Boipari.--A synonym of Lambadi. (See Bepari.)

Boishnobo.--The Boishnobos have been defined as a class of Oriya

religious mendicants and priests to Sudras. The name means worshippers

of Bishnu or Vishnu. Most of them are followers of Chaitanya, the

great Bengali reformer.

Boksha.--Boksha or Boksham (treasury) is the name of a sub-division of

Gollas, indicating their employment as treasury servants in guarding

and carrying treasure. In some places, those who are employed in

packing and lifting bags of money in district treasuries are still

called Gollas, though they may belong to some other caste. In the

Census Report, 1901, Bokkisha Vadugar (treasury northerner) was

returned as a Tamil synonym for Golla.

Bolasi.--The Bolasis are a caste of Oriya cultivators, who are largely

found in the Gumsur taluk of Ganjam. Many of them serve as paiks or

peons. The original name of the caste is said to have been Thadia,

which has been changed in favour of Bolasi (Bayalisi, forty-two) in

reference to the caste being one of the recognized forty-two Oriya

Sudra castes. It is also suggested that the name is derived from bola

(anklets), as the women wear heavy brass anklets.

Their ceremonial rites connected with marriage, death, etc.,

are similar to those of the Doluvas, Gaudos, Badhoyis, and other

castes. Marriage is infant, and, if a girl does not secure a husband

before she reaches maturity, she goes through a form of marriage

with an arrow or a grinding stone. The Bolasis are Vaishnavites, and

observe the Paramartho or Chaitanya form thereof. The caste titles

are Podhano, Nayako, Daso, Mahanti, Patro, Sahu, Jenna, and Konhoro.

Gudiyas who are engaged in agriculture are sometimes known as Bolasi

Gudiyas.

Bolodia.--The name of a section of Tellis, who use pack-bullocks

(bolodo, an ox) for carrying grain about the country. Some Gaudos,

at times of census, have also returned Bolodia as their sub-division.

Bombadai (a fish).--A gotra of Medara. The equivalent Bomidi occurs as

an exogamous sept of Mala. Members of the Vamma gotra of the Janappans

abstain from eating this fish, because, when some of their ancestors

went to fetch water in a marriage pot, they found a number of this

fish in the water collected in the pot.

Bomma (a doll).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale. The equivalent

Bommala occurs as an exogamous sept of Mala. The Bommalatavallu are

said [150] to exhibit shows in the Vizagapatam district.

Bommali.--A sub-division of the Koronos of Ganjam.

Bonda.--A sub-division of Poroja.

Bondia.--A small class, inhabiting Ganjam. The name is said to be

derived from bondono, meaning praise, as the Bondias are those who

praise and flatter Rajas.

Bondili.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Bondilis are "said

to derive their name from Bundelkund. They claim to be Rajputs,

but appear to have degenerated. The Sivaites of this sect are said

to bury their dead, while the Vishnavaites burn. In the Kadri taluk

of Cuddapah all are said to bury. The custom in this respect appears

to differ in different localities. Besides Siva and Vishnu worship,

three of the eight authorities who give particulars of this section

agree that they worship village deities as well. All state that

remarriage of widows is not permitted. They are generally cultivators,

peons, or the body-guards of Zemindars." The Bondilis of the North

Arcot district are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [151] as being

"foreigners from Bundelkund, from which fact their name originates,

and of various Vaisya and Sudra castes; the former having the

termination Lala to their names, and the latter that of Ram. Many

of the Sudra Bondilis, however, improperly take the title Singh,

and say they are Kshatriyas, that is, Rajputs. The Vaisya Bondilis

are few in number, and only found in Vellore, Chittoor and Arni,

where they are usually money-lenders. The Sudras are mostly sepoys,

constables, or revenue peons. Some say that they are not even Sudras,

but the descendants of Rajputs by women of the country, and probably

many of them are such. All are very particular with respect to eating

with an other professed Bondili, and refuse to do so unless they are

quite certain that he is of their class. In their marriage customs

they resemble the Rajputs."

I am informed that one section of the Bondilis is named Toli, in

reference to their being workers in leather. There is, at Venkatagiri,

a street called Toli mitta, or Toli quarters, and, in former days,

the inhabitants thereof were not allowed to enter the temples.

In the Census Report, 1901, Guvalo, or traders from Sambalpur, is

returned as a sub-caste of Bondili.

Boniya.--The Oriya name for Baniya (trader). Boniya Korono appears

[152] as the name for traders and shopkeepers in Ganjam.

Bonka.--Recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as cultivators in the

Jeypore hills, and, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small

Oriya caste of hill cultivators, which has three sub-divisions, Bonka,

Pata Bonka, and Goru Bonka.

Bonthuk.--The Bonthuks or Bonthuk Savaras are scattered about the

Kistna and Guntur districts, and lead a nomad life, carrying their

small dwelling-huts with them as they shift from place to place. They

are called Bonthuk Savaras to distinguish them from the Pothra (stone)

Savaras, who dwell further north. By Telugu people they are called

Chenchu or Bontha Chenchu, though they have no connection with the

Chenchus who inhabit the hills in Kurnool, and other parts of the

Telugu country. The Bonthuks, however, like the Chenchus, claim Ahobila

Narasimha as their tribal deity. The Bonthuks speak the Oriya language,

and they have a Mongoloid type of features, such as are possessed

by the Savaras of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Their house-names, or

intiperalu, however are Telugu. These constitute exogamous septs, and

seem to be as follows:--Pasupuretti, Simhadri (the god at Simhachalam

near Vizagapatam), Koneti, Dasapatri, Gedala (buffaloes), Kudumala

(cakes), Akula (leaves), Sunkara, and Tota (garden). At marriages,

individuals of the Pasupuretti sept officiate as priests, and members

of the Koneti sept as drummers and musicians. Men belonging to the

Gedalu sept are considered as equivalent to shepherds.

The Bonthuks have a very interesting way of naming their children. If

a child is born when an official or person of some distinction

happens to be near their encampment, it is named after him. Thus

such names as Collector, Tahsildar, Kolnol (Colonel), Governor,

Innes, Superintendent, and Acharlu (after one Sukracharlu) are met

with. Sometimes children are named after a town or village, either

because they were born there, or in the performance of a vow to some

place of pilgrimage. In this way, such names as Hyderabad, Channapatam

(Madras), Bandar (Masulipatam), Nellore, and Tirupati arise. A boy

was named Tuyya (parrot), because a parrot was brought into the

settlement at the time of his birth. Another child was called Beni

because, at its birth, a bamboo flute (beni) was played.

Every settlement is said to have a headman, called Bichadi, who, in

consultation with several elders of the tribe, settles disputes and

various affairs affecting the community. If an individual has been

fined, and does not accept the punishment, he may appeal to another

Bichadi, who may enhance the fine. Sometimes those who do not agree to

abide by the decision of the Bichadi have to undergo a trial by ordeal,

by taking out an areca nut from a pot of boiling cowdung water. The

dimensions of the pot, in height and breadth, should not exceed the

span of the hand, and the height of the cowdung water in the pot

should be that of the middle finger from the base to the tip. If, in

removing the nut from the pot, the hand is injured, the guilt of the

individual is proved. Before the trial by ordeal, a sum of ten rupees

is deposited by both complainant and accused with the Bichadi, and

the person under trial may not live in his dwelling-hut. He lives in a

grove or in the forest, watched by two members of the Pasupuretti sept.

The Bonthuks are engaged in collecting bamboos, and selling them after

straightening them by heating them in the fire. Before the bamboos are

placed in carts, for conveyance to the settlement, a goat and fowls

are sacrificed to Satyamma, Dodlamma, Muthyalamma, and Pothuraju,

who are represented by stones.

Girls are married before puberty, and, if a girl happens to be

mated only after she has reached maturity, there is no marriage

ceremonial. The marriage rites last over five days, on the first

of which a brass vessel, with a thread tied round its neck, and

containing turmeric water and the oyila tokka or tonko (bride's

money), is carried in procession to the bride's hut on the head of a

married girl belonging to a sept other than those of the contracting

couple. She has on her head a hood decorated with little bells, and

the vessel is supported on a cloth pad. When the hut is reached,

the bride's money is handed over to the Bichadi, and the turmeric

water is poured on the ground. The bride's money is divided between

her parents and maternal uncle, the Bichadi, and the caste men. A

pig is purchased, and carried by two men on a pole to the scene of

the marriage. The caste people, and the married girl carrying a brass

vessel, go round the animal, to the accompaniment of music. The girl,

as she goes round, pours water from the vessel on the ground. A thread

is tied round the neck of the pig, which is taken to the bridegroom's

hut, and cut up into two portions, for the parties of the bridegroom

and bride, of which the former is cooked and eaten on the same day. At

the homes of the bride and bridegroom, a pandal (booth) and dais are

erected. The materials for the former are brought by seven women,

and for the latter by nine men. The pandal is usually decorated with

mango and Eugenia Arnoltiana leaves. After supper, some relations of

the contracting couple go to an open space, where the Bichadi, who

has by him two pots and two bashingams (chaplets) of arka (Calotropis

gigantea) flowers, is seated with a few men. The fathers of the bride

and bridegroom ask the Bichadi to give them the bashingams, and this

he does after receiving an assurance that the wedding will not be

attended by quarrelling. The bride and bridegroom take their seats on

the dais at the home of the latter, and the officiating priest ties

the bashingams on their foreheads. Nine men and seven women stand near

the dais, and a thread is passed round them seven times. This thread

is cut up by the priest, and used for the kankanams (wrist threads)

of the bride and bridegroom. These are removed, at the close of the

marriage festivities, on the fifth day.

When a girl attains maturity, she is under pollution for nine days, at

the conclusion of which the Bichadi receives a small present of money

from her parents. Her husband, and his agnates (people of his sept)

also have to observe pollution, and, on the ninth day, the cooking pots

which they have used are thrown away, and they proceed to the Bichadi,

to whom they make a present of money, as they have probably broken

the tribal rule that smoking is forbidden when under pollution. On

the ninth day, the girl and her husband throw water over each other,

and the marriage is consummated.

The dead are usually buried, lying on the left side. On the second day,

food is offered to crows and Brahmani kites. On the eleventh day,

a mat is spread on the floor of the hut, and covered with a clean

sheet, on which balls of food are placed. The dead person is invoked

by name, as the various people deposit the food offering. The food is

finally put into a winnowing basket, and taken to the bank of a tank

(pond). A small hut is made there, and the food is placed therein on

two leaves, one of which represents the Yama Dutas (servants of the

god of death), the other the deceased.

Boori (cake).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Bosantiya.--The Bosantiyas are summed up, in the Madras Census

Report, 1901, as "Oriya cultivators found in the northern

taluks of Ganjam. They are said by some to have been originally

dyers." I am informed that the caste name has reference to the

fact that the occupation thereof was the collection of the fruits

of Mallotus philippinensis, and trade in the dye (bosonto gundi)

obtained therefrom. The dye, commonly known as kamela, or kamala,

is the powdery substance obtained as a glandular pubescence from the

exterior of the fruits. The following note on the dye was published

in the Indian Forester, 1892. "Among the many rich natural products

of Ganjam, probably the most esteemed in commerce is the red kamela

dye, the valuable product of the Mallotus philippinensis. This tree,

with its lovely scarlet berries and vivid emerald green foliage, is

a marked feature of forest scenery in Ganjam. The berries are coated

with a beautiful red powder, which constitutes the dye. This powder is

collected by being brushed off into baskets made for the purpose, but

the method of collection is reckless and wasteful in the extreme, the

trees being often felled in order to reach the berries more easily. The

industry is a monopoly of the Hill Khonds, who, however, turn it to

little advantage. They are ignorant of the great commercial value of

the dye, and part with the powder to the low-country dealers settled

among them for a few measures of rice or a yard or two of cloth. The

industry is capable of great development, and a large fortune awaits

the firm or individual with sufficient enterprise to enter into

rivalry with the low-country native dealers settled among the Khonds,

who at present enjoy a monopoly of the trade. It is notorious that

these men are accumulating vast profits in respect of this dye. The

tree is cultivated largely by the Khonds in their forest villages."

