ranjit Mal) of Bhatgang,
in the seventh generation from Jat Mull, entered into a league with
Prithwi Narayan of Gorkha against Kathmandu, which ended in the total
subjugation of his house in the year 1767, so that thirteen generations
held the government for 444 years, which coincides very exactly with the
calculation of the venerable Herodotus.
The finest parts of Nepal consist of two delightful vallies separated
from each other by the mountain Chandangiri; but these vallies, called
Great and Little Nepal, do not include the whole of Nepala Desa, which is
one of the fifty-six regions of Hindu geography. It extends also a
considerable way over the countries watered by streams which run from the
outside of the mountains that inclose the greater valley, and which fall
into the Gandaki on the west, and the Kausiki on the east. The real
boundaries are four celebrated places of pilgrimage; Nilkantha, eight
days’ journey north from Kathmandu; Nateswar, three days’ journey south;
Kaleswar, two days’ journey west; and Bhimeswar, four days’ journey east.
The whole territory between these places is holy ground, and is properly
called Dhama. This holy land, according to the Brahmans, is inhabited by
5,600,000 Bhairawas and Bhairawis. The former are male spirits of Maha
Deva, or Siva, and the latter are female spirits of the Sakti, who is the
wife, the mother, and the divine power of that deity. The whole
territory within these boundaries was not, however, subject to the Newan
chiefs who governed Nepal, and a large part in the vicinity of Nilkantha
in particular, until the rise of the house of Gorkha, was subject to
Thibet.
Nilkantha is a place much frequented by pilgrims, and which would seem to
possess many natural curiosities. I therefore shall here annex an
account of the best route to it, in hopes that it may be of use to some
fortunate traveller, who may procure access to visit the Alps of Nepal.
The traveller ought to proceed to Yogimara, the route to which I have
mentioned before.
From Yogimara it is one day’s journey north and east to Mahes Domohana, a
large village on a hill, at the junction of the Mahes with the
Trisulgangga. The Mahes rises at Bhenjhongga, a village three coses west
from Kirtipur, in the greater valley of Nepal.
From Mahes Domohana to Devighat is a distance of 2½ days’ journey, with
not above two or three villages on the whole route. Devighat is a large
village, where the Tazi or Tadi joins the Trisulgangga, and where there
are annually several assemblies for the people to bathe at the junction
of the streams. Kanak Nidhi, it must be observed, places a Devighat much
lower down, at the junction of the Trisulgangga with the Gandi, but the
Devi Ghat at the junction of the Tadi and Trisulgangga, or Daiby Ghaut,
as he calls it, is that described by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {193} at
considerable length. It is dedicated to Maha Maia, or Bhawani,
concerning whom, Colonel Kirkpatrick, or his editor, seems to have fallen
into several errors, saying, “that Bhowani is Daiby, (so he writes the
words,) in her character of universal mother, or in other words Nature.”
Now, Devi and Bhawani have exactly the same meaning, that is, the
Goddess; and Maha Maia is not universal mother, but great mother; nor is
Bhawani ever worshipped as the Genetrix naturæ, as universal mother might
imply, but as the Sakti, or power of Siva, who is the God of destruction,
and her worship is entirely that of fear.
North from this Devighat, six hours’ (two pahars) journey, is Nayakot, a
town of Nepal Proper, situated on a hill, on the east side of the
Trisulgangga. It contains about 12,000 houses, mostly occupied by
Newars, and is built of brick like Kathmandu. The Court often retires
here in the winter, the situation being warmer than Kathmandu. The town
is situated on a hill, overhanging a valley, which Colonel Kirkpatrick
{194} estimates to be 2200 feet lower than Kathmandu, on which account,
it is not habitable after the middle of April, being subject to the Ayul.
From Nayakot north, one day’s journey, is Dhayabung, a village chiefly
inhabited by Bhotiyas, and situated on a high hill at the Bitrawati ghat.
The Bitrawati comes from the east, and has a course of four or five
hours’ (1½ pahar) journey in length.
North from Dhayabung, one day’s journey, is Dhunchi, a Bhotiya village,
on a large hill, south from the Trisulgangga.
From Dhunchi east, one day’s journey, is Dhimsa, a large Bhotiya village,
not now subject to Gorkha. From Dhimsa to Gosaingsthan there are no
inhabitants, and the country is covered with snow. Three hours’ journey
from Dhimsa, the pilgrims come to Ganes Gongera, where there is an image
of Ganes, to which the pilgrims resort. They then proceed about seven or
eight hours’ journey (two or three pahars) to Bara Nilkantha, where,
during the fair, there are many shops. There are eight springs, one of
which is hot, and emits a blue flame from its surface. East from thence
one-half cose, is a pool called Gaurikunda. Another pool, named
Suryakunda, is about one-half cose farther east; and immediately beyond
that, rises the immense peak of Gosaingsthan, from the east-side of which
a branch of the Kausiki issues. On a mountain south from Gosaingsthan,
and called Mahamandal, are found lead, zinc, or tutenague, mica in large
plates, and rock crystal.
From Dhunchi there is a road to Kerung, one day’s journey north. This
has lately been ceded to the Chinese by the governors of Nepal.
Considerable illustrations of this route up the Trisulgangga, by Nayakot
to Nilkantha, and Kerung, {195} may be found in the 5th Chapter of
Kirkpatrick’s Account of Nepaul, page 107, etc.
I have already given an account of the Newars, and of the mineral
productions of the valley of Nepal, and now proceed to treat of some
other circumstances, relating partly to the former, and partly to the
present state of things, when Nepal has become the seat of a foreign
government; although by this arrangement, I must here detail much of what
I have to state concerning the family which now reigns, and to which I
must afterwards return.
The following is the route to Kathmandu, by which I went to that city,
and which is the one most frequented by merchants from the low country,
especially by those trading to Patna, which is the principal mart for
this commerce.
From the Company’s boundary near the Bera river are about ten miles to
Gar Pasara, over an open plain, little of which is cultivated. An old
fort, and many plantations of Mango trees, show that formerly it has been
in a better state. We crossed the Bera, and passed some way along the
banks of another river. Even in the end of March, these rivers are full
of water, and contain no large banks of sand, as is usual in India. With
industry, they might be applied most advantageously to irrigate the
fields. The water is dirty, and owing to the quantity of rotten
vegetable matter which it brings from the forest, and which at this
season is little diluted, it is reckoned very unwholesome. Gar Pasara is
a small village with a large tank. Near it is a brick house built by
Singha Pratap, the present Raja of Gorkha’s grandfather, who in the cold
season sometimes resided in the Tariyani, on the improvement of which he
bestowed considerable attention.
From Gar Pasara to Bichhakor is about fourteen miles. The three first
miles are clear, the remainder passes through a stately forest, with
little or no underwood, but some long grass and reeds. For seven miles
the ground in the forest is nearly level, and a very little trouble would
make the road fit for carts. The remaining road passes along the lower
part of some small hills, which are rather stony, and it crosses the
rough and wide channels of some torrents, which in the cold season are
perfectly dry; yet a small labour would render the whole way from Gar
Pasara to Bichhakor passable for carts. At present it is perfectly good
for laden cattle. There is no water by the way. Bichhakor contains
about a dozen huts, and affords no supplies except wood and water, of
which last there is a very fine spring, and several small streams in a
very wide stony channel, the only clear place in the vicinity.
Bichhakor derives its name from the place abounding in scorpions. There
is no cultivation near it, and the only inhabitants are a few Parbatiyas,
or mountain Hindus. They reside at the place to collect some duties, and
for the accommodation of travellers, and by long habit have become inured
to the climate, and enabled to resist its baneful influence, which, from
the end of March, till the beginning of December, is exceedingly
destructive to all strangers. The temperature of the air at Bichhakor is
sensibly cooler than at Gar Pasara, and we found the heat of the spring
to be 74° Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which may be considered as the
average heat of the place.