The Bosantiyas seem to have no sub-divisions, but exogamous

gotras, e.g., nagasira (cobra) and kochimo (tortoise) exist among

them. Socially they are on a par with the Bhondaris, and above

Pachchilia Gaudos and Samantiyas. They have a headman called Bissoyi,

who is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and they have further a caste

messenger called Jati Naiko. The caste titles are Bissoyi and Nahako.

Most of the Bosantiyas are Saivites, but a few follow the Paramartho

form of Vaishnavism. They also worship various Takuranis (village

deities), such as Kotaru and Chondi.

In the Vizagapatam Manual (1869), Bosuntea is described as a caste

of Paiks or fighting men in the Vizagapatam district (Jeypore).

Bottada.--The Bottadas are, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [153] "a Class of

Uriya cultivators and labourers, speaking Muria or Lucia, otherwise

known as Basturia, a dialect of Uriya. Mr. Taylor says the caste is

the same as Muria, which is shown separately in the tables, and in

Mr. H. G. Turner's notes in the Census Report of 1871. But, whether

identical or distinct, it seems clear that both are sub-divisions of

the great Gond tribe."

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. There

is a current tradition that the caste originally dwelt at Barthagada,

and emigrated to Vizagapatam long ago. It is vaguely mentioned that

Barthagada was situated towards and beyond Bastar, near which place

there are still to be found people of this caste, with whom those

living in the Vizagapatam Agency intermarry. The caste is divided

into three endogamous divisions, viz.:--

(1) Bodo, or genuine Bottadas;

(2) Madhya, descendants of Bottada men and non-Bottada women;

(3) Sanno, descendants of Madhya men and non-Madhya women. The

Bodos will not interdine with the other two sections, but

males of these will eat with Bodos.

The following notes refer to the Bodo section, in which various

exogamous septs, or bamsa, exist, of which the following are

examples:--

Kochchimo, tortoise. Kukkuro, dog.

Bhag, tiger. Makado, monkey.

Goyi, lizard (Varanus). Cheli, goat.

Nag, cobra.

Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man can claim

his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. When a marriage is under

contemplation, the prospective bridegroom's parents take maddho

(liquor) and chada (beaten rice) to the girl's house, where they are

accepted or refused, according as her parents agree to, or disapprove

of the match. After a stated period, further presents of liquor,

rice, black gram, dhal, salt, chillies, and jaggery (crude sugar)

are brought, and betel leaves and areca nuts given in exchange. Two

days later the girl's parents pay a return visit to those of the

young man. After another interval, the marriage takes place. Nine

days before its celebration, paddy (unhusked rice) and Rs. 2 are

taken to the bride's house as jholla tonka, and a feast is held. At

the bridegroom's house, a pandal, made of nine sorghi or sal (Shorca

robusta) posts, is erected, with a pot of turmeric water tied to the

central post. The bride is conducted thither. At the marriage rites the

Desari officiates. The ends of the cloths of the contracting couple

are tied together, and their little fingers are linked together,

while they go, with pieces of turmeric and rice in their hands,

seven times round the pandal. The sacred fire, or homam, is raised,

and into it seven or nine different kinds of wood, ghi (clarified

butter), milk, rice and jaggery are thrown. Turmeric-rice dots are put

on the foreheads of the bride and bridegroom by the Desari, parents,

and relations. They are anointed with castor-oil, and bathed with the

water contained in the pot tied to the post. New cloths are presented

to them, and a caste feast is held.

Widow remarriage is permitted, and a younger brother often marries

the widow of his elder brother. If, however, she marries any one else,

her new husband has to pay rand tonka, consisting of liquor, a sheep or

goat, and rice, as a fine to the caste, or he may compound for payment

of five rupees. Divorce is permitted, and, if a man divorces his wife,

he usually gives her some paddy, a new cloth, and a rupee. If the

woman divorces herself from her husband, and contracts an alliance

with another man, the latter has to pay a fine of twenty rupees to

the first husband, a portion of which is spent on a feast, at which

the two husbands and the woman are present.

The dead are burned, and death pollution is observed for ten days,

during which no agricultural work is done, and no food is cooked in

the bamsa of the deceased, which is fed by some related bamsa. On

the day following cremation, a new pot with water, and some sand

are carried to the spot where the corpse was burnt. A bed of sand is

made, in which a banyan (Ficus bengalensis) or pipal (Ficus religiosa)

is planted. A hole is made in the pot, and the plant watered. On the

tenth day, on which a bath is taken, some fried rice and a new pot

are carried to the burning-ground, and left there.

The Bottadas have the reputation of being the best cultivators in the

Jeypore Agency, and they take a high position in social rank. Many of

them wear the sacred thread, at the time of marriage and subsequently,

and it is said that the right to wear it was acquired by purchase

from former Rajas of Jeypore.

Bottu Kattoru (those who tie the bottu).--A sub-division of

Kappiliyans, who are Canarese cultivators settled in the Tamil

district of Madura. The bottu (marriage badge) is the equivalent of

the Tamil tali.

Bovi.--The name of the palanquin-bearing section of the Mogers of South

Canara. Some Besthas from Mysore, who have settled in this district,

are also called Bovi, which is a form of Boyi (bearer).

Boya (see Bedar).--Boya has also been recorded [154] as a sub-division

of Mala, a name for Ekari.

Boyan.--A title of Odde.

Boyi (see Bestha).--It is also the title of one of the chief men

among the Savaras.

Brahman.--The Brahmans of Southern India are divided into a number

of sections, differing in language, manners and customs. As regards

their origin, the current belief is that they sprang from the mouth

of Brahma. In support thereof, the following verse from the Purusha

Suktha (hymn of the primæval male) of the Rig Veda is quoted:--From

the face of Prajapathi (Viratpurusha) came the Brahmans; from the

arms arose the Kshatriyas; from the thighs sprang the Vaisyas; and

from the feet the Sudras. Mention of the fourfold division of the

Hindu castes is also made in other Vedas, and in Ithihasas and Puranas.

The Brahmans fall into three groups, following the three Vedas or

Sakas, Rig, Yajus, and Samam. This threefold division is, however,

recognised only for ceremonial purposes. For marriage and social

purposes, the divisions based on language and locality are practically

more operative. In the matter of the more important religious rites,

the Brahmans of Southern India, as elsewhere, closely follow their

own Vedas. Every Brahman belongs to one or other of the numerous

gotras mentioned in Pravara and Gotra Kandams. All the religious

rites are performed according to the Grihya Sutras (ritual books)

pertaining to their Saka or Veda. Of these, there are eight kinds

now in vogue, viz.:--

1. Asvalayana Sutra of the Rig Veda.

2. Apasthamba |

3. Bharadwaja |

4. Bhodayana | Sutras of the black Yajus.

5. Sathyashada |

6. Vaikkanasa |

7. Kathyayana Sutra of the white Yajus.

8. Drahyayana Sutra of Sama Veda.

All Brahmans claim descent from one or more of the following

seven Rishis:--Atri, Bhrigu, Kutsa, Vashista, Gautama, Kasyapa,

Angiras. According to some, the Rishis are Agasthya, Angiras, Atri,

Bhrigu, Kasyapa, Vashista, and Gautama. Under these Rishis are

included eighteen ganams, and under each ganam there are a number

of gotras, amounting in all to about 230. Every Brahman is expected

to salute his superiors by repeating the Abhivadhanam (salutation)

which contains his lineage. As an example, the following may be

given:--"I, Krishna by name, of Srivathsa gotra, with the pravara

(lineage) of the five Rishis, Bhargava, Chyavana, Apnuvana, Aruva,

and Jamadagni, following the Apasthamba sutra of the Yajus Saka,

am now saluting you." Daily, at the close of the Sandhya prayers,

this Abhivadhanam formula should be repeated by every Brahman.

Taking the Brahmans as a whole, it is customary to group them in two

main divisions, the Pancha Dravidas and Pancha Gaudas. The Pancha

Dravidas are pure vegetarians, whereas the Pancha Gaudas need not

abstain from meat and fish, though some, who live amidst the Pancha

Dravidas, do so. Other differences will be noted in connection with

Oriya Brahmans, who belong to the Pancha Gauda section. In South India,

all Brahmans, except those who speak the Oriya and Konkani languages,

are Pancha Dravidas, who are divided into five sections, viz.:--

1. Tamil, or Dravida proper.

2. Telugu or Andhra.

3. Canarese, or Carnataka.

4. Marathi or Desastha.

5. Guzarati.

The Tulu-speaking Shivalli Brahmans are included among the Carnatakas;

the Pattar and Nambutiri Brahmans (see Nambutiri) among the Dravidas

proper.

From a religious point of view, the Brahmans are either Saivites or

Vaishnavites. The Saivites are either Saivites proper, or Smarthas. The

Smarthas believe that the soul of man is only a portion of the infinite

spirit (atman), and that it is capable of becoming absorbed into

the atman. They recognise the Trimurtis, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva as

separate gods, but only as equal manifestations of the supreme spirit,

and that, in the end, these are to be absorbed into the infinite

spirit, and so disappear. Saivas, on the other hand, do not recognise

the Trimurtis, and believe only in one god, Siva, who is self-existent,

and not liable to lose his personality. Of Vaishnavites there are three

kinds, viz., those who are the followers of Chaitanya, Ramanuja, and

Madhvacharya. Like the Smarthas, the Vaishnavites recognise Brahma,

Vishnu, and Siva, but Vishnu is supposed to be the chief god, to whom

the others are subordinate.

"Vaishnavas," Monier Williams writes, [155] "are believers in the

one personal god Vishnu, not only as the preserver, but as above

every other god, including Siva. It should be noted, too, that both

Saivites and Vaishnavas agree in attributing an essential form of

qualities to the Supreme Being. Their one god, in fact, exists in

an eternal body, which is antecedent to his earthly incarnations,

and survives all such incarnations." He adds that "it cannot be

doubted that one great conservative element of Hinduism is the many

sidedness of Vaishnavism. For Vaishnavism is, like Buddhism, the most

tolerant of systems. It is always ready to accommodate itself to other

creeds, and delights in appropriating to itself the religious idea

of all the nations of the world. It admits of every form of internal

development. It has no organised hierarchy under one supreme head,

but it may have any number of separate associations under separate

leaders, who are ever banding themselves together for the extension

of spiritual supremacy over ever increasing masses of population."

The Oriya Brahmans, who follow the creed of Chaitanya, are called

Paramarthos, and are confined to the Ganjam district. There is no

objection to intermarriage between Smartha and Paramartho Oriya

Brahmans.

Sri Vaishnavas (who put on the namam as a sectarian mark) and Madhvas

are exclusive as regards intermarriage, but the Madhvas have no

objection to taking meals with, and at the houses of Smarthas,

whereas Sri Vaishnavas object to doing so.

According to the Sutras, a Brahman has to go through the following

samskaras (rites):--

1. Garbhadana. 6. Annaprasanam

2. Pumsavanam. 7. Chaulam.

3. Simantam. 8. Upanayanam

4. Jatakarmam. 9. Vivaham.

5. Namakaranam.

These rites are supposed to purify the body and spirit from the taint

transmitted through the womb of the mother, but all of them are not

at the present day performed at the proper time, and in regular order.