From Bichhakor to Hethaura is about sixteen miles. For the first seven
miles the channel serves as a road; but both sides consist of low steep
hills and precipices; the former covered with thick woods, among which
are many pines. The ascent on the whole is considerable, but is nowhere
steep; and with a little pains, the road might be made very good for
loaded oxen, or even for light carriages. Even now, cattle convey along
it on their backs the usual burthen of grain. About seven miles from
Bichhakor, the road proceeds to the right from the channel, through a
very strong pass called Chiriyaghat, or bird passage. It is commanded by
two hills, which are less than a mile from the river, and which, although
steep, are not high. The road between them is narrow, but in other
respects is not bad. Colonel Kirkpatrick {197} considers Chiriyaghat as
the name of the whole ridge, and not as that of the pass, as the name
would seem to imply, and as I understood. From Chiriyaghat to Hethaura,
the road is very good for loaded cattle, and might be easily rendered fit
for carts. It descends gently through a country that rises into small
swells, and has few trees, but is intersected by several dry water
courses. About a mile from Hethaura, the Karara, coming from the east,
passes the road. The ford is perfectly easy, and the road from thence to
Hethaura is good, leading through a stately forest. From Chiriyaghat to
Hethaura, there is no water except the Karara, a dirty black stream,
which it is unsafe to drink, being black and unwholesome.
The route to Hethaura above described by Gar Pasara, or as he writes it
Goolpussra, {198a} or Goorpussra, {198b} according to Colonel
Kirkpatrick, possesses decided advantages over that by the Bhareh pass,
situated farther east.
Hethaura stands on a fine plain, about a mile wide, which is bounded on
the north by the Raputi, and on the south by the Karara. The soil of
this plain is good, but none of it is cultivated, and most of it is
covered with stately forests of the Sakhuya or Sal, which are kept clear
of underwood, by burning at this season the fallen leaves and dry grass.
This is done to all the forests in the neighbourhood, and every night of
my stay, the surrounding hills were illuminated in a very grand manner.
The Raputi is a beautiful rapid clear stream, which, having come from the
north, turns here to the west, and after having been joined by the Karara
some way below, passes till it joins the Gandaki, through a valley, the
lower part of which is cultivated, but all near Hethaura is waste,
although the plain there would admit of a considerable extent of
cultivation, should ever the jealousy of the Nepal government be so far
removed as to allow the forests to be cleared. This, however, is not
likely soon to be the case, as these forests increase the insalubrity of
the air at Hethaura, which is one of the most important stations that
could be chosen by invaders coming from the south. All kind of stores
and provisions can be transported to it with ease, and it is a fine
situation, admitting of a large camp. This might be secured by taking
Makwanpur, a fortress situated about five miles to the eastward on a high
hill. The people of Nepal are very jealous concerning Makwanpur,
Hariharpur, and Sinduli, as the possession of these would give an enemy
the entire command of the Tariyani.
The heat at Hethaura is much more temperate than that of the Tariyani;
but, as the warm season advances, the air becomes exceedingly unhealthy,
which seems to be chiefly owing to the want of cultivation.
For the accommodation of merchants, Hethaura has a brick building, which
surrounds a square court. There are also a few shops.
From Hethaura to Bhimphedi is a distance of about eighteen miles, leading
through a narrow defile, between high and steep hills, overgrown with
thick woods. The Raputi winds through the defile in an extraordinary
manner, so that it is crossed twenty-two times by the way. It is a
strong, rapid, clear stream, not too deep to prevent it from being easily
forded, so far as the water is concerned; but the channel is filled with
rounded slippery stones, that render the fords very bad; when we went,
bridges had therefore been constructed of trees laid from stone to stone,
and covered with earth, so that cattle might have passed with tolerable
ease, nor is the road very bad. From Hethaura to Bhimphedi is usually
reckoned one day’s journey; but in returning, I halted by the way, on a
clear space, called Maka Paka, which, although of small extent, and
uneven, afforded abundance of wood and water; while at Bhimphedi the
supply of the latter is scanty, and it is practicable from Maka Paka to
go over the hill of Chisapani, and in one day to reach the fine rivulet
called Panauni, which is on its north side. Between Maka Paka and
Hethaura are a few cleared spots, like it cultivated by rude tribes, who
shun all communication with travellers, and dwell in the recesses of
forests which protect them from the Gorkhalese.
About fourteen miles from Hethaura, and a little way from Maka Paka, the
road leaves the immediate bank of the Raputi, and ascends a very steep
and strong bank, called Dokaphedi, from whence to Bhimphedi there is a
fine level.
At Bhimphedi, the valley of the Raputi entirely ceases, and the high
mountains called Lama Dangra divide it from the country on the north
watered by the branches of the Vagmati. A large channel, one of the
branches of the Raputi, passes Bhimphedi; but in the dry season it
contains no water, and the inhabitants receive a scanty supply from a
small spring. Water, however, might probably be procured in abundance,
by digging wells in the channel of the torrent.
The height of Bhimphedi, above Hethaura, is very considerable, and the
influence of the Ayul is much later in extending there, owing to the
coolness of the air. At sunrise, on the 8th April, while the thermometer
in the air was at 67° of Fahrenheit’s scale, it sunk to 63° upon being
immersed into the spring. This may be considered as the average heat of
the place, which is about 27° 30′ of north latitude. Here the mercury in
our barometer sunk out of sight below the scale, which descended only to
twenty-six inches; nor during our stay in Nepal did the mercury ever
reach that height. At Bhimphedi, the vegetable productions put on a
strong resemblance to those of Europe. It is a small village inhabited
by Parbatiyas, and where some public buildings have been erected for the
accommodation of passengers. Some shops afford grain, and such articles
of consumption as Hindu travellers usually require.
From Bhimphedi to the copper mine (Tamrakhani) on the Panauni, is about
5½ miles over the chain of mountains called Lamadangra, and by the pass
called Chisapani. The mountain is of great elevation, and very steep,
but not very rugged; nor are the woods thick, although the trees are
lofty. Except in steepness, the road is not bad.
About a mile and a half from Bhimphedi, I came to a fort called
Chisapani, considered as the bulwark of Nepal; but it is by no means
fitted to inspire us with respect for the skill of the engineers of
Gorkha. It is situated on the declivity of the hill, so that an
assailant might go round by the right, and when he had got above it, even
with musquetry, the garrison could not show their faces on the works.
Its form will be understood from the sketch.
[Picture: Chisapani Fort]
The center in which the gates are is commanded by the two wings. The
whole is built of brick, without any ditch. The wall on the upper side
is about thirteen feet high; but on the lower front, the height of the
parapet being carried round on a level, the elevation may be eighteen
feet. This fort is always guarded by a company of seapoys; and, if fully
garrisoned, might contain two hundred men. Round the fort a space has
been cleared from trees; but so steep is the hill, that an enemy resting
at the edge of the forest, and within two hundred yards of the fort, is
not from thence visible. Immediately above the fort is a small village
and market, (bazar;) but the Hindu engineers have been so improvident,
that the only supply of water is about half a mile higher up the
mountain. There, near the road, is a small spring of fine clear water,
like that at Bhimphedi. It is called Chisa Pani, or the cold water, and
is reckoned unwholesome, probably from people having suffered by drinking
it rashly, when they have been heated by ascending the hill: for being a
pure spring, it is probably excellent water.
For about a mile beyond the spring, the road continues to ascend,
although with a more moderate declivity than below the fort. At the
summit of the hill are some old fortifications, which were said to form
the boundary between Nepal Proper and Makwanpur. The view from thence is
said to be very grand, but a thick haze in all directions hindered me
from seeing any thing except the neighbouring hills.
From this summit to the Panauni river, there is a very steep descent of
about two miles through a beautiful forest of oaks, which is clear from
underwood, and ornamented with the purple flowers of a large
rhododendron, and with innumerable parasitical plants, having splendid
and odorous flowers. In this forest, on account of its northern
exposure, the pine does not thrive. The road over this mountain called
Chisapani, is on the whole fatiguing; nor will it admit of any load being
transported by cattle. To conduct a road over such a mountain, with
proper slopes, so as to enable carriages to pass, is a work not to be
expected from the natives, who, even if they were able to contrive such a
work, would be afraid to put it in execution; as they would consider it
as likely to afford too free an intercourse with their more powerful
neighbours; and jealousy of strangers is the predominant principle in the
Nepal government.
The Panauni is a clear rapid stream, with various branches, which come
from the west and north, and water the country called Lahuri, or Little
Nepal. All these branches unite where the road descends from Chisapani,
and run to the east to join the Vagmati. Having crossed the Panauni
twice, and observed in its channel numerous large masses of grey granite,
I halted to breakfast at a small village named Tamra Khani. Near it is a
productive copper mine, which the jealousy of the people hindered me from
seeing, nor could I procure any of the ore, except a few small fragments.
Tamra Khani, or the copper mine, is a small village inhabited by mountain
Hindus, (Parbatiyas,) and situated in a very narrow part of the valley,
which is straitened by an insulated hill on the north side of the river.
Although its situation is low, yet being subject to continual high winds,
this place is by the natives considered as very cold.
From thence I proceeded about six miles, and having at first followed the
principal stream of the Panauni, and then one of its branches, I halted a
little beyond Chitlong, after having had a good view of Lahuri Nepal.
Except in dimensions, this so much resembles the larger valley, that I
need not take up much time in its description. The road through it
frequently crosses the river, and ascends a steep hill above a village
named Marku; but this might be in a great measure avoided. The whole
valley is not only clear of woods, but very bare. Its surface is
extremely uneven, but is finely watered by numerous springs and rivulets,
so that it is well cultivated, and produces much grain. The whole
appearance of Lahuri Nepal, and its vegetable productions, strongly
resemble those of the wilder parts of Britain; and, during my stay, I was
entertained with the note of an old acquaintance, the cuckoo. The air of
the higher part of the valley where we encamped is much cooler than that
of Kathmandu, and was so sharp to our relaxed habits, that our winter
clothing became comfortable, although Chitlong is situated nearly in
twenty-seven degrees and a half of north latitude. I judge from the
temperature of the springs, as they issue from the earth, that its mean
heat is 58½ degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale. The winters, however, are
never severe; and at that season the fields produce a crop of wheat,
while in summer they yield one of rice. The great inferiority of this
country, when compared with the mountains of Europe, consists in its
pasture, which is very poor. It is, however, of a more nourishing
quality than the rank grass of the Tariyani; for the cattle of Chitlong
are in excellent condition when compared with those below the mountains.
Lahuri Nepal formerly belonged to the Raja of Lalita Patan. Its chief
town called Chitlong, is well built, and its inhabitants are mostly
Newars.
From Chitlong is about four miles to Thankot in the greater valley of
Nepal. The road is very bad and rough, and conducts through forests over
a mountain named Chandangiri, and nearly as difficult of ascent and
descent as Chisapani. It derives its name, signifying sandal mountain,
from one of the fables in the Hindu mythology, which states, that the
goddess Parwati, the wife of Siva, rubbed herself with the powder of this
fragrant wood while she sat on the mountain. Colonel Kirkpatrick calls
this Chandraghiri, or the Mountain of the Moon. {204} On the highest
part of the pass a house has been built for the accommodation of
passengers. In the wooden carved work of this building are some very
indecent figures, which by the natives are considered as fit ornaments,
even in places erected from religious motives, as all these houses for
the accommodation of travellers are.
Thankot is a small town, finely supplied with wood and water. It stands
on a rocky eminence at the south west corner of the valley of Nepal, in a
district separated from the other parts of the plain by a low ridge of
hills. On the most conspicuous part of this ridge stands Kirtipur, a
considerable town. This part of the valley seems to be a good deal
elevated above the portion which contains Kathmandu; and I found the heat
of a spring in a small wood above Thankot to be 59½ degrees of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. From Thankot to Kathmandu is about seven miles
over very uneven cultivated fields, with no roads but foot-paths.
The larger valley of Nepal is somewhat of a circular form, and is watered
by numerous branches of the Vagmati, which flow from the surrounding
hills towards the centre, and unite into one stream a little way south
from the capital. From the place of junction the Vagmati runs south, and
goes to the Tariyani, after having forced a passage through the
mountains. Taken in the largest sense, therefore, the valley of Nepal
comprehends all the grounds watered by these branches of the Vagmati,
and, according to this definition, it is about twenty-two miles from east
to west, and twenty miles from north to south. This extent is every
where bounded by a chain of hills, all of which are steep, and some of
them rise into high mountains. Of these the most remarkable are Shiva,
or Siwapuri, on the north, Nagarjun on the west, Chandangiri on the
south-west, Pulihu on the south east, and Devikot on the east. It must
be observed, that from these hills, various branches reach a considerable
way into the plain, and separate from it small vallies, most of which are
considerably elevated above the general level, and from these vallies
issue the various streams by which the country is irrigated. The larger
valley, reduced by these branches, may be about fourteen miles each way.
A person placed in the centre of this extent would consider the whole as
one great level, but on travelling about, he frequently comes to very
deep hollows, excavated by the various branches of the river, which flow
with a very gentle current in large sandy channels. Except after heavy
rains, these are almost always fordable, and are commonly sunk fifty or
sixty feet perpendicular below the general level of the plain.
It appears evident to me, that Colonel Kirkpatrick {206} judged rightly
in supposing that this valley has formerly been a lake, which has
gradually deposited all the alluvial matter that now forms the different
substrata of the plain. The extent of the lake may in all places be
traced by that of the alluvial matters, above the edges of which
generally appear irregularly shaped large stones, which, having rolled
down from the hills, stopped at the water’s edge as usual in the lakes of
hilly countries. The memory of the lake is preserved in the fables
contained in the books of the natives, which mention the deity by whom
the mountain was cleft to drain off the water, together with numerous
circumstances connected with this event. The following is an account of
these fables that was communicated to me by Colonel Crawford. When the
valley of Nepal was an immense lake, an incarnation of Buddha was born in
that country. A petition was therefore made to the gods requesting that
the lake might be drained, that the valley might be filled with
inhabitants, and that thus the number of the followers of Buddha might
increase. The gods attended to this petition, and ordered Menjoo Dev’ to
evacuate the waters by making a cut through the mountains. This he
performed with one blow of his scimitar, and ever since, the waters of
the Vagmati have flowed through the gap, which he then formed. The
spirit who had presided over the lake was a large serpent, who, finding
his water become scanty, and the dry land beginning every where to
appear, became exceedingly wroth, but he was pacified by the gods, who
formed for his residence a miraculous tank, which is situated a little to
the southward of Lalita Patan. This tank has a number of angles, all of
which cannot be seen at once from any station; they can only, therefore,
be numbered by walking round the tank; the miraculous nature of which, in
the opinion of the natives, is fully demonstrated by no two persons who
make the attempt to number these angles, being able to agree concerning
this important point.
The Brahmans, it must be observed, have invented another story, equally
extravagant, and attribute the blow which cleared the valley to Anirudha,
the grandson of Krishna, who at the same time killed Sangkhasur, who
until then had been lord of Nepal.
The Vagmati must always have flowed from the valley, to carry away the
vast body of water collected in the rainy season, and which evidently was
confined by a narrow ledge of rocks, which crosses the channel of the
river, where it enters the southern mountainous district. At that time
the bottom of the lake must have been a smooth cavity, and it must have
been surrounded by small narrow glens, pouring their streams into the
lake, as they now do into the valley. As the river gradually wore away
the rock, over which it must have been precipitated in a cataract, the
water in the lake would subside, and the various streams running from the
glens would form deep excavations in the soft matter that had formerly
been deposited by the water; and this operation would go on, till the
ledge of rock was entirely worn away, and a stop was put to the sinking
of the river, by the immerse mass of rock opposed to its influence.
While the lake existed, there must have appeared in it two islands, which
now form hills. The one is called Sambhunath, or rather Swayambhunath,
as being, in the opinion of the Bouddhists of Nepal and Thibet, a
favourite residence of the Supreme Being. It is an elegant hill, with
two peaks occupied by religious buildings, and covered with the most
stately trees. It is a conspicuous object from almost every part of the
valley, and every where appears to great advantage.
The description given of the Temple of Buddha on this hill by Colonel
Kirkpatrick {208} is not very accurate, and the drawing is bad,
especially in representing the upper part quadrangular, while in reality
it is round. It is generally admitted to be the most ancient temple or
edifice in Nepal, and, indeed, Colonel Kirkpatrick states, that it was
built by Maun Deo, (Mana Deva,) who, according to him, was the
sixty-first prince of the country, before the year of Christ 1323.
Allowing ten years for each reign, this would place the building of the
temple in the beginning of the eighth century, which, from its
appearance, is fully as early a date as can be admitted.
The other hill is larger, but not so high, and is greatly celebrated
among the followers of the Vedas. It is venerated as being the residence
of Siva, under the name of Pasupatinath, and of his wife, under the name
of Guhyiswari. The hill is covered with trees, and has a temple
dedicated to each of the deities. These temples are frequented by great
numbers of pilgrims, who, by visiting the holy place, expect to be ever
afterwards secured from being born an animal lower than man. The hill,
in a large part of its circumference, is washed by the Vagmati, which is
there a holy river; and all the Hindus of Nepal wish to expire with their
feet immersed in its stream, and are desirous, that after death they
should be burned on its banks.