The Garbhadhana, or impregnation ceremony, should, according to

the Grihya Sutras, be performed on the fourth day of the marriage

ceremonies. But, as the bride is a young girl, it is omitted, or Vedic

texts are repeated. The Garbhadhana ceremony is performed, after

the girl has attained puberty. At the time of consummation or Ritu

Santhi, the following verse is repeated:--"Let all pervading Vishnu

prepare her womb; let the Creator shape its forms; let Prajapathi be

the impregnator; let the Creator give the embryo."

Pumsavanam and Simantam are two ceremonies, which are performed

together during the seventh or ninth month of the first pregnancy,

though, according to the Grihya Sutras, the former should be performed

in the third month. At the Pumsavanam, or male producing ceremony,

the pregnant woman fasts, and her husband squeezes into her right

nostril a little juice from the fruit and twig of the alam tree

(Ficus bengalensis), saying "Thou art a male child." The twig selected

should be one pointing, east or north; with two fruits looking like

testicles. The twig is placed on a grinding-stone, and a girl, who has

not attained puberty, is asked to pound it. The pulp is wrapped in a

new silk cloth, and squeezed to express the juice. On the conclusion

of the Pumsavanam, the Simantam, or parting the pregnant woman's

hair, is gone through. After oblations in the sacred fire (homam),

the woman's husband takes a porcupine quill, to which three blades

of dharbha grass, and a twig with fruits of the aththi tree (Ficus

glomerata) are attached, and passes it over the woman's head from

before backwards, parting the hair.

The Jatakarmam, Namakaranam, Annaprasanam, and Chaulam rites

are ordinarily celebrated, one after the other, on the Upanayanam

day. Jatakarmam consists in smearing some ghi (clarified butter) and

honey on the tongue of the baby, and repeating the following verses

from the Rig Veda:--"Oh! long lived one, mayst thou live a hundred

years in this world, protected by the gods. Become firm as a rock,

firm as an axe, pure as gold. Thou art the Veda called a son; live

thou a hundred years. May Indra bestow on thee his best treasures. May

Savitri, may Sarasvati, may the Asvins grant thee wisdom."

At the Namakaranam, or naming ceremony, the parents of the child

pronounce its name close to its ear, and repeat the Vedic prayer to

Indra and Agni "May Indra give you lustre, and Indra semen, wisdom,

and children."

The Annaprasanam, or food-giving ceremony, should be performed during

the sixth month after birth. A little solid food is put into the

child's mouth, and the following Vedic verses are repeated:--"Agni

who lives on plants, Soma who lives on soma juice, Brahmans who live

on the Vedas, and Devatas who live on amartam (ambrosia), may they

bless you. As the earth gives food to plants and water, so I give you

this food. May these waters and plants give you prosperity and health."

At the Chaulam, or tonsure ceremony, the child is seated in his

mother's lap. The father, taking a few blades of dharbha grass in his

hand, sprinkles water over the child's head. Seven times he inserts

blades of dharbha in the hair of the head (three blades each time),

saying "Oh! divine grass, protect him." He then cuts off the tips of

the blades, and throws them away. The father is expected, according to

the Grihya Sutras, to shave or cut the child's hair. At the present

day, however, the barber is called in, and shaves the head, leaving

one lock or more according to local custom.

The Upanayana, or leading a boy to his guru or spiritual teacher, is

essentially a ceremony of initiation. From an orthodox point of view,

this ceremony should be performed before the age of eight years,

but in practice it is deferred even up to the age of seventeen. It

usually commences with the arrangement of seed-pans containing

nine kinds of grain, and tying a thread or pratisaram on the boy's

wrist. After this, the Abyudayam, or invocation of ancestors, is gone

through. The boy sits in front of the sacred fire, and his father,

or some other person, sits by his side, to help him in the ceremonial

and act the part of guru. He places over the boy's head blades of

dharbha grass so that the tips are towards the east, south, west,

and north. The tips are cut off, and the following Vedic verses are

repeated:--"Please permit me to shave the head of this boy with the

knife used by the sun for shaving Soma. He is to be shaved, because

it will bring him long life and old age. May the boy become great,

and not die a premature death. May he outshine all in glory." The

boy is then shaved by a barber, and more Vedic verses are repeated,

which run as follows:--"You are shaving with a sharp razor, so that

this shaving may enable him to live long. Brihaspathi, Surya, and

Agni shaved the hair of the head of Varuna, and placed the hairs in

the middle regions of the sky, earth, and in swarga. I shall place

the hairs removed by me at the foot of the audambara tree (Ficus

glomerata), or in the clumps of dharbha grass." The boy then bathes,

and comes near the sacred fire. After ghi has been poured thereon, a

bundle of palasa (Butea frondosa) sticks is given to him, and he puts

it on the fire after repeating certain Vedic riks. A grinding-stone

is placed on one side of the fire, and the boy treads on it, while

the following verse is repeated:--"Tread on this stone, and may

you be as firm as it is. May you subdue thy enemies." A new cloth

is given to him, which he puts on. The following verses are then

repeated:--"Oh! cloth, Revathi and others have spun, woven, spread

out, and put skirts on both sides of you. May these goddesses clothe

the boy with long life. Blessed with life, put on this cloth. Dress

the boy with this cloth. By wearing it, let him attain a hundred

years of age. May his life be extended. Such a garment as this was

given to Soma by Brihaspathi to wear. Mayst thou reach old age. Put

on this cloth. Be a protector to all people. May you live a hundred

years with full vigour. May you have plenty of wealth." After the boy

has put on the cloth, the following is repeated:--"You have put on

this cloth for the sake of blessing. You have become the protector of

your friends. Live a hundred years. A noble man, blessed with life,

mayst thou obtain wealth." A girdle (minji) spun from grass is wound

thrice round the boy's body, and tied with a knot opposite the navel,

or to the left of it. The following verses are repeated:--"This blessed

girdle, the friend of the gods, has come to us to remove our sins, to

purify and protect us, bring strength to us by the power of exhalation

and inhalation. Protect, Oh! girdle, our wealth and meditation. Destroy

our enemies, and guard us on all the four sides." A small piece of

deer-skin is next tied on to the sacred thread, which has been put

on the boy soon after the shaving rite. The following verses are

repeated:--"Oh! skin which is full of lustre because Mitra sees you,

full of glory and one that is not fit for wicked people, I am now

putting you on. May Aditi tuck up thy garment. Thou mayst read Vedas,

and grow wise. Thou mayst not forget what you have read. Mayst thou

become holy and glorious." The boy seats himself next to the guru,

and close to the sacred fire, and repeats the following:--"I have come

near the spiritual teacher, my Acharya. May the teacher and myself

become prosperous. May I also complete my Vedic studies properly,

and let me be blessed with a married life after the study." The

guru sprinkles water over the boy three times, and, taking hold of

his hand, says:--"Agni, Soman, Savitha, Sarasvati, Pusha, Aryaman,

Amsuhu, Bagadevata, and Mitra have seized thy hand. They have taken

you over to them, and you have become friends." Then he hands over

the boy to the gods by repeating:--"We give you to Agni, Soman,

Savitha, Sarasvati, Mrityu, Yaman, Gadhan, Andhakan, Abhaya, Oshadhi,

Prithvi, and Vaisvanara. With the permission of Surya, I am allowing

you to approach me. Oh! boy, may you have children full of lustre, and

capable of becoming heroes." The boy then repeats the following:--"I

am come to be a student. You that have obtained permission from the

Surya, please take me." The teacher asks, "Who are you? What is your

name?" The boy gives out his name, and the teacher enquires of him what

kind of Brahmachari he is. The boy replies that he is a Brahmachari

for Atman, and repeats the following:--"Oh! sun, the lord of all ways,

through your grace I am about to begin my studies, which will do good

to me." The teacher and the boy take their seats on dharbha grass,

and say:--"Oh! dharbha, a giver of royal power, a teacher's seat,

may I not withdraw from thee." The boy then pours some ghi on to the

sacred fire. A cloth is thrown over both the teacher and the boy,

and the latter asks the former to recite the Savitri. The

following Gayatri is repeated into his ear:--"Let us meditate on

that excellent glory of the divine vivifier. May he illumine our

understandings." The boy touches his own upper lip with his right

hand, and says:--"Oh! Prana, I have become illumined, having heard

the Savitri. Protect and guard this wealth that has entered me, the

Gayatri or Savitri." He then takes the palasa staff, and the teacher

says:--"Up with life. Oh! sun, this is thy son. I give him in charge to

thee." The boy then worships the sun thus:--"That bright eye created by

the gods, which rises in the east, may we see it a hundred autumns;

may we live a hundred autumns; may we rejoice a hundred autumns;

may we live a hundred autumns; may we rejoice a hundred autumns;

may we be glad a hundred autumns; may we prosper a hundred autumns;

may we speak a hundred autumns; may we live undecaying a hundred

autumns; and may we long see the sun." The ceremonial is brought to

a close on the first day by the boy begging rice from his mother and

other female relations. A basket, filled with rice, is placed in a

pandal (booth), and the boy stands near it, repeating "Please give me

alms." Each woman pours some rice into a tray which he carries, and

presents him with some money and betel leaves. The rice is placed in

the basket. On the second and third days, the boy puts palasa sticks

into the sacred fire, and pours ghi thereon. On the fourth day,

the new cloth is given to the teacher.

The wearing of the sacred thread is a sign that the boy has

gone through the upanayanam ceremony. It is noted [156] by the

Rev. A. Margöschis that "the son of Brahman parents is not reckoned

to be a Brahman (i.e., he may not take part in religious ceremonies)

until he has gone through the ceremony of assuming the sacred thread;

and I have heard Brahman boys wearing the thread taunting a boy of

Brahman birth, and calling him a Sudra, because he had not yet assumed

the holy thread." The thread is composed of three threads of cotton

secured together in one spot by a sacred knot of peculiar construction,

called Brahma Grandhi. The knot in the sacred thread worn by Vaishnava

Brahmans is called Vishnu Grandhi, and that in the thread of Smarthas

Rudra Grandhi. In the preparation of the thread, cotton sold in the

bazaar may not be used; the bolls ought to be secured direct from the

plant. Here and there Brahmans may be seen in villages, removing the

cotton from the bolls, and preparing it into pads for spinning into

thread. Those who teach students the Vedas may be seen spinning the

thread from these pads. The spinning rod is a thin piece of bamboo

stick weighted with a lead or soapstone disc about half an inch in

diameter. The thin thread is kept in stock, and twisted into the sacred

thread whenever it is required. Three or more people usually take part

in the twisting process, during which they chant Vedic verses. In the

Srutis and Sutras, it is enjoined that the Yagnopavita (sacred thread)

is to be put on only on occasions of sacrifice. It ought really to be

a vestment, and is a symbolical representation thereof. Ordinarily

the thread is worn over the left shoulder in the position called

Upavitham. In ceremonies connected with the dead, however, it is worn

over the right shoulder in the position called prachinavithi. At the

time of worshipping Rishis and Ganas, the thread should be over both

shoulders and round the neck in the position called nivithi.

The grass girdle and deer-skin worn by a youth at the Upanayanam

ceremony are removed on the fifth day, or, among the orthodox,

kept on until the first Upakarmam day. They, and the palasa

stick, should be retained by the Brahmachari till the close of his

studentship. Nambutiri Brahman lads of eight or nine years old, who

have gone through the Upanayanam ceremony, always carry with them

the palasa stick, and wear the grass girdle, and, in addition to

the sacred thread, a thin strip of deer-skin in length equal to the

thread. Round the waist he wears a narrow strip of cloth (kaupinam)

passed between the legs. He may cover his breast and abdomen with

a cloth thrown over his body. He is thus clad until his marriage,

or at least until he has concluded the study of the Vedas.