[Picture: View of Kathmandu and Lalita Patan from the West]
The two copperplate engravings, taken from drawings by Colonel Crawford,
will give an idea of the scenery in the valley of Nepal. No. 1.
represents the temple of Bouddhama in Kasacheit, the most favourite place
of worship with the Khat Bhotiyas, or ancient inhabitants of the country.
In the distant parts of the back ground are peaks of the Himaliya
mountains rising through the clouds. No. 2 gives a distant view of
Kathmandu towards the right, and Lalita Patan towards the left, with the
temple of Jagannath between them, and in front of Lalita Patan, the
Queen’s Garden, in which the British Embassy was lodged. The town of
Kirtipur is seen on a hill behind Kathmandu.
In Nepal Proper, the Parbatiyas are not near so numerous as the Newars.
The valley of Nepal seems to be exceedingly populous; but when the
natives, as usual, talk of 18,000 houses in Kathmandu, 24,000 in Lalita
Patan, and 12,000 in Bhatgang, they certainly grossly exaggerate. The
persons of all ages and both sexes may in these towns amount to such
numbers, and in Kathmandu may perhaps somewhat exceed this calculation.
There are, besides, in this small valley several other considerable
towns, such as Timmi, Kirtipur, Dewapatan, Sangghu, and Thankot.
Colonel Kirkpatrick observes, {209} that “we are altogether unfurnished
with any documents that would warrant our hazarding even a conjecture on
the number of people, the materials we possess for judging of the
population of the valley of Nepaul itself being at the best extremely
vague, and enabling us only to state it loosely at about half a million.”
In p. 161, he reckons 48,000 or 50,000 people in Kathmandu, which seems
to me considerably exaggerated.
The Parbatiyas do not, like the Newars, delight in towns and villages,
and, except the followers of the court, few reside in Kathmandu, or other
cities of Nepal; neither are they so much addicted to large brick
buildings; for the princes of the Gorkha family, although they have
united very extensive dominions under their authority, have been
contented with the palace of the petty chief of Kathmandu, or Kathmaro,
as it is often called. This, indeed, is a large building, but of so
singular a form, that our terms of art could not be applied to describe
its architecture. It possesses no magnificence, and seems to have been
inferior to the palaces of Lalita Patan and Bhatgang. All the three,
however, are works of astonishing magnitude, considering the small extent
of country subject to the princes by whom they were built. The great
families of Gorkha have occupied the best houses of the Newars, or have
built others in the same style, some of which are mansions that in
appearance are befitting men of rank. The greater part of the
Parbatiyas, however, retain their old manners, and each man lives on his
own farm. Their huts are built of mud, and are either white-washed or
painted red with a coloured clay. They are covered with thatch, and,
although much smaller than the houses of the Newars, seem more
comfortable, from their being much more neat and clean. Their usual form
may be seen in the foreground of the copperplate No. 1.
Near the palace of Kathmandu is the shrine of Tulasi Bhawani, (Toolaja
Bhowani, {210}) who, with Gorakhanath, is the tutelar deity of the
reigning family. There is no image of this deity which is represented by
a Yantra, or cabalistical figure. In order to impress the subjects with
awe, no person is admitted into this shrine except the Raja, the Rani or
Queen, the Guru or spiritual guide of the prince, and the Pujari or
priest, who is always of the Guru’s family. In order probably to add
more to the awe of the place, Prithwi Narayan is said to have offered
some human sacrifices; but the deity is reported to have reprimanded the
prince in a dream, and ever since the victims offered have been
buffaloes, sheep, and goats. After the proper ceremonies have been
performed, the throat of the animal is cut, in the outer part of the
temple, before the multitude, and the blood is carried into the shrine by
the priest, or by the prince.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {211} describes the twenty most remarkable temples of
Nepal, excluding the two greatest, Sambhunat and Bouddhama, as being
heterodox; but he was not aware, that the same reason should have induced
him to exclude the temples of Matsyendranath, (Mutchendernath,) and
Gorakhnath, (Goorukhnath.) I may, however, refer to his account for all
that requires to be mentioned on this subject.
Nepal Proper is immediately under the management of the Bahradar, or
great officers of the court. Kathmandu, for the support of the court,
pays annually 18,000 rupees, Lalita Patan pays 18,000, Bhatgang 14,000,
and Kirtipur 7000.
About three years ago, a kind of perpetual settlement was made on these
crown lands. Each farm was assessed at a certain quantity of grain,
which the farmer might either pay in kind, or in money, at the market
price. Much benefit would have resulted to the Company, had Lord
Cornwallis adopted such a plan. A very large portion of Nepal Proper has
been alienated, either in fee or in charity lands. A fine town, named
Sangghu, is the Jaygir, or jointure lands of the Maha Rani, or Queen
Regent, and is worth annually 4000 rupees. Dewa Patan, a still larger
place, belongs entirely to the temples of Pasupatinath and Guhyiswari.
The trade of Nepal was formerly pretty considerable, although the
territories of the Raja produce few articles for exportation, except
iron, copper, and drugs. At present the defects in the police, and the
total want of credit, partly owing to the weakness of the law, and partly
to the falsehood of the people, have in a great measure put a stop to the
commerce which passed through the country. Its nature was as follows:
Some merchants of Kasmir carried their manufactures by the way of Ladak
to Kutti, and other towns in Thibet, in order to procure the wool
produced in these countries by the Shawl goat. These manufactures were
partly used in Thibet, partly sent to Siling or Sining, on the western
frontier of China, by the way of Degarchi and Lassa, and partly sent to
Patna by the way of Kathmandu. These Kasmirians have factories at Lassa,
Siling, Patna, and Kathmandu. They brought from China such goods as
answered for the demand of Nepal and Kasmir, among which tea and silks
were the principal articles; and from Patna they carried to China otters’
skins, to the annual amount of about 50,000 rupees. These otters’ skins
are procured in the neighbourhood of Dhaka in Bengal.
Again the merchants of Bhot or Thibet brought for sale to Kathmandu
paper, coarse woollen cloths, horses, Shawl goats, common goats, sheep,
Chaury cattle, chauries, (changwari or chaungri,) musk, salt, sal
ammoniac, hurtal or yellow arsenic, borax, quicksilver from China,
gold-dust, silver, preserved fruits, such as almonds, walnuts, raisins,
and dates, and drugs, such as Indian madder or manjit, chirata, and
charas, or extract of hemp. Formerly the Lamas of Degarchi (Teeshoo) and
Lassa sent much bullion to the mint at Kathmandu, and made a very liberal
allowance for having it coined; but the rapacity of Rana Bahadur induced
him to alloy the money, which of course put an entire stop to this source
of wealth. Of these articles, the greater part of the musk, chaungris,
hurtal, borax, and bullion, are sent to Patna, or the low country. From
thence again are brought up buffaloes, goats, broad-cloth, cutlery, glass
ware, and other European articles, Indian cotton cloths, mother of pearl,
pearls, coral, beads, spices, pepper, betel nut and leaf, camphor,
tobacco, and phagu, or the red powder thrown about by the Hindus at their
festival called Holi. Most of these articles, together with many
utensils of wrought copper, brass, bell-metal, and iron, are sold to the
merchants of Thibet.
[Picture: Wether sheep pack-animal]
The borax and salt are said to be brought from a lake, which is situated
nearly north from Kathmandu, about fifteen days’ journey beyond the
Brahmaputra. They are conveyed to Nepal on the backs of a large kind of
sheep, of which many have four horns, and which seem to be the common
beasts of burthen in all the countries towards the sources of the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra. The annexed figure represents a wether of this
breed. Each wether, according to what I heard, carries about eighty
pounds weight; but Colonel Kirkpatrick {214a} states the load at
forty-two pounds, which is more probable. These sheep are about the size
of the larger breeds in England.
Captain Turner {214b} describes a sheep used in Thibet for carrying
burdens, but that is probably different from what I have mentioned, as he
takes no notice of the sheep of this breed having four horns, and states
them to be of a small size. Each carries only from twelve to twenty
pounds.
In Nepal accounts are kept thus: 4 Damas = 1 Paisah; 4 Paisahs = 1 Ana; 8
Anas = 1 Mohur. The Ana is an imaginary money. The coin called a Mohur
varies in its rate of exchange, but is commonly worth 34 Paisahs. The
Paisah always exchanges for 4 Damas. On Prithwi Narayan’s accession, he
called in all the gold and silver money and recoined it, so that I could
procure no pieces of a more ancient date than his reign. Ever since that
period the value of the coin has continued the same, and is as follows.