The marriage rites in vogue at the present day resemble those of

Vedic times in all essential particulars. All sections of Brahmans

closely follow the Grihya Sutras relating to their sakha. The marriage

ceremonies commence with the Nischyathartham or betrothal ceremony. The

bridegroom being seated on a plank amidst a number of Brahmans,

Vedic verses are repeated, and, after the bestowal of blessings,

the bride's father proclaims that he intends giving his daughter

in marriage to the bridegroom, and that he may come for the purpose

after the completion of the Vratam ceremony. For this ceremony, the

bridegroom, after being shaved, dresses up. Meanwhile, the Brahmans who

have been invited assemble. The bridegroom sits on the marriage dais,

and, after repeating certain Vedic verses, says:--"With the permission

of all assembled, let me begin the Vratams Prajapathyam, Soumyam,

Agneyam, and Vaiswadevam, and let me also close them." All the Vratams

should be performed long before the marriage. In practice, however,

this is not done, so the bridegroom performs an expiatory ceremony,

to make up for the omission. This consists in offering oblations of

ghi, and giving presents of money to a few Brahmans. The bridegroom is

helped throughout the Vratam ceremonies by a spiritual teacher or guru,

who is usually his father or a near relation. The guru sprinkles water

over the bridegroom's body, and tells him to go on with kandarishi

tharpanam (offerings of water, gingelly, and rice, as an oblation to

Rishis). A small copper or silver vessel is placed on a leaf to the

north-east of the sacred fire, and is made to represent Varuna. A new

cloth is placed round the vessel. The various Vratams mentioned are

gone through rapidly, and consist of offerings of ghi through fire to

the various Devatas and Pitris. The Nandhi Sradh, or memorial service

to ancestors, is then performed. The bridegroom next dresses up as a

married man, and proceeds on a mock pilgrimage to a distant place. This

is called Paradesa Pravesam (going to a foreign place), or Kasiyatra

(pilgrimage to Benares). It is a remnant of the Snathakarma rite,

whereat a Brahmachari, or student, leaves his spiritual teacher's

house at the close of his studies, performs a ceremony of ablution,

and becomes an initiated householder or Snathaka. The bridegroom

carries with him an umbrella, a fan, and a bundle containing some

rice, cocoanut, and areca-nut. He usually goes eastward. His future

father-in-law meets him, and brings him to the house at which the

marriage is to be celebrated. As soon as he has arrived there, the

bride is brought, dressed up and decorated in finery. The bridal pair

are taken up on the shoulders of their maternal uncles, who dance

about for a short time. Whenever they meet, the bride and bridegroom

exchange garlands (malaimaththal). The couple then sit on a swing

within the pandal (booth), and songs are sung. A few married women go

round them three times, carrying water, a light, fruits, and betel,

in a tray. The pair are conducted into the house, and are seated on

the marriage dais. The marriage, or Vivaham, is then commenced. A

purohit (priest) repeats certain Vedic texts as a blessing, and

says:--"Bless this couple of ... gotras, the son and daughter of

..., grandchildren of ..., now about to be married." At this stage,

the gotras of the contracting couple must be pronounced distinctly,

so as to ensure that they are not among the prohibited degrees. The

bridal couple must belong to different gotras. The bridegroom next

says that he is about to commence the worship of Visvaksena if he is

a Vaishnavite, or Ganapathi if he is a Saivite, for the successful

termination of the marriage ceremonies. The Ankurarpana (seed-pan)

ceremony is then proceeded with. Five earthenware pans are procured,

and, after being purified by the sprinkling of punyaham water over

them, are arranged in the form of a square. Four of the pans are

placed at the four cardinal points, east, west, north, and south,

and the remaining pot is set down in the centre of the square. The

pan to the east represents Indra, the one to the west Varuna, the

one to the south Yama, and the one to the north Soman. While water

is being sprinkled over the pans, the following synonyms for each of

these gods are repeated:--

Indra--Sathakruthu, Vajranam, Sachipathi.

Yama--Vaivaswata, Pithrupathi, Dharmaraja.

Varuna--Prachethas, Apampathi, Swarupinam.

Soman--Indum, Nisakaram, Oshadisam.

Nine kinds of grains soaked in water are placed in the seed-pans. These

grains are Dolichos Lablab (two varieties), Phaseolus Mungo

(two varieties), Oryza sativa, Cicer Arietinum, Cajanus indicus,

Eleusine Coracana, and Vigna Catiang. The tying of the wrist-thread

(pratisaram) is next proceeded with. Two cotton threads are laid on

a vessel representing Varuna. After the recitation of Vedic verses,

the bridegroom takes one of the threads, and, dipping it in turmeric

paste, holds it with his left thumb, smears some of the paste on it

with his right thumb and forefinger, and ties it on the left wrist

of the bride. The purohit ties the other thread on the right wrist

of the bridegroom, who, facing the assembly, says "I am going to

take the bride." He then recites the following Vedic verse:--"Go to

my future father-in-law with due precautions, and mingle with the

members of his family. This marriage is sure to be pleasing to Indra,

because he gets oblations of food, etc., after the marriage. May your

path be smooth and free from thorns. May Surya and Bhaga promote our

dhampathyam (companionship)."

The purohit again proclaims the marriage, and the gotras and names

of three generations are repeated. Those assembled then bless the

couple. The bride's father says that he is prepared to give his

daughter in marriage to the bridegroom, who states that he accepts

her. The father of the bride washes the feet of the bridegroom placed

on a tray with milk and water. The bridegroom then washes the feet of

the bride's father. The bride sits in her father's lap, and her mother

stands at her side. The father, repeating the names of the bridegroom's

ancestors for three generations, says that he is giving his daughter

to him. He places the hand of the bride on that of the bridegroom,

and both he and the bride's mother pour water over the united hands

of the contracting couple. The following sloka is repeated:--"I am

giving you a virgin decorated with jewels, to enable me to obtain

religious merit." The bridegroom takes the bride by the hand, and

both take their seats in front of the sacred fire. This part of the

ceremonial is called dhare (pouring of water). Much importance is

attached to it by Tulu Brahmans. Among Non-Brahman castes in South

Canara, it forms the binding portion of the marriage ceremony. After

the pouring of ghi as an oblation, the bridegroom throws down a few

twigs of dharbha grass, and repeats the formula:--"Oh! dharbha, thou

art capable of giving royal powers, and the teacher's seat. May I not

be separated from thee." Then the bride's father, giving a vessel of

water, says "Here is Arghya water." The bridegroom receives it with

the formula:--"May this water destroy my enemies. May brilliancy,

energy, strength, life, renown, glory, splendour, and power dwell in

me." Once again the bride's father washes the feet of the bridegroom,

who salutes his father-in-law, saying "Oh! water, unite me with fame,

splendour, and milk. Make me beloved by all creatures, the lord of

cattle. May fame, heroism, and energy dwell in me." The bride's father

pours some water from a vessel over the hand of the bridegroom,

who says "To the ocean I send you, the imperishable waters; go

back to your source. May I not suffer loss in my offspring. May my

sap not be shed." A mixture of honey, plantain fruit, and ghi, is

given to the bridegroom by the bride's father with the words "Ayam

Madhuparko" (honey mixture). Receiving it, the bridegroom mutters

the following:--"What is the honeyed, highest form of honey which

consists in the enjoyment of food; by that honeyed highest form of

honey, may I become highest, honeyed, an enjoyer of food." He partakes

three times of the mixture, and says:--"I eat thee for the sake of

brilliancy, luck, glory, power, and the enjoyment of food." Then the

bride's father gives a cocoanut to the bridegroom, saying "Gauhu"

(cow). The bridegroom receives it with the words "Oh! cow, destroy

my sin, and that of my father-in-law." According to the Grihya

Sutras, a cow should be presented to the bridegroom, to be cooked

or preserved. Next a plantain fruit is given to the bridegroom, who,

after eating a small portion of it, hands it to the bride. The bride

sits on a heap or bundle of paddy (unhusked rice), and the bridegroom

says "Oh! Varuna, bless her with wealth. May there be no ill-feeling

between herself, her brothers and sisters. Oh! Brihaspathi, bless

her that she may not lose her husband. Oh! Indra, bless her to

be fertile. Oh! Savitha, bless her that she may be happy in all

respects. Oh! girl, be gentle-eyed and friendly to me. Let your

look be of such a nature as not to kill your husband. Be kind to me,

and to my brothers. [157] May you shine with lustre, and be of good

repute. Live long, and bear living children." The pair are then seated,

and the bridegroom, taking a blade of dharbha grass, passes it between

the eyebrows of the bride, and throws it behind her, saying "With

this dharbha grass I remove the evil influence of any bad mark thou

mayst possess, which is likely to cause widowhood." [Certain marks or

curls (suli) forebode prosperity, and others misery to a family into

which a girl enters by marriage. And, when a wealthy Hindu meditates

purchasing a horse, he looks to the presence or absence of certain

marks on particular parts of the body, and thereby forms a judgment of

the temper and qualities of the animal.] The bridegroom then repeats

the following:--"Now they ought to rejoice, and not cry. They have

arranged our union to bring happiness to both of us. In view of the

happiness we are to enjoy hereafter, they should be glad. This is

a fitting occasion for rejoicing." Four Brahmans next bring water,

and the bridegroom receives it, saying:--"May the evil qualities of

this water disappear; may it increase. Let the Brahmans bring water

for the bath, and may it bring long life and children to her." A

bundle of paddy, or a basket filled therewith, is brought to the

pandal. The bride sits on the paddy, and a ring of dharbha grass is

placed on her head. The bridegroom repeats the formula "Blessed by

the Surya, sit round the sacred fire, and look at the dharbha ring,

my mother-in-law and brother-in-law." A yoke is then brought, one end

of which is placed on the head of the bride above the ring, and the

following formula is repeated:--"Oh! Indra, cleanse and purify this

girl, just as you did in the case of Abhala, by pouring water through

three holes before marrying her." Abhala was an ugly woman, who wished

to marry Indra. To attain this end, she did penance for a long time,

and, meeting Indra, requested him to fulfil her desire. Indra made her

his wife, after transforming her into a beautiful woman by sprinkling

water over her through the holes in the wheels of the car which

was his vehicle. Into the hole of the yoke a gold coin, or the tali

(marriage badge), is dropped, with the words "May this gold prove a

blessing to you. May the yoke, the hole of the yoke, bring happiness

to you. May we be blessed to unite your body with mine." Then the

bridegroom, sprinkling water over the yoke and coin, says:--"May you

become purified by the sun through this purificatory water. May this

water, which is the cause of thunder and lightning, bring happiness

to you. Oh! girl, may this water give you health and long life. A

new and costly silk cloth (kurai), purchased by the bridegroom,

is given to the bride, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! Indra, listen

to my prayers; accept them, and fulfil my desires." The bride puts

on the cloth, with the assistance of the bridegroom's sister, and

sits on her father's lap. The bridegroom, taking up the tali, ties

it by the string on the bride's neck, saying:--"Oh! girl, I am tying

the tali to secure religious merit." This is not a Vedic verse, and

this part of the ceremony is not included in the Grihya Sutras. All

the Brahmans assembled bless the couple by throwing rice over their

heads. A dharbha waist-cord is passed round the waist of the bride,

and the following is repeated:--"This girl is gazing at Agni, wishing

for health, wealth, strength and children. I am binding her for her

good." The bridegroom then holds the hand of the bride, and both go

to the sacred fire, where the former says:--"Let Surya lead to Agni,

and may you obtain permission from the Aswins to do so. Go with me

to my house. Be my wife, and the mistress of my house. Instruct and

help me in the performance of sacrifices." After offerings of ghi

in the sacred fire, the bridegroom says:--"Soma was your husband;

Gandharva knew thee next; Agni was your third husband. I, son of man,

am your fourth husband. Soma gave you to Gandharva, and Gandharva gave

you to Agni, who gave to me with progeny and wealth." The bridegroom

takes hold of the bride's right wrist, and, pressing on the fingers,

passes his hand over the united fingers three times. This is called

Panigrahanam. To the Nambutiri Brahman this is a very important item,

being the binding part of the marriage ceremonial. Some years ago,

at a village near Chalakkudi in the Cochin State, a Nambutiri refused

to accept a girl as his bride, because the purohit inadvertently

grasped her fingers, to show how it ought to be done at the time of

the marriage ceremony. The purohit had to marry the girl himself. The

next item in the ceremonial is Sapthapathi, or the taking of the seven

steps. This is considered as the most binding portion thereof. The

bridegroom lifts the left foot of the bride seven times, repeating

the following:--"One step for sap, may Vishnu go after thee. Two

steps for juice, may Vishnu go after thee. Three steps for vows,

may Vishnu go after thee. Four steps for comfort, may Vishnu go after

thee. Five steps for cattle, may Vishnu go after thee. Six steps for

the prospering of wealth, may Vishnu go after thee. Seven steps for

the seven-fold hotriship, [158] may Vishnu go after thee. With seven

steps we have become companions. May I attain to friendship with

thee. May I not be separated from thy friendship. Mayst thou not be

separated from my friendship. Let us be united; let us always take

counsel together with good hearts and mutual love. May we grow in

strength and prosperity together. Now we are one in minds, deeds,

and desires. Thou art Rik, I am Samam; I am the sky, thou art the

earth; I am the semen, thou art the bearer; I am the mind, thou

art the tongue. Follow me faithfully, that we may have wealth and

children together. Come thou of sweet speech." The bridegroom then does

homam, repeating the following:--"We are offering oblations to Soma,

Gandharva, and Agni. This girl has just passed her virginity. Make her

leave her father's house. Bless her to remain fixed in her husband's

house. May she have a good son by your blessing. Cause her to beget

ten children, and I shall be the eleventh child. Oh! Agni, bless her

with children, and make them long-lived. Oh! Varuna, I pray to you

for the same thing. May this woman be freed from the sorrow arising

out of sterility, and be blessed by Garhapathyagni. May she have

a number of children in her, and become the mother of many living

children. Oh! girl, may your house never know lamentations during

nights caused by deaths. May you live long and happy with your husband

and children. May the sky protect thy back; may Vayu strengthen your

thighs; and the Aswins your breast. May Savitri look after thy suckling

sons. Until the garment is put on, may Brihaspathi guard them, and the

Viswedevas afterwards. Oh! Varuna, make me strong and healthy. Do not

steal away years from our ages. All those who offer oblations pray

for the same. Oh! you all-pervading Agni, pacify Varuna; you who

blaze forth into flames to receive oblations, be friendly towards

us. Be near us, and protect us. Receive, and be satisfied with our

oblations. Make us prosperous. We are always thinking of you. Take

our oblations to the several devatas, and give us medicine." The

bride next treads on a stone, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! girl,

tread on this stone. Be firm like it. Destroy those who seek to do

thee harm. Overcome thy enemies." Some fried paddy is put in the

sacred fire, and the bridegroom repeats the following:--"Oh! Agni,

I am offering the fried grains, so that this girl may be blessed with

long life. Oh! Agni, give me my wife with children, just as in olden

days you were given Suryayi with wealth. Oh! Agni, bless my wife with

lustre and longevity. Also bless her husband with long life, that she

may live happily. Oh! Agni, help us to overcome our enemies." Again

the bride treads on the stone, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! girl,

tread on this stone, and be firm like it. Destroy those who seek to

do thee harm. Overcome thy enemies." This is followed by the offering

of fried grain with the following formula:--"The virgins prayed to

Surya and Agni to secure husbands, and they were at once granted their

boons. Such an Agni is now being propitiated by offerings of fried

paddy. Let him make the bride leave her father's house." For the third

time, the bride treads on the stone, and fried paddy is offered with

the formula:--"Oh! Agni, thou art the giver of life, and receiver of

oblations. Oblations of ghi are now offered to you. Bless the pair to

be of one mind." The dharbha girdle is removed from the bride's waist,

with the verse: "I am loosening you from the bondage of Varuna. I am

now removing the thread with which Surya bound you." Those assembled

then disperse. Towards evening, Brahmans again assemble, and the

bride and bridegroom sit before the sacred fire, while the former

repeat several Vedic riks. They are supposed to start for their home,

driving in a carriage, and the verses repeated have reference to the

chariot, horses, boats, etc. After ghi has been poured into the fire,

a child, who should be a male who has not lost brothers or sisters,

is seated in the lap of the bride, and the bridegroom says:--"May cows,

horses, men, and wealth, increase in this house. Let this child occupy

your lap, just as the Soma creeper which gives strength to the Devatas

occupies the regions of the stars." Giving some plantain fruit to the

child, the bridegroom says:--"Oh! fruits, ye bear seeds. May my wife

bear seeds likewise by your blessing." Then the pair are shown Druva

and Arundathi (the pole star and Ursa major), which are worshipped

with the words:--"The seven Rishis who have led to firmness, she,

Arundathi, who stands first among the six Krithikas (Pleiads), may

she the eighth one, who leads the conjunction of the (moon with the)

six Krithikas, the first (among conjunctions) shine upon us. Firm

dwelling, firm origin; the firm one art thou, standing on the side of

firmness. Thou art the pillar of the stars. Thus protect me against

my adversaries." They then proceed to perform the Sthalipaka ceremony,

in which the bride should cook some rice, which the bridegroom offers

as an oblation in the sacred fire. In practice, however, a little

food is brought, and placed in the fire without being cooked. The

purohit decorates a Ficus stick with dharbha grass, and gives it to the

bridegroom. It is placed in the roof, or somewhere within the house,

near the seed-pans. [According to the Grihya Sutras, the couple ought

to occupy the same mat, with the stick between them. This is not in

vogue amongst several sections of Brahmans. The Mysore Carnatakas,

Mandya Aiyangars, and Shivallis, observe a kindred ceremony. Amongst

the Mandyas, for example, on the fourth night of the marriage rites,

the bridal couple occupy the same mat for a short time, and a stick

is placed between them. The Pajamadme, or mat marriage, amongst the

Shivalli Brahmans, evidently refers to this custom.] On the second and

third days of the marriage ceremonies, homams are performed in the

morning and evening, and the nalagu ceremony is performed. In this,

the couple are seated on two planks covered with mats and cloth,

amidst a large number of women assembled within the pandal. In front

of them, betel leaves, areca nuts, fruits, flowers, and turmeric

paste are placed in a tray. The women sing songs which they have

learnt from childhood, and the bride also sings the praises of the

bridegroom. Taking a little of the turmeric paste rendered red by the

addition of chunam (lime), she makes marks by drawing lines over the

feet (nalangu idal). The ceremony closes with the waving of arathi

(water coloured red with turmeric and chunam), and the distribution

of pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts). The waving is done by

two women, who sing appropriate songs. On the fourth day, Brahmans

assemble, and the pair are seated in their midst. After the recitation

of Vedic verses, the contracting couple are blessed. A small quantity

of turmeric paste, reddened by the addition of chunam, is mixed with

ghi, and smeared over the shoulders of the pair, and a mark is made on

their foreheads. This is called Pachchai Kalyanam, and is peculiar to

Tamil Brahmans, both Smarthas and Vaishnavas. Amongst Tamil Brahmans,

prominence is given to the maternal uncles on the fourth day. The

bride and bridegroom are carried astride on the shoulders of their

uncles, who dance to the strains of a band. When they meet, the couple

exchange garlands (malaimaththal). Towards evening, a procession is

got up at the expense of the maternal uncle of the bride, and is hence

called Amman Kolam. The bride is dressed up as a boy, and another girl

is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in procession

through the streets, and, on their return, the pseudo-bridegroom is

made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent tones, and

some mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom is addressed as if

he was the syce (groom) or gumastha (clerk) of the pseudo-bridegroom,

and is sometimes treated as a thief, and judgment passed on him by the

latter. Among Sri Vaishnavas, after the Pachchai smearing ceremony,

the bridal couple roll a cocoanut to and fro across the dais, and the

assembled Brahmans chant stanzas in Tamil composed by a Vaishnava

lady named Andal, an avatar of Lakshmi, who dedicated herself to

Vishnu. In these stanzas, she narrates to her attendants the dream,

in which she went through the marriage ceremony after her dedication

to the god. Pan-supari, of which a little, together with some money,

is set apart for Andal, is then distributed to all present. A large

crowd generally assembles, as it is believed that the chanting of

Andal's srisukthi (praise of Lakshmi) brings a general blessing. The

family priest calls out the names and gotras of those who have become

related to the bride and bridegroom through their marriage. As each

person's name is called out, he or she is supposed to make a present

of cloths, money, etc., to the bridegroom or bride. [The Telugu

and Carnataka Brahmans, instead of the Pachchai Kalyanam, perform

a ceremony called Nagavali on the fourth or fifth day. Thirty-two

lights and two vessels, representing Siva and Parvathi, are arranged

in the form of a square. Unbleached thread, soaked in turmeric paste,

is passed round the square, and tied to the pandal. The bridal couple

sit in front of the square, and, after doing puja (worship), cut the

thread, and take their seats within the square. The bridegroom ties

a tali of black glass beads on the bride's neck, in the presence of

33 crores (330 millions) of gods, represented by a number of small

pots arranged round the square. Close to the pots are the figures of

two elephants, designed in rice grains and salt respectively. After

going round the pots, the couple separate, and the bridegroom stands

by the salt elephant, and the bride by the other. They then talk about

the money value of the two animals, and an altercation takes place,

during which they again go round the pots, and stand, the bridegroom

near the rice elephant, and the bride near the salt one. The bargaining

as to the price of the animals is renewed, and the couple go round the

pots once more. This ceremony is followed by a burlesque of domestic

life. The bride is presented with two wooden dolls from Tirupati, and

told to make a cradle out of the bridegroom's turmeric-coloured cloth,

which he wore on the tali-tying day. The couple converse on domestic

matters, and the bridegroom asks the bride to attend to her household

affairs, so that he may go to his duties. She pleads her inability to

do so because of the children, and asks him to take charge of them. She

then shows the babies (dolls) to all present, and a good deal of fun is

made out of the incident. The bride, with her mother standing by her

side near two empty chairs, is then introduced to her new relations

by marriage, who sit in pairs on the chairs, and make presents of

pan-supari and turmeric.] On the fifth day of the marriage ceremonies,

before dawn, the bridal couple are seated on the dais, and the

Gandharva stick is removed, with the words:--"Oh! Visvawasu Gandharva,

I pray to you to make this girl my wife. Unite her with me. Leave

her, and seek another." The bridegroom then performs homams. A coin

is placed on the bride's head, and a little ghi put thereon. Gazing

at the bridegroom, she says:--"With a loving heart I regard thee

who knowest my heart. Thou art radiant with tapas (penance). Fill me

with a child, and this house of ours with wealth. Thou art desirous

of a son. Thus shalt thou reproduce thyself." Looking at the bride,

the bridegroom then says:--"I see thee radiant and eager to be filled

with child by me. Thou art in thy youth now. Enjoy me, therefore,

while I am over you, and so reproduce thyself, being desirous of

a son." Touching the bride's breasts with his ring-finger, and

then touching his heart, he repeats the following:--"May the Viswe

gods unite our hearts; may the water unite our hearts; may Vayu and

Brahma unite our hearts; and may Sarasvati teach us both conversation

appropriate to this occasion of our intercourse." More Vedic riks

are then recited, as follows:--"Thou Prajapathi, enter my body that

I may have vigour during this act; so thou Thvastri, who fashionest

forms with Vishnu and other gods; so thou Indra, who grantest boons

with thy friends the Viswedevas, by thy blessing may we have many

sons. May Vishnu make thy womb ready; may Thvashtri frame the shape

(of the child); may Prajapathi pour forth (the sperm); may Dhatri

give thee conception. Give conception, Sinivali; give conception,

Sarasvati. May the two Asvins, wreathed with lotus, give conception

to thee. The embryo which the two Asvins produce with their golden

kindling sticks, that embryo we call into thy womb, that thou mayst

give birth to it after ten months. As the earth is pregnant with

Agni, as the heaven is pregnant with Indra, as Vayu dwells in the

womb of the regions (of the earth), thus I place an embryo in thy

womb. Open thy womb; take in the sperm. May a male child, an embryo,

be begotten in the womb. The mother bears him ten months, may he be

born, the most valiant of his kin. May a male embryo enter the womb,

as an arrow the quiver; may a man be born here, thy son, after ten

months. I do with thee (the work) that is sacred to Prajapathi; may

an embryo enter the womb. May a child be born without deficiency,

with all its limbs, not blind, not lame, not sucked out by Pisachas"