Gold coins are called ashruffies; but the full ashruffy is not coined.
The fractions in use are halfs, quarters, and eighths. The half ashruffy
is by the Court paid away at the rate of 14 Mohurs; and at this value it
is a legal tender of payment between man and man, unless silver has been
specially stipulated. In the market, however, the half ashruffy usually
exchanges for 12½ Mohurs. It weighs 84¼ grains; and, according to an
assay made at Calcutta, is worth nearly three Calcutta rupees, or nearly
six shillings and threepence at the mint price.
The coins analogous to the rupee of Hindustan and its fractions are
collectively called Madarmali. Colonel Kirkpatrick writes this word
{215} Mehnder mulie, applies it only to the Mohur or Mohr, as he calls
it, and says that the word is derived from the name of a prince. The
integer is called Pura Rupiya, or Du Mohur, and is seldom seen. The half
is called the Mohur, and is the common silver currency in the country.
When new it weighs 84¼ grains, and is worth six anas, 10⅝ pies, or 43/100
of the Calcutta rupee. The quarter is called Adha Mohur; the eighth is
called Suki.
Besides the Madarmali, there is a wretched small silver coin called Dama,
of which the value in exchange is variable; but commonly 136 Damas are
given for one Mohur.
The copper coins are Paisas, Half-Paisas, and a few Quarter-Paisas.
These last are of the same value with the Dama, but the minute silver
coin is considered as more convenient than the Paisa of copper. I am
indeed persuaded that no great inconvenience arises from a very minute
coinage in circulation; and that, without any loss, we might entirely
dispense with the use of a copper currency.
The weights in use are founded on the Paisa, but these are by no means
uniform. On an average, however, they may be taken at 162 grains Troy
weight.
72 Paises = 1 Ser = lb. avoirdupois 1.666.
3 Sers = 1 Dharni = lb. 4.998.
The Dharni may therefore be considered as equal to five pounds
avoirdupois. It is also divided into two Bisulis, and four Barapuls.
Grain is always sold by measure.
8 Manas = 1 Pathi = 152 cubical inches.
20 Pathis = 1 Muri = Winchester bushels 2-344/1000.
The whole lands in Nepal have long been divided into what are called
Khets or fields, each of which is estimated in ordinary seasons to
produce 100 Muris, or 234½ bushels of Paddy, or rice in the husk. About
the year 1792 Ranjit Pangre, then one of the Karyis, by the orders of
Rana Bahadur, made a survey of the valley; but the result has been kept
secret. The people know only that he estimated each of their possessions
at a certain number of Rupinis, and that on an average twenty-five of
these formed one Khet. They also observed, that in good soils he used a
rod seven cubits and a half in length, and in bad soils he employed one
nine cubits and a half long. Some people who had resided at Patna
informed my Brahman, that the Rupini was nearly of the same size with the
Biga of that city, which is one-third of an English acre; and this is the
only foundation that I have for the calculations which I have made.
It must, however, be observed, that, according to the information
received by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {216} the average Rupini contains only
3¾ Kathas of the Calcutta measure, or only 3/16 of what was reported to
me; and if his information is considered more likely than mine to be
correct, all the statements which I have subsequently given, concerning
the produce of an acre in Nepal, must be augmented in that proportion.
For instance, I have stated the rice in the husk produced by an acre to
be about 28 bushels; but, according to the information given to Colonel
Kirkpatrick, it ought to be almost 150 bushels. This induces me to place
no great confidence in part of the information given to the Colonel; for,
as I shall afterwards have occasion to state, I have no doubt that the
crops of rice near Calcutta are more abundant than those of Nepal.
In Nepal the pastures and forests are in general commons, and any person
that pleases may use them; but some forests are reserved for the Court.
Although these forests contain many oak, chestnut, pine, and yew trees,
none of these are by the natives esteemed of much value; but for
carpenter’s work a preference is given to the Champa or Michelia, which
is certainly a good kind of timber.
Nothing is paid for pasture; but, as it is very scarce, and as the Newars
do not employ cattle in agriculture, very few are bred in the country. A
few milch cows are kept in the towns, and still more in the narrow
vallies inhabited by Parbatiyas, who use cattle in their ploughs.
Buffaloes and goats are imported from the low country; and horses,
chaungri-cattle, shawl-goats, common goats, and sheep, are brought from
Bhot. They become tolerably fat on the pasture of the hills, which,
although scanty, seems to be nourishing. Captain Knox killed two female
buffaloes, that had been fattened entirely on grass; and they made
tolerable beef.
No taxes are paid to government for houses.
The arable lands are partly retained as the immediate property of the
Court, for defraying the household expenses of the Raja. The whole of
the rice land near Nayakot is reserved as the Raja’s proper farm, and is
cultivated by his servants and slaves, under the superintendency of a
steward: and the same management is observed with a considerable number
of fruit and flower gardens, in the valley of Nepal, and with an
extensive pasture on the banks of the Kosi. The produce is not sold, but
serves for the consumption of the Court, and for distributing in charity
at temples, and to religious mendicants. By far the greater part,
however, of the lands reserved for the use of the Raja, is let to
tenants, as I have before mentioned. The extent of these has at
different times varied; but I believe they have never produced a net
income of more than a million of mohurs. The only other public revenues
are the fines levied from offenders, which are sometimes considerable;
the customs, which are very trifling; and some small profits arising from
the mines, from elephants, and from the sale of Sal or Sakhuya timber,
from the forests below the mountains. The demands on the treasury,
however, are very few; for not only every officer, civil and military,
and every, soldier, but even the private servants, and principal slaves
of the Raja, are paid by lands granted for their support.
The lands thus granted in fee for service are called Chakran, and in
general are resumable at pleasure, and follow the office of the person by
whom they are held; but some branches of the Royal family, and some of
the families of distinction, have enjoyed certain lands ever since the
time of Prithwi Narayan, and it would not be safe to attempt a resumption
of such property. Some persons have even been permitted to alienate such
lands by sale; but to do so, the consent of the Court must be obtained.
I procured no information on which I could attempt to calculate the
amount of these two kinds of Chakran lands.
Another kind of property, which pays no rent nor tax, and which is not
resumable, is called Khairat zemin, or Charity land, which is the Birtha
or Brhemoter land of Colonel Kirkpatrick, (p. 92, 93.) This is of two
kinds; part belongs to Brahmans Bangras, or Achars; and another part has
been granted for the support of temples. The whole amount of this kind
of land is not equal to that reserved by the Crown for its own purposes.
The Khairat that is given to religious men is of two kinds. The first is
called Yamapatri, which is given when the Raja bestows Dhana in order to
procure the remission of his sins. This can never revert to the Crown,
but, in case of the family to which it was granted becoming extinct, it
goes to the temples of Pasupatinath and Changgu Narayan. The second kind
of Khairat given to religious men is bestowed on account of their piety
and learning; and, on failure of heirs, reverts to the Crown. This kind
may be sold, if the proprietor obtain the consent of the Raja.
The lands belonging to the temples are in fact held by the priests,
(Pujaris,) who are bound to defray the expenses of worship. They are
removable at the pleasure of the Raja.
This Khairat or Brhemoter land, Colonel Kirkpatrick says, is also divided
into two kinds, Koos Brhemoter and Soona Brhemoter, the owners of which
are perhaps the same with those called to me Bitalpas and Brittiyas,
mentioned in page 164, although this is not very certain. The Koos
Brhemoter land, according to the Colonel, is rarely bestowed but on
Brahmans, and that with a very solemn investiture. Land of this kind is
rent-free, saleable, and hereditary, but for certain crimes it may be
forfeited. Presents are often given, especially on the accession of a
new Raja. The Soona Brhemoter has been granted to certain Newars, and
other natives of countries subjected by the Gorkhalis, and continued by
the conquerors for a considerable fine under each succeeding prince, but
it is saleable and hereditary.
Landholders, who do not cultivate their own estates, in general let them
for one-half of the grain produced. Money rent can seldom be procured,
and is very low. It varies from four to twelve anas a Rupini, which
produces at least four Muris of Paddy, one half of which, or the rent
usual when paid in kind, is worth about fifty anas, and if it be good
land, it produces also a winter crop.