(devils). The marriage is brought to a close, after this recitation,

with the presentation of fruits, etc., to all the Brahmans assembled,

and to all relations, children included. The bridegroom chews betel

for the first time on this day. The wrist-threads are removed, and the

seed-pans containing the seedlings, which have been worshipped daily,

are taken in procession to a tank (pond), into which the seedlings

are thrown.

It will be noticed that prayers for male issue are of frequent

occurrence during the marriage ceremonial. In Sanskrit works,

Putra (son) is defined as one who delivers a parent from a hell

called put. It is generally believed that the welfare of a parent's

soul depends on the performance of sradh (memorial services) by his

son. It was laid down by Manu that a man is perfect, when he consists

of three--himself, his wife, and his son. In the Rig Veda it is

stated that "when a father sees the face of a living son, he pays

a debt in him, and gains immortality. The pleasure which a father

has in his son exceeds all other enjoyments. His wife is a friend,

his daughter an object of companion, his son shines as his light in

the highest world." The following story of a certain pious man of

ascetical temperament, who determined to shirk the religious duty of

taking a wife, is narrated by Monier Williams:--"Quietly skipping

over the second prescribed period of life, during which he ought

to have been a householder (grihastha), he entered at once upon the

third period--that is to say, he became an ascetic, abjured all female

society, and retired to the woods. Wandering about one day, absorbed

in meditation, he was startled by an extraordinary spectacle. He saw

before him a deep and apparently bottomless pit. Around its edge some

unhappy men were hanging suspended by ropes of grass, at which here

and there a rat was nibbling. On asking their history, he discovered

to his horror that they were his own ancestors compelled to hang in

this unpleasant manner, and doomed eventually to fall into the abyss,

unless he went back into the world, did his duty like a man, married

a suitable wife, and had a son, who would be able to release them

from their critical predicament." This legend is recorded in detail

in the Mahabharata.

A curious mock marriage ceremony is celebrated amongst Brahmans

when an individual marries a third wife. It is believed that a

third marriage is very inauspicious, and that the bride will become

a widow. To prevent this mishap, the man is made to marry the arka

plant (Calotropis gigantea), and the real marriage thus becomes the

fourth. If this ceremony is carried on in orthodox fashion, it is

generally celebrated on some Sunday or Monday, when the constellation

Astham is visible. The bridegroom and a Brahman priest, accompanied

by a third Brahman, repair to a spot where the arka plant (a very

common weed) is growing. The plant is decorated with a cloth and a

piece of string, and symbolised into the sun. The bridegroom then

invokes it thus:--"Oh! master of three loks, Oh! the seven-horsed,

Oh! Ravi, avert the evils of the third marriage." Next the plant

is addressed with the words:--"You are the oldest of the plants of

this world. Brahma created you to save such of us as have to marry

a third time, so please become my wife." The Brahman who accompanies

the bridegroom becomes his father-in-law for the moment, and says to

him:--"I give you in marriage Aditya's great grand-daughter, Savi's

grand-daughter, and my daughter Arkakanya." All the ceremonies, such as

making homam, tali-tying, etc., are performed as at a regular marriage,

and, after the recitation of a few sentences from the Vedas, the plant

is cut down. "The plant," Mr. A. Srinivasan writes, [159] "is named

arka after the sun. When the car of the sun turns towards the north,

every Hindu applies the leaves of this plant to his head before he

bathes, in honour of the event. The plant is, besides, believed to be

a willing scapegoat to others' ills. Oil and ghi applied to the head

of the victim of persistent illness has only to be transferred to

this plant, when it withers and saves the man, even as Baber is said

to have saved his son. The poet Kalidasa describes sweet Sakuntala,

born of a shaggy dweller of the forest, as a garland of jasmine

thrown on an arka plant. 'May the arka grow luxuriant in your house'

is the commonest form of curse. 'Be thou belaboured with arka leaves'

is familiar in the mouths of reprimanding mothers. Adulterers were,

half a century ago, seated on an ass, face to the tail, and marched

through the village. The public disgrace was enhanced by placing a

garland of the despised arka leaves on their head. [Uppiliyan women

convicted of immorality are said to be garlanded with arka flowers,

and made to carry a basket of mud round the village.] A Telugu proverb

asks 'Does the bee ever seek the arka flower?' The reasons for the

ill-repute that this plant suffers from are not at all clear. The

fact that it has a partiality for wastes has evidently brought on

its devoted head the dismal associations of desolation, but there

would seem to be more deep-seated hatred to the plant than has been

explained." A Tamil proverb has it that he who crushes the bud of the

arka earns merit. Some Telugu and Canarese Brahmans, who follow the

Yajur Veda or Rig Veda, consider the arka plant as sacred, and use

the leaves thereof during the nandhi (ancestor invoking) ceremony,

which is performed as one of the marriage rites. Two or three arka

leaves, with betel leaves and areca nuts, are tied to the cloth, which

is attached to a stick as representing the ancestors (pithrus). With

some the arka leaves are replaced by leaves of Pongamia glabra. On

rathasapthami day (the seventh day after the new moon in the month

Avani), an orthodox Hindu should bathe his head and shoulders with arka

leaves in propitiation of Surya (the sun). Brahmans who follow the Sama

Veda, during the annual upakarmam ceremony, make use of arka leaves

and flowers in worshipping the Rishis and Pithrus. On the upakarmam

day, the Sama Vedis invoke their sixty-two Rishis and the last three

ancestors, who are represented by sixty-five clay balls placed on

arka leaves. To them are offered arka flowers, fruits of karai-chedi

(Canthium parviflorum), and naval (Eugenia Jambolana). In addition to

this worship, they perform the Rishi and Pithru tharpanam by offering

water, gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, and rice. The celebrant,

prior to dipping his hand into the water, places in his hands two arka

leaves, gingelly, and rice. The juice of the arka plant is a favourite

agent in the hands of suicides. Among the Tangalan Paraiyans, if a

young man dies before he is married, a ceremony called kannikazhithal

(removing bachelorhood) is performed. Before the corpse is laid on

the bier, a garland of arka flowers is placed round its neck, and

balls of mud from a gutter are laid on the head, knees, and other

parts of the body. In some places a variant of the ceremony consists

in the erection of a mimic marriage booth, which is covered with

leaves of the arka plant, flowers of which are also placed round the

neck as a garland. At a form of marriage called rambha or kathali

(plantain) marriage, the arka plant is replaced by a plantain tree

(Musa). It is performed by those who happen to be eldest brothers,

and who are incapable of getting married, so as to give a chance

to younger brothers, who are not allowed to marry unless the elder

brother or brothers are already married.

At the present day, many Hindus disregard certain ceremonies, in the

celebration of which their forefathers were most scrupulous. Even the

daily ceremonial ablutions, which are all important to a Brahman from

a shastraic point of view, are now neglected by a large majority,

and the prayers (mantrams), which should be chanted during their

performance, are forgotten. But no Brahman, orthodox or unorthodox,

dares to abandon the death ceremonial, and annual sradh (memorial

rites). A Brahman beggar, when soliciting alms, invariably pleads that

he has to perform his father or mother's sradh, or upanayanam (thread

ceremony) of his children, and he rarely goes away empty-handed. "The

constant periodical performance," Monier Williams writes, [160]

"of commemorative obsequies is regarded in the light of a positive

and peremptory obligation. It is the simple discharge of a solemn

debt to one's forefathers, a debt consisting not only in reverential

homage, but in the performance of acts necessary to their support,

happiness, and progress onwards in the spiritual world. A man's

deceased relatives, for at least three generations, are among his

cherished divinities, and must be honoured by daily offerings and

adoration, or a nemesis of some kind is certain to overtake his

living family. The object of a Hindu funeral is nothing less than

the investiture of the departed spirit with an intermediate gross

body--a peculiar frame interposed, as it were parenthetically, between

the terrestrial gross body, which has just been destroyed by fire,

and the new terrestrial body, which it is compelled to ultimately

assume. The creation of such an intervenient frame, composed of gross

elements, though less gross than those of earth, becomes necessary,

because the individualised spirit of man, after the cremation of the

terrestrial body, has nothing left to withhold it from re-absorption

into the universal soul, except its incombustible subtle body, which,

as composed of the subtle elements, is not only proof against the

fire of the funeral pile, but is incapable of any sensations in the

temporary heaven, or temporary hell, through one or other of which

every separate human spirit is forced to pass before returning to

earth, and becoming re-invested with a terrestrial gross body."