Most great proprietors, however, like the Raja, employ stewards with
their servants and slaves, to cultivate some land for supplying their
families. The great, therefore, seldom go to market, which, among a
lawless people, is an advantage for the lower classes, although it
subjects travellers to great inconveniency from the want of markets. It
is besides alleged, that the lower classes, in the vicinity of these
farms, often suffer by being compelled to labour without an adequate
remuneration.
When lands are alienated by sale, they bring from 1600 to 2000 Mohurs a
Khet, which high price is owing to the very small quantity of land that
is brought to market.
The persons who rent lands from the owners are of two kinds: first, the
Kuriyas, who occupy free (Khairat) land, are exempted from any services
to government, except the repairing of roads, and the attending on armies
employed on certain duties; and, secondly, the Prajas, who occupy the
crown land, whether that be held by the Prince, or granted in Jaygir.
The Prajas are bound to perform various services at the call, both of
government and of their immediate masters. The rent which both usually
pay is one-half of the produce, with an annual fine of between two and
three rupees for each Khet. Where the land is tolerable, these terms are
considered as favourable for the tenant, and enable him to support a
family with ease.
The following is the account which my Brahman gives of the agriculture of
the Newars.
The hoe used by the Newars has been represented by Colonel Kirkpatrick,
(in the uppermost figure of the plate opposite to page 100 of his Account
of Nepaul,) but the figure is not good. It seems a very awkward
instrument, as the blade is fixed by a long neck, so as to stand parallel
to the short handle, at about the distance or six inches. The labourer,
therefore, must either stoop exceedingly, when at work, or must sit on
his heels, which is the most usual posture. Still these people use it
with great dexterity, and one man in three days digs up a Rupini. After
each hoeing, the women and children break the clods with a wooden mallet
fixed to a long shaft, which does not require them to stoop. Almost the
only other implement of agriculture these people have is the Khuripi, or
weeding iron, and some fans for winnowing the corn. In Nepal, however,
they have in some measure made a further progress than in India, as they
have numerous water-mills for grinding corn. The stones are little
larger than those of hand-mills, and the upper one is turned round by
being fixed on the end of the axis of the water wheel, which is
horizontal, and is placed under the floor of the mill, with which the
stones are on a level. This wheel consists of six blades, about three
feet long, and six inches broad, which are placed obliquely in the
axle-tree. On these blades, the water falls down an inclined plane of
about eight or ten feet in perpendicular height. The hopper is a basket
perforated at the bottom, but has no contrivance to shake it. The people
at one of the mills which we examined said, that, in one day, it could
grind twelve _Muris_, or rather more than twenty-nine bushels.
In Nepal, rice is the great crop, and the ground fit for it is of two
kinds, which differ in the manner, and in the time of their cultivation,
so as to make two harvests of rice: but no one field, in one year,
produces two crops of this grain.
Colonel Kirkpatrick indeed mentions, {222} that some fields yield two
crops of rice successively, the one coarse, and the other fine, besides
affording in the same year a crop of wheat. This, however, I presume,
does not allude to Nepal Proper, but to some of the warmer vallies in the
dominions of Gorkha; as where he goes on, in the 99th page, to describe
the expense of cultivation, he mentions the ploughings, an operation
which is not employed in the agriculture of the Newars.
The first kind of ground produces the crop called Gheya, is the highest,
and there is no necessity for its being absolutely level, as the fields
are not inundated. From the 13th of March to the 11th of April, this
ground is hoed; and, having been well manured with dung collected in the
streets, it is hoed again. A week after this, the field is hoed two or
three times, and is well pulverized with the mallet. About the 12th of
May, after a shower of rain, the field is slightly hoed, and the mould is
broken, and smoothed with the hand. Small drills, at a span’s distance
from each other, are then made by the finger, which is directed straight
by a line. At every span-length in these drills are placed four or five
seeds of the rice, called Uya Dhan, which is the only kind cultivated in
this manner. The seed is covered by the hand, and a very small quantity
only is required. In about five days the young corn comes up in small
tufts, just as if it had been transplanted. From the 13th of June to the
15th of August, when the corn is about a cubit high, the weeds are
removed with the spud. About the latter period, slugs, worms, and
insects, fill all the moister fields in Nepal, and in order to be rid of
them, the farmers keep a great number of ducks, which, at this season,
they turn into the fields, to devour the vermin. The Gheya crop ripens
about the 1st of September, and by the middle of the month the harvest is
finished. The ears only are cut off, and next day the grain is beat out,
and generally dried in the streets. Very little of the crop is made into
Hakuya, a process that will be afterwards mentioned. After the Gheya
crop has been cut, the field is in general cultivated with radishes,
mustard, or some other crop, that is usually sown about the time.
By far the greater part of the rice ground, and that the lowest and the
best, is of the kind which produces the crop of rice called Puya. The
kinds of rice which are cultivated in this crop are very numerous, and it
would be tedious to mention their names, as I have no observations to
make on any one in particular. The fields which produce this crop must
be perfectly level, as they are inundated during the greater part of the
process of cultivation. Therefore, as the plain is by no means even, it
has been divided into terraces. So much pains has been bestowed on this
part of agriculture, that on the steep descents leading down to the
rivers, there have been formed many terraces not above two feet wide.
The numerous springs and rivulets that issue from the surrounding hills
have been conducted with great pains to irrigate these terraces, and have
been managed with considerable skill.
The cultivation of the Puya crop commences between the 13th of May and
12th of June, during which the field is hoed two or three times, and
manured with dung, if any can be procured. At any rate, it is always
manured with the kind of earth called Koncha, which I have already
described. The banks that confine the water are then repaired; and about
the 12th of June, when, either by the rain or by the irrigation from
aqueducts, the fields have been inundated, and the soil has been by the
hoe reduced to mud, the seedlings which have been raised in plots sown
very thick, are transplanted by the women. The men perform all the other
parts of the labour. This is a time of festivity as well as of hard
work; and the people are then allowed a great freedom of speech, to which
they are encouraged by large quantities of intoxicating liquors, in a
share of which even the women indulge. The transplanting ought to
commence from the 12th to the 15th of June, and ought to be finished by
the Amavasya of Asharh, but this is a moveable feast. On the Krishna
Chaturdasi, which happens on the day preceding the Amavasya, the Maha
Rani or Queen, with her slave girls, (Ketis,) transplant a small plot
within the palace, and it is reckoned an unlucky circumstance when this
is not the last planted field in the valley.. The fields are always kept
under water, and weeds are not troublesome. The few that spring up are
removed by the spud. This crop begins to ripen about the 15th of
October, and by the 1st of November the harvest is completed, after which
a considerable portion of the land is cultivated for wheat or other
winter crops.
The Puya rice is cut down close by the ground. The finer kinds of rice
are immediately thrashed, as is likewise all that which is intended for
seed; but the greater part is made into what is called Hakuya. This is
done with a view of correcting its unwholesome quality: for all the grain
produced in the valley of Nepal is thought by the natives to be of a
pernicious nature. The manner of preparing Hakuya is as follows: The
corn, immediately after having been cut, is put into heaps, ten or twelve
feet diameter, and six or eight feet in height. These are covered with
wet earth, and allowed to heat for from eight to twelve days, and till
they may be seen smoking like lime-kilns. After this the heaps are
opened, and the grain is separated from the straw by beating it against a
piece of ground made smooth for the purpose. Both grain and straw are
then dried in the sun. The grain is called Hakuya, and the straw is the
fuel commonly used by the poor, for fire-wood is very dear. According to
the accounts received by Colonel Crawford, this manner of preserving rice
was discovered by accident. Many years ago one of the towns was besieged
by an enemy that came so suddenly as not to allow the citizens time to
gather in the crop, which had just then been cut. The citizens, rather
than allow the enemy to benefit by their corn, determined to throw it
into the water and cover it with earth. In this manner it remained about
a week, when the enemy were compelled to retire. When the grain was
taken up it was found to have begun to rot, but necessity having
compelled the people to eat it, they found, to their astonishment, that
it was much better and more salutary than the grain which had been
prepared in the usual manner. It is only the Newars that eat this
Hakuya.
The crops of rice in Nepal appeared to me very poor when compared with
those of Bengal; and, if my Brahman was rightly informed concerning the
extent of a rupini, they are really so. The rupini produces four muris
of paddy, or 9-376/1000 bushels, but near Calcutta the biga (supposed to
be of the same extent) of good ground produces often 640 sers, or
19-82/100 bushels. The difference of price, however, in the two
countries makes the value of the produce in Nepal the greater of the two.
I have already stated that the value of four muris of paddy in Nepal is
usually 13M. 2A. 2D., or about 54 rupees. But near Calcutta in harvest
the usual price of 640 sers of paddy, is 5 rupees 5 A. 4 P. If no error
has been made in estimating the extent of a rupini, the acre of good land
in Nepal produces rather more than 28 bushels of paddy, or rice in the
husk.
Immediately after the Puya crop has been cut, the ground is formed into
beds by throwing the earth out of parallel trenches upon the intermediate
spaces. On these about the middle of November is sown wheat, or
sometimes a little barley. These ripen without farther trouble, and are
cut from the 12th of April to the 12th of May. The seed for a rupini is
stated to be one pati, and the produce is stated to be two muris. This
would make the seed about the fifth part of a bushel an acre, and the
produce about fourteen bushels; but this seems to me greatly exaggerated.
I have never seen more wretched crops, and most of the fields of wheat
are quite choked with hemp, (_Cannabis sativa_,) which in Nepal is a
troublesome and useless weed. The wheat and barley are mostly used for
making fermented or distilled liquors.
Pangdu Kodo, or Maruya, is the _Cynosurus Corocanus_ of Linnæus, of which
I saw much growing on some of the higher parts of the plain. It seems to
thrive well. The Maruya is sown from the 13th of June to the 14th of
July, and twenty days afterwards is transplanted. It is ripe about the
middle of September, and produces four muris a rupini.
In thrashing this corn, Colonel Crawford saw the Newars [Picture: Flail]
using a kind of flail, an implement which I have never observed in India.
Three pieces of Bamboo, about eighteen inches long, were fastened
together in a parallel manner, at about a finger’s breadth asunder, and
then fixed to a peg, which passed through a hole in the end of a longish
pole that was a little bent. The instrument seemed to require
considerable dexterity in its management, but appeared to answer the
purpose intended.
The Sana Kodo of the Parbatiyas is probably the Paspalum kora of
Wildenow. It also is transplanted, ripens in October and November, and
produces as much as the Pangdu Kodo.
The Muccai and Muruli of the Parbatiyas are both by the Newars called
_Kaunguni_, and are varieties of the _Holcus sorghum_. They are chiefly
planted in the small vallies that open into the plain, and on high
terraces, that have a bad supply of water.
The Urid, or Kala Mas of the Parbatiyas, is by the Newars called May; and
Dr Roxburgh, in his manuscripts, calls it _Phaseolus minimoo_, from its
Telinga name. In Nepal this is the most common pulse. It is sown about
the 1st of July, and reaped about the 1st of September. A rupini
produces about ten patis, or an acre about three bushels and a half.
The Seta Mas of the Parbatiyas, or Chica May of the Newars, Dr Roxburgh
has raised from seed, which I sent from Nepal. He thinks it a new
species, which he calls _Phaseolus ocultatus_. It is sown about the 1st
of July, reaped the 1st of October, and produces the same quantity that
the urid does.
The Lato, Rato, or Ruta mas of the Parbatiyas, is by the Newars called
Hayngu may. It also appears to Dr Roxburgh to be an undescribed species,
and he has given it the name of _Phaseolus calcaratus_. It is sown and
reaped at the same time with the preceding, and yields the same produce.
The Lal mung of the Parbatiyas is also called Hayngumay by the Newars.
The seeds of this plant, which I sent to the botanical garden, show it to
be a _Phaseolus_, that is by Dr Roxburgh considered as a nondescript, and
he calls it the _Phaseolus racemosus_.
The Mung of the Parbatiyas, and the Muk or Mugy may of the Newars, is the
Dolichos Mungo of Linnæus. Three manas are sown on a rupini about the
1st of July, and about the 1st of November produce eight patis.
The Seta, and Cala Bhot Mas of the Parbatiyas, are called Musa and Gya by
the Newars. They are two varieties of the _Dolichos soja_, the one of
which has yellow flowers and white seeds, and the other has black seeds,
and purplish flowers. The former is ripe about the 1st of November, the
latter about the 1st of September. Their seed and produce are equal to
those of the mung.
The Mosuri of the Parbatiyas, and Mosu of the Newars, is the _Ervum lens_
of botanists. About the 1st of November two manas are sown on a rupini;
and about May produce twelve patis.
The same is the case with the Pea, or _Pisum arvensis_, called Kerao by
the Parbatiyas, and Caigo by the Newars.
The mustard called Sarishi by the Parbatiyas, and Turi by the Newars is
mostly cultivated as a pot-herb. It is sown about the middle of October,
and is cut before it flowers. Another, which by the Newars is called
Ika, is the _Sinapis ramosa_ of Dr Roxburgh. About the 1st of February
two manas are sown on a rupini, and about April produce two muris of
seed. The ground is afterwards cultivated for rice.
Sesamum is called Til by the Parbatiyas, and Hamo by the Newars. It
grows commonly wild as a weed, but very little of it is cultivated.
The sugar-cane is planted in considerable quantities, and seems to
thrive. The Newars make a very little extract, soft sugar, and
sugar-candy; but a large proportion of the cane is eaten without
preparation. It is planted about the 1st of April, and is cut, from the
middle of November to the middle of May. The juice is generally
expressed by a lever.
Ginger, the Puli of the Newars, is planted about the 1st of April, and
dug up in October or November.
The common radishes are by the Parbatiyas called Mulu, and by the Newars
Kipo, and are very much cultivated. They grow in vast abundance all the
year, except from the 15th of November to the 10th of February. In order
to procure a supply of this useful article, for three months of winter, a
large quantity is sown about the 1st of September, and pulled about the
1st of November. The roots are then buried in a pit for six or seven
days, during which they seem to undergo a kind of half putrid
fermentation; as when they are taken out of the pit, and dried in the
sun, they exhale a most powerful stench. These dried roots are called
Sinky, keep all winter, and, although offensive to the smell, enter
largely into the diet of the poorer Newars. These, owing partly to the
great quantity of sinky and of garlic which they eat, and partly to the
dirtiness of their linen, exhale a worse smell than any people I have
ever been among.
Methi, or Fenugreek, grows at all seasons, except from the 15th of
November to the 12th of January. It is used only as a pot-herb, and is
the one most commonly consumed in Nepal.
Khira, or cucumbers, grow to great perfection, and with another
cucurbitaceous plant called Kangkari, are ripe from the 13th of June to
the 15th of August.
The garlic is planted about the 1st of January, and is taken up from the
12th of April to the 12th of June.
Bera, or the Solanum Melongena, is sown about the 1st of May, and is ripe
about the 1st of October.
In the hilly parts of the country, the common potatoe (Solanum tuberosum)
has been introduced, and grows tolerably: but it does not thrive so well
as at Patna, owing probably to a want of care.
The Sakarkandh (Convolvulus batatas) succeeds better. It is planted
about the 1st of April, and is taken up from the middle of October to the
middle of December.
Most of the European kitchen vegetables have been introduced: but they
are only to be found in the gardens of men of distinction, and in very
small quantities.
When Colonel Kirkpatrick visited the country, {230} the only kitchen
vegetables (meaning, I presume, European) were cabbages and peas, both of
which were of the worst kind. They had, he says, the Thibet turnip, but
cannot raise it any more than the potatoe, without receiving the seed
annually. This, compared with what I observed, indicates some degree of
progressive improvement.
None of their fruits are good, except the oranges and pine apples; but
both of these are in great perfection. The peach is every where wild,
and is also reared in gardens: but it does not ripen till long after the
rainy season has commenced, and is generally half rotten before it
becomes soft. At Kathmandu the Plantain tree (Musa) dies to the ground
in winter, but the roots are not killed, and in the spring send up fresh
stems. Some good plantains come from Nayakot, and other valleys, that
are situated lower than the capital is.
Such is the account I could procure of the cultivation in the plains of
Nepal. On the sloping faces of the hills, bounding the smaller vallies
in its vicinity, I observed another mode of cultivation. The soil there
is not formed into terraces; but in April is pared and burned, and then
is sown with Sama, or the _Panicum Italicum_, with Tangni or Kakun, which
is the _Panicum colonum_, and with Kaungni, which is the _Holcus
Sorghum_. When the soil is in heart, these produce very good crops, and
once in the three or four years the field is allowed a season’s fallow.
This seems to be the kind of land which Colonel Kirkpatrick calls Kohrya.