When a Brahman is on the point of death, he is removed from his

bed, and laid on the floor. If there is any fear of the day being a

danishtapanchami (inauspicious), the dying man is taken out of the

house, and placed in the court-yard or pial (raised verandah). Some

prayers are uttered, and a cow is presented (godhanam). These are

intended to render the passage of life through the various parts of the

body as easy as possible. The spirit is supposed to escape through one

of the nine orifices of the body, according to the character of the

individual concerned. That of a good man leaves the body through the

brahmarandhra (top of the skull), and that of a bad man through the

anus. Immediately after death, the body is washed, religious marks

are made on the forehead, and parched paddy and betel are scattered

over and around it by the son. As a Brahman is supposed always to have

his fire with him, the sacred fire is lighted. At this stage, certain

purificatory ceremonies are performed, if death has taken place on a

day or hour of evil omen, or at midnight. Next, a little cooked rice

is cooked in a new earthen pot, and a new cloth is thrown over the

corpse, which is roused by the recitation of mantrams. Four bearers,

to each of whom dharbha grass is given in token of his office, are

selected to carry the corpse to the burning-ground. The eldest son,

who is the funeral celebrant, and his brothers are shaved. On ordinary

occasions, brothers should not be shaved on the same day, as this would

be inauspicious. They are only shaved on the same day on the occasion

of the death of their father or mother. The widow of the deceased,

and female relations, go three times round the corpse, before it is

placed on the bier. Very often, at this stage, all the women present

set up a loud lamentation, and repeat the death songs. [161] If the

dead person was a respected elder, special professional women, trained

as mourners, are engaged. I am informed that, in the Coimbatore

district, and amongst the Sathyamangalam Brahacharanams, there

are certain widows who are professional mourners. As soon as they

hear of the death of an elder, they repair to the house, and worry

the bereaved family into engaging them for a small fee. The space,

which intervenes between the dead man's house and the burning-ground,

is divided into four parts. When the end of the first of these is

reached, the corpse is placed on the ground, and the sons and nephews

go round it, repeating mantrams. They untie their kudumis (hair knot),

leaving part thereof loose, tie up the rest into a small bunch, and

keep on slapping their thighs. [When children at play have their

kudumi partially tied, and slap their thighs, they are invariably

scolded, owing to the association with funerals.] A little cooked

rice is offered to the path as a pathi bali (wayside offering),

to propitiate evil spirits, or bhuthas. The same ceremonial should,

strictly speaking, be performed at two other spots, but now-a-days it

is the custom to place the corpse on the ground near the funeral pyre,

moving its position three times, while the circumambulation and pathi

bali are gone through only once. As soon as the corpse has reached the

spot where the pyre is, the celebrant of the rites sprinkles water

thereon, and throws a quarter of an anna on it as the equivalent of

purchase of the ground for cremation. The sacred fire is lighted,

and the right palm of the corpse is touched with a gold coin. The nine

orifices of the body are then smeared with ghi, and rice is thrown over

the corpse, and placed in its mouth. The son takes a burning brand

from the sacred fire, lights the pyre, and looks at the sun. He then

carries a pot filled with water, having a hole at the bottom through

which the water trickles out, on his shoulders three times round the

corpse, and, at the end of the third round, throws it down. Then he,

and all the relations of the deceased, squat on the ground, facing

east, take up some dharbha grass, and, cutting it into small fragments

with their nails, scatter them in the air, while repeating some Vedic

verses, which are chanted very loudly and slowly, especially at the

funeral of a respected elder. The celebrant then pours a little water

on a stone, and sprinkles himself with it. This is also done by the

other relations, and they pass beneath a bundle of dharbha grass and

twigs of Ficus glomerata held by the purohit (officiating priest),

and gaze for a moment at the sun. Once more they sprinkle themselves

with water, and proceed to a tank, where they bathe. When they return

home, two rites, called nagna (naked) sradh, and pashana sthapanam

(stone-fixing), are celebrated. The disembodied spirit is supposed to

be naked after the body has been cremated. To clothe it, offerings

of water, with balls of cooked rice, are made, and a cloth, lamp,

and money are given to a Brahman. Then two stones are set up, one

in the house and the other on the bank of a tank, to represent the

spirit of the deceased. For ten days, libations of water mixed with

gingelly seeds, called tilothakam, and a ball of cooked rice, must be

offered to the stones. The ball of rice is left for crows to eat. The

number of libations must be seventy-five, commencing with three on

the first day, and increasing the number daily by one. In addition,

three further libations are made daily by dipping a piece of cloth

from the winding-sheet, and rinsing it over the stone (vasothakam). On

the day after cremation, the relations assemble at the burning-ground,

and the son, after extinguishing the burning embers, removes the

fragments of bones from the ashes. The ceremony is called sanchyanam

(gathering). Cooked food is offered. The bones are thrown into some

sacred river, or buried in the ground. On the tenth day after death,

a large quantity of cooked rice (prabhuthabali) is offered to the

spirit of the dead person, which is believed to grow very hungry

on that day. The food is heaped up on plantain leaves, and all the

near relations go round them, crying and beating their breasts. It

is mostly females who perform this rite, males standing aloof. The

food is taken to a tank, and the widow, decorated and dressed up,

is conducted thither. The food is thrown into the water, and, if

the widow is an elderly orthodox woman, her tali is removed. On the

same day, her head is clean shaved. A widow is not allowed to adorn

herself with jewels and finery except on this day, when all her close

relations come and see her. If this is not done, pregnant women may

not see her for a year. All the agnates should be present on the tenth

day, and perform tharpana (oblations of water). Until this day they

are under pollution, and, after prabhuthabali, they bathe, and homam

is performed. Some ashes from the sacred fire are mixed with ghi,

and a mark is made on the foreheads of those who are under pollution,

to remove it. During the period of pollution, a Sri Vaishnava will have

only a white mark without the red streak on his forehead; a Madhva will

not have the black dot; and Smarthas avoid having marks altogether. The

tenth day ceremony is called Dasaham. On the eleventh day, a ceremony

called Ekodishtam (eleventh day ceremony) is performed. A Brahman is

seated to represent the pretha or dead person, and fed after going

through sradh rites. As a rule, the man is a close relation of the

deceased. But, amongst certain classes of Brahmans, an outsider is

engaged, and well remunerated. On the twelfth day, the Sapindikaranam

(sapinda, kinsman) ceremony, which is just like the ordinary sradh, is

performed. At the close thereof, six balls of cooked rice are offered

to three ancestors, male and female (three balls for males, and three

for females). These balls are arranged in two rows, with a space

between them. An elongated mass of food is placed between the rows,

and divided with blades of dharbha grass into three portions, which

are arranged close to the balls of rice. This is regarded as uniting

the dead man with the pitris (ancestors). A cow is usually presented

just before the union takes place, and the gift is believed to render

the crossing of the river Vaitarani (river of death) easy for the

departed soul. The Sapindikaranam is a very important ceremony. When

there is a dispute concerning division of property on the death of an

individual, the ceremony is not performed until the parties come to an

agreement. For instance, if a married man dies without issue, and his

widow's brothers-in-law cannot come to terms as regards the partition

of the property, the widow may refuse to allow the performance of

the ceremony. The Sapindikaranam should, according to the shastras,

be performed a year after death, i.e., on the completion of all the

Masikas (monthly sradhs). But, at the present day, a ceremony called

Shodasam (the sixteen) is performed just before the Sapindikaranam on

the twelfth day. In the course of the year, twelve monthly and four

quarterly sradhs should be performed. The Shodasam ceremony, which

is carried out in lieu thereof, consists in giving presents of money

and vessels to sixteen Brahmans. On the twelfth day, a feast is held,

and domestic worship is carried out on a large scale. At the close

thereof, a sloka called Charma sloka, in praise of the deceased, is

composed and repeated by some one versed in Sanskrit. Every month,

for a year after a death in a family, sradh should, as indicated,

be performed. This corresponds in detail with the annual sradh, which

is regularly performed, unless a visit is paid to Gaya, which renders

further performance of the rite not obligatory. For the performance

of this ceremony by the nearest agnate of the deceased (eldest son or

other), three Brahmans should be called in, to represent respectively

Vishnu, the Devatas, and the ancestors. Sometimes two Brahmans are

made to suffice, and Vishnu is represented by a salagrama stone. In

extreme cases, only one Brahman assists at the ceremony, the two

others being represented by dharbha grass. The sacred fire is lighted,

and ghi, a small quantity of raw and cooked rice, and vegetables

are offered up in the fire. The Brahmans then wash their feet, and

are fed. Before they enter the space set apart for the meal, water,

gingelly, and rice are sprinkled about it, to keep off evil spirits. As

soon as the meal is finished, a ball of rice, called vayasa pindam

(crow's food), is offered to the pithru devatas (ancestors of three

generations), and thrown to the crows. If they do not eat the rice,

the omens are considered to be unfavourable. The Brahmans receive

betel and money in payment for their services. On one occasion my

assistant was in camp at Kodaikanal on the Palni hills, the higher

altitudes of which are uninhabited by crows, and he had perforce to

march down to the plains, in order to perform the annual ceremony

for his deceased father. The recurring annual sradh (Pratyabdhika)

need not of necessity be performed. It is, however, regarded as an

important ceremony, and, should an individual neglect it, he would

run the risk of being excommunicated.

The rites connected with the dead are based on the Garuda Purana,

according to which the libations of the ten days are said to help the

growth of the body of the soul. In this connection, Monier Williams

writes as follows:-- [162]"On the first day, the ball (pinda) of

rice offered by the eldest son or other near relative nourishes the

spirit of the deceased in such a way as to furnish it with a head;

on the second day, the offered pinda gives a neck and shoulders; on

the third day a heart; on the fourth a back; on the fifth a navel;

on the sixth a groin and the parts usually concealed; on the seventh

thighs; on the eighth and ninth knees and feet. On the tenth day,

the intermediate body is sufficiently formed to produce the sensation

of hunger and thirst. Other pindas are therefore put before it, and,

on the eleventh and twelfth days, the embodied spirit feeds voraciously

on the offerings thus supplied, and so gains strength for its journey

to its future abode. Then, on the thirteenth day after death, it is

conducted either to heaven or hell. If to the latter, it has need of

the most nourishing food, to enable it to bear up against the terrible

ordeal which awaits it."

To the Hindu mind, Yama (the god of death) is a hideous god,

whose servants are represented as being capable of tormenting the

soul of the dead. "No sooner," writes Monier Williams, "has death

occurred, and cremation of the terrestrial body taken place, than

Yama's two messengers (Yama Dutan), who are waiting near at hand,

make themselves visible to the released spirit, which retains its

subtle body composed of the subtle elements, and is said to be of

the size of a thumb (angustha-matra). Their aspect is terrific,

for they have glaring eyes, hair standing erect, gnashing teeth,

crow-black skin, and claw-like nails, and they hold in their hands

the awful rod and noose of Yama. Then, as if their appearance in

this form were not sufficiently alarming, they proceed to terrify

their victim by terrible visions of the torments (yatana) in store

for him. They then convey the bound spirit along the road to Yama's

abode. Being led before Yama's judgment seat, it is confronted with

his Registrar or Recorder named Chitra Gupta. This officer stands by

Yama's side, with an open book before him. It is his business to note

down all the good and evil deeds of every human being born into the

world, with the resulting merit (punya) and demerit (papa), and to

produce a debtor and creditor account properly made up and balanced

on the day when that being is brought before Yama. According to the

balance on the side of merit or demerit is judgment pronounced. The

road by which Yama's two officers force a wicked man to descend to

the regions of torment is described in the first two chapters of the

Garuda Purana. The length of the way is said to be 86,000 leagues

(yojanas). The condemned soul, invested with its sensitive body, and

made to travel at the rate of 200 leagues a day, finds no shady trees,

no resting place, no food, no water. At one time it is scorched by a

burning heat equal to that of twelve meridian suns, at another it is

pierced by icy cold winds; now its tender frame is rent by thorns;

now it is attacked by lions, tigers, savage dogs, venomous serpents,

and scorpions. In one place it has to traverse a dense forest, whose

leaves are swords; in another it falls into deep pits; in another it

is precipitated from precipices; in another it has to walk on the

edge of razors; in another on iron spikes. Here it stumbles about

helplessly in profound darkness; there it struggles through loathsome

mud swarming with leeches; here it toils through burning sand; there

its progress is arrested by heaps of red-hot charcoal and stifling

smoke. Compelled to pass through every obstacle, however formidable,

it next encounters a succession of terrific showers, not of rain, but

of live coals, stones, blood, boiling water and filth. Then it has

to descend into appalling fissures, or ascend to sickening heights,

or lose itself in vast caves, or wade through lakes seething with

foetid ordures. Then midway it has to pass the awful river Vaitarani,

one hundred leagues in breadth, of unfathomable depth; flowing with

irresistible impetuosity; filled with blood, matter, hair, and bones;

infested with huge sharks, crocodiles, and sea monsters; darkened

by clouds of hideous vultures and obscene birds of prey. Thousands

of condemned spirits stand trembling on the banks, horrified by the

prospect before them. Consumed by a raging thirst, they drink the blood

which flows at their feet; then, tumbling headlong into the torrent,

they are overwhelmed by the rushing waves. Finally, they are hurried

down to the lowest depths of hell, and yet not destroyed. Pursued

by Yama's officers, they are dragged away, and made to undergo

inconceivable tortures, the detail of which is given with the utmost

minuteness in the succeeding chapters of the Garuda Purana."

The Ahannikams, or daily observances, of a religious Brahman are

very many. Nowadays, Brahmans who lead a purely religious life

are comparatively few, and are mostly found in villages. The

daily observances of such are the bath, the performance of the

Sandhya service, Brahma yagna, Deva puja or Devatarchana, Tarpana

(oblations of water), Vaisvadeva ceremony, and the reading of Puranas

or Ithihasas. Every orthodox Brahman is expected to rise at the time

called Brahma Muhurtam in the hour and a half before sunrise. He

should then clean his teeth, using as a brush mango leaf, or twigs

of Acacia arabica or nim (Melia Azadirachta). He next bathes in a

river or tank (pond), standing knee-deep in the water, and repeating

the following:--"I am about to perform the morning ablution in this

sacred stream (Ganges, Sarasvati, Yamuna, Godavari, etc.), in the

presence of the gods and Brahmans, with a view to the removal of

guilt resulting from act, speech, and thought, from what has been

touched and untouched, known and unknown, eaten and not eaten,

drunk and not drunk." After the bath, he wipes his body with a damp

cloth, and puts on his cotton madi cloth, which has been washed and

dried. The cloth, washed, wrung, and hung up to dry, should not be

touched by anybody. If this should happen prior to the bath, the

cloth is polluted, and ceases to be madi. A silk cloth, which cannot

be polluted, is substituted for it. The madi or silk cloth should be

worn until the close of the morning ceremonies and meal. The man next

puts the marks which are characteristic of his sect on the forehead

and body, and performs the Sandhya service. This is very important,

and is binding on all Brahmans after the Upanayanam ceremony, though

a large number are not particular in observing it. According to the

shastras, the Sandhya should be done in the morning and evening; but

in practice there is an additional service at midday. Sandhyavandhanam

means the thanksgiving to God when day and night meet in the morning

and evening. The rite commences with the sipping of water (achamanam)

from the hollow of the right palm. This is done three times, while

the words Achyuthayanamaha, Anantayanamaha, and Govindayana are

repeated. Immediately after sipping, twelve parts of the body are

touched with the fingers of the right hand in the following order:--

The two cheeks with the thumb, repeating the names Kesava and

Narayana;

The two eyes with the ring-finger, repeating Madhava and Govinda;

The two sides of the nose with the forefinger, repeating Vishnu

and Madhusudhana;

The two ears with the little finger, repeating Trivkrama and

Vamana;

The shoulders with the middle finger, repeating Sridhara and

Rishikesa;

The navel and head with all the fingers, repeating Padmanabha

and Damodar.

This Achamana is the usual preliminary to all Brahman religious

rites. The water sipped is believed to cleanse the internal parts of

the body, as bathing cleanses the external parts.

After Achamana comes Pranayama, or holding in of vital breath, which

consists in repeating the Gayatri (hymn) and holding the breath by

three distinct operations, viz:--

Puraka, or pressing the right nostril with the fingers, and drawing

in the breath through the left nostril, and vice versâ.

Kumbhaka, or pressing both nostrils with finger and thumb or with

all the fingers, and holding the breath as long as possible.

Rechaka, or pressing the right nostril with the thumb, and expelling

the breath through the left nostril, and vice versâ.

The suppression of the breath is said to be a preliminary yoga

practice, enabling a person to fix his mind on the Supreme Being who

is meditated on.

The celebrant next repeats the Sankalpa (determination), with the

hands brought together, the right palm over the left, and placed on

the right thigh. Every kind of ceremony commences with the Sankalpa,

which, for the Sandhya service, is as follows:--"I am worshipping

for the removal of all my sins that have adhered to me, and for

the purpose of acquiring the favour of Narayana or the Supreme

Being." The performer of the rite then sprinkles himself with water,

repeating:--"Oh! ye waters, the sources of all comforts, grant us

food, so that our senses may grow strong and give us joy. Make

us the recipients of your essence, which is the most blissful,

just as affectionate mothers (feed their children with milk from

their breasts). May we obtain enough of that essence of yours, the

existence of which within you makes you feel glad. Oh! waters, grant

us offspring." He then takes up the water in his palm, and drinks it,

repeating the following:--"May the sun and anger, may the lords of

anger, preserve me from my sins of pride and passion. Whate'er the

nightly sins of thought, word, deed, wrought by my mind, my speech,

my hands, my feet; wrought through my appetite and sensual organs;

may the departing night remove them all. In thy immortal light,

Oh! radiant sun, I offer up myself and this my guilt." At the evening

service, the same is repeated, with the word Agni instead of Surya

(sun). At the midday service the following is recited:--"May the waters

purify the earth by pouring down rain. May the earth thus purified

make us pure. May the waters purify my spiritual preceptor, and may

the Veda (as taught by the purified preceptor) purify me. Whatever

leavings of another's food, and whatever impure things I may have

eaten, whatever I may have received as gift from the unworthy, may

the waters destroy all that sin and purify me. For this purpose, I

pour this sanctified water as a libation down my mouth." Once more

the celebrant sprinkles himself with water, and says:--"I sing the

praise of the god Dadikravan, who is victorious, all-pervading, and

who moves with great speed. May he make our mouths (and the senses)

fragrant, and may he prolong our lives. Oh! ye waters, the sources

of all comforts, grant us food," etc.

The ceremonies performed so far are intended for both external and

internal purification. By their means, the individual is supposed to

have made himself worthy to salute the Lord who resides in the orb of

the rising luminary, and render him homage in true Brahman style by

what is called Arghya. This is an offering of water to any respected

guest. Repeating the Gayatri, the worshipper throws water in the air

from the palms of the hands joined together with the sacred thread

round the thumbs. The Gayatri is the hymn par excellence, and is said

to contain the sum and substance of all Vedic teaching.

After these items, the worshipper sits down, and does Japam (recitation

of prayers in an undertone). The Gayatri, as repeated, consists of the

Gayatri proper Vyahritis, and Gayatri Siromantra. It runs as follows:--

Om, Bhuh; Om, Bhuvah;

Om, Suvah; Om, Mahaha;

Om, Janaha; Om, Thapaha;

Om, Sathyam.

Om, Thatsaviturvarenyam;

Bhargodevasya dhimahi dhiyo-yonah prachodayat;

Om, Jyotiraso amrutam

Brahma, Bhur, Bhuvasvarum.

The Vyahritis are generally taken to refer to the seven worlds,

and the prefixing of the Pranava (Om) means that all these worlds

have sprung from the Supreme Being. The Pranava given above means

"All the seven worlds are (the visible manifestations of) Om, the

all-pervading Brahman. We think of the adorable light of the Lord,

who shines in our hearts, and guides us. May he guide our intellects

aright. Water, light, all things that have savour (such as trees,

herbs, and plants), the nectar of the gods, the three worlds, in fact

everything that is Brahman, the universal soul."

The mystic syllable Om is the most sacred of all Hindu

utterances. Concerning it, Monier Williams writes that it is "made

up of the three letters A, U, M, and symbolical of the threefold

manifestation of the one Supreme Being in the gods Brahma, Vishnu,

and Siva, and is constantly repeated during the Sandhya service. This

prayer is, as we have seen, the most sacred of all Vedic utterances,

and, like the Lord's Prayer among Christians, or like the Fatihah or

opening chapter of the Kuran among Muhammadans, must always, among

Hindus, take precedence of all other forms of supplication."

The celebrant next proceeds to invoke the Gayatri Devata thus:--"May

the goddess Gayatri Devata, who grants all our desires, come to us

to make known to us the eternal Lord, who is revealed to us only

through the scriptures. May the Gayatri, the mother of all the Vedas,

reveal to us the eternal truth. Oh! Gayatri, thou art the source of

all spiritual strength. Thou art the power that drivest away the evil

inclinations which are mine enemies. Thou, by conducing to a sound

mind, conducest to a sound body. Thou art the light of the gods,

that dispellest my intellectual darkness, and illuminest my heart

with divine wisdom. Thou art all. In the whole universe there is

naught but thee that is. Thou art the eternal truth that destroys all

sins. Thou art the Pranava that reveals to me the unknown. Come to

my succour, Oh! thou Gayatri, and make me wise." This invocation is

followed by the repetition of the Gayatri 108 or only 28 times. The

celebrant then says:--"The goddess Gayatri resides on a lofty peak

on the summit of mount Meru (whose base is deeply fixed) in the

earth. Oh! thou goddess, take leave from the Brahmans (who have

worshipped thee, and been blessed with thy grace), and go back to thy

abode as comfortably as possible." The Sandhya service is closed with

the following prayer to the rising sun:--"We sing the adorable glory

of the sun god, who sustains all men (by causing rain); which glory

is eternal, and most worthy of being adored with wonder. The sun,

well knowing the inclinations of men, directs them to their several

pursuits. The sun upholds both heaven and earth; the sun observes all

creatures (and their actions) without ever winking. To this eternal

being we offer the oblation mixed with ghi. Oh! sun, may that man

who through such sacrifice offers oblations to thee become endowed

with wealth and plenty. He who is under thy protection is not cut

off by untimely death; he is not vanquished by anybody, and sin has

no hold on this man either from near or from afar." In the evening,

the following prayer to Varuna is substituted:--"Hear, Oh! Varuna,

this prayer of mine. Be gracious unto me this day. Longing for thy

protection, I cry to thee. Adoring thee with prayer, I beg long life

of thee. The sacrificer does the same with the oblations he offers

thee. Therefore, Oh! Varuna, without indifference in this matter,

take my prayer into your kind consideration, and do not cut off our

life. Oh! Lord Varuna, whatever law of thine we, as men, violate day

after day, forgive us these trespasses. Oh! Lord Varuna, whatever

offence we, as men, have committed against divine beings, whatever

work of thine we have neglected through ignorance, do not destroy

us, Oh! Lord, for such sin. Whatever sin is attributed to us by our

enemies, as by gamblers at dice, whatever sins we may have really

committed, and what we may have done without knowing, do thou scatter

and destroy all these sins. Then, Oh! Lord, we shall become beloved of

thee." The Sandhya prayer closes with the Abhivadhana or salutation,

which has been given in the account of marriage. After the Sandhya

service in the morning, the Brahma yagna, or worship of the Supreme

Being as represented in the sacred books is gone through. The first

hymn of the Rig Veda is recited in detail, and then follow the first

words of the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharvana Veda, the Nirukta, etc.

The next item is the Tarpana ceremony, or offering of water to the

Devatas, Rishis, and Pitris. The sacred thread is placed over the

left shoulder and under the right arm (upavita), and water is taken

in the right hand, and poured as an offering to the Devatas. Then,

with the sacred thread round the neck like a necklace (niviti), the

worshipper pours water for the Rishis. Lastly, the sacred thread is

placed over the right shoulder (prachina vithi) and water is poured

for the Pitris (ancestors).

The various ceremonies described so far should be performed by all the

male members of a family, whereas the daily Devatarchana or Devata puja

is generally done by any one member of a family. The gods worshipped

by pious Brahmans are Siva and Vishnu, and their consorts Parvati and

Lakshmi. Homage is paid thereto through images, salagrama stones, or

stone lingams. In the house of a Brahman, a corner or special room

is set apart for the worship of the god. Some families keep their

gods in a small almirah (chest).