{231a}
In Nepal, the Gangja, Charas, or Cannabis sativa, as I have already
mentioned, is a common weed: but in that country it is not cultivated,
although much used for the purpose of intoxication. The dried leaves are
brought from the Tariyani, but are reckoned heating, and are not so much
used as the extract, which is called Charas: of this Thibet produces the
best. The proper manner of preparing Charas is by making incisions into
the stem, and collecting the juice, in the same manner as opium is
produced from the capsules of the poppy. A coarser kind is prepared from
the expressed juice of the hemp.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {231b} gives a different account of the manner of
preparing this drug, which, he says, is procured by rubbing the leaves of
the plant Jeea, until the resin adheres to the fingers, from which it is
scraped off with a spathula. The plant called Jeea is no doubt the
_Cannabis sativa_, nor can much reliance be placed on the information
which the Colonel received on this subject: as the person who gave it has
evidently been inaccurate, when he stated concerning the Gangja and Subje
produced from the same plant, that the former is prepared from the
flowers and the latter from the leaves; while, in fact, the one is the
dried plant, and the other the expressed juice.
The dose of Charas is from ten to twelve grains made up into a pill,
which is smoked like tobacco. The dried leaves, or Gangja, are taken in
the same manner, and both produce violent intoxication. While we were in
Nepal, a shopkeeper, who attended the camp, smoked so much Charas that he
died. From the accounts given me by those who saw him, he became stupid,
but not irrational, and complained of nothing except thirst, for which he
two or three times drank water. As it was not looked upon as any thing
extraordinary, I did not hear of the circumstance till some hours after
the man’s death. He did not intend to kill himself; but, in the course
of his indulgence, repeated the dose too often.
Two kinds of coarse cotton cloth, called Khadi and Changa, are woven by
the Newar women of all ranks, and by the men of the Parbatiya cast,
called Magar. The cotton grows in the hilly parts of the kingdom, and is
sufficient for the consumption; but none is exported from Nepal Proper.
These cloths constitute the dress of the middling and lower classes of
people, although woollen would be better fitted for the cold of a Nepal
winter. All those, however, that are not very poor, can afford to have
woollen blankets, which are manufactured by the Bhotiyas, who even in
summer wear no linen. The whole dress of the higher ranks in Nepal is
imported, and consists chiefly of Chinese silks, shawls, and of the low
country muslins and calicoes. The military alone wear European broad
cloth.
In Lalita Patan and Bhatgang there is a very considerable manufacture of
copper, brass, and Phul, which is a kind of bell-metal. The bells of
Thibet are superior to those of Nepal: but a great many vessels of Phul
are made by the Newars, and exported to Thibet, along with those of brass
and copper. Iron vessels and lamps are also manufactured for the same
market.
A very strong paper, remarkably well fitted for packages, is made at
Bhatgang, from the bark of a shrub, which I call the _Daphne papyrifera_.
The supply, however, is not adequate to the demand, and not only the
paper, but a considerable quantity of the raw material is imported from
Bhot. The bark is exceedingly strong and pliable, and seems to be the
same with certain tape-like bandages, employed by the Chinese in tying
many of their parcels.
At Kathmandu the common daily hire for a labouring man is two anas.
Merchants pay three Mohurs for every porter who brings a load from
Hethaura, and five Mohurs from Gar Pasara. The porter takes three days
to come from the former, and five days from the latter; but he must
return empty; the hire is therefore four anas a day. The usual load is
twenty Dharnis, or a hundred pounds; but some strong men carry a half
more. They carry their loads in a basket called Doka, of which a
representation is given in the plate opposite to page 39 of Kirkpatrick’s
Nepaul. Persons of rank, who do not choose to walk or ride on horseback,
usually travel in what is called a Dandi, which is a hammock suspended on
a pole, and carried by from four to six men, as represented in the plate
opposite to page 39 of Kirkpatrick’s Nepaul. When a woman goes in a
Dandi, a cloth thrown over the pole conceals her from view. This
conveyance is well fitted for a mountainous country, where few of the
roads will admit of the use of a horse. For a Dandi, to convey them from
Kathmandu to Gar Pasara, merchants pay twenty-four Mohurs: carpenters and
blacksmiths receive three anas a day: bricklayers two anas and a half:
goldsmiths, for every two Mohurs weight of gold they work up, are allowed
four anas: for working silver, they receive one-sixteenth part of the
metal. According to the fineness of the work, the labourers obtain from
one to two Mohurs for every Darni of copper which they manufacture.
The want of labouring cattle among the Newars renders the operations of
husbandry so tedious, that at many seasons every person in the family
capable of labour must be employed; and as no one can be left to take
care of the young children, these must be carried to the field. As this
is often at a distance from the house, the poor villager may be often
seen carrying his infants in two baskets suspended over his shoulder by a
bamboo. In these baskets some food also is taken, as the family does not
return until night. An oblong mat also forms a usual part of what is
carried into the field. This mat defends the children as well as the
victuals from the sun and rain, and is sometimes used by the labourers
for the same purposes, especially when they are employed in weeding the
rice fields. As that operation is performed during the rainy season, the
labourers would suffer considerably, unless they kept off the water by a
mat tied over their heads and covering their backs, while their arms are
left at liberty.
In Nepal most of the domestic servants are slaves. A male slave is
called a Keta, and costs about thirty Mohurs. A female is called Keti,
and costs about the same price; but, if young and handsome, she will
bring ten Mohurs additional. There are some Brahmans who are slaves even
to Rajputs: but they are not degraded by the name Keta, and are employed
in great families, either as cooks, or in the service of the private
chapels. All other ranks are sold for common slaves: and persons of the
best families have often been degraded by the Rajas, and given to the
Damais or Tailors, by which they lose not only their liberty, but their
cast, which is of more importance to a Hindu. In general, however, among
the higher tribes, the cast of the slave is respected, and no duty is
imposed on him, by which that would be injured. It is reckoned very
disgraceful for any persons but those of the lowest rank, to sell their
children to any person of impure birth, or who is an infidel. Still,
however, this is occasionally done by persons of high birth, who happen
to be in necessitous circumstances; nor do the parents on this account
lose cast. They would, however, inevitably become outcasts, should they
ever afterwards admit their child into their house, even were he to be
set at liberty by his master. Most of the slaves, it must be observed,
have been born free. A few have been degraded, and sold by the Raja on
account of crimes alleged against them: but by far the greater part have
been sold by necessitous parents. All the Ketis, even those belonging to
the Queen, are prostitutes, and therefore seldom have children. The
masters in general do not give their slave girls any other allowance than
a small quantity of rice; and a great many of them are so obdurate, that
even this allowance is stopped, when sickness prevents the slave from
working. The poor creatures are therefore forced to sacrifice their
chastity, in order to procure clothing; and beggary is the usual resource
of those who are old and infirm. The Ketis of the court, indeed, are
allowed some privileges, and have a considerable influence among the
young men of family. In the day time they attend the Maha Rani or queen;
and when she goes out, some of them armed with swords follow her on
horseback, and form her body guard. They are well dressed, and ride
astride like men. They are allowed to carry on intrigues with any person
of good birth: but the young Rajputs of the guard are their usual
favourites. Some Brahmans and Bankers from the low country, induced by
the beauty of these girls, have formed connexions with them; but they
have in general paid dearly for their indulgence. Fidelity to one
mistress is not a virtue among such men, and the Ketis of the court think
the whole corps bound to punish any infidelity against one of their
number, nor will the police interfere to prevent them from plundering the
delinquent of his whole property. The slaves of private persons are not
only ill fed, but are hardly wrought. The common duties imposed on them
are to wash, to bring fire-wood from the mountains, to clean the cooking
utensils and the house, and to carry the umbrella.
Rice is the great article of support in Nepal. Along with their rice the
poorest people eat raw garlic and radishes; they also fry radishes,
fenugreek, or lentiles, in water mixed with salt, capsicum, and turmeric.
To these, people in more easy circumstances add oil or ghiu; and those
who are rich add a great deal of animal food. Even the poorest are able
occasionally to sacrifice a pigeon, a fowl, or a duck, and of course they
eat these birds. No Hindu eats any meat but the flesh of sacrifices; for
he considers it as a sin to kill any animal for the purpose of indulging
his appetite; but, when a sacrifice has been offered, the votary may
without blame eat what the Deity does not use. We observed, that even
the Rajputs in Nepal were so fond of animal food, that, to the utter
astonishment of our low country Hindus, they drank the blood of the
sacrifices as it flowed from the victim.