1. Salagrama, representing Vishnu.
2. Bana linga, a white stone representing the essence of Siva.
3. A red stone (jasper), representing Ganesha.
4. A bit of metallic ore, representing Parvathi, or a lingam
representing Siva and Parvathi.
5. A piece of pebble or crystal, to represent the sun.
Smarthas commence their worship by invoking the aid of Vigneswara
(Ganesha). Then, placing a vessel (kalasa) filled with water, they
utter the following prayer. "In the mouth of the water-vessel abideth
Vishnu, in its lower part is Brahma, while the whole company of the
mothers (matris) are congregated in its middle part. Oh! Ganges,
Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu, and Kaveri, be present
in this water." The conch or chank shell (Turbinella rapa) is then
worshipped as follows:--"Oh! conch shell, thou wast produced in
the sea, and art held by Vishnu in his hand. Thou art worshipped by
all the gods. Receive my homage." The bell is then worshipped with
the prayer:--"Oh! bell, make a sound for the approach of the gods,
and for the departure of the demons. Homage to the goddess Ghanta
(bell). I offer perfumes, grains of rice, and flowers, in token of
rendering all due homage to the bell." The worshipper claps his hands,
and rings the bell. All the tulsi (sacred basil, Ocimum sanctum)
leaves, flowers, sandal paste, etc., used for worship on the previous
day, are removed. "The tulsi is the most sacred plant in the Hindu
religion; it is consequently found in or near almost every Hindu house
throughout India. Hindu poets say that it protects from misfortune,
and sanctifies and guides to heaven all who cultivate it. The Brahmins
hold it sacred to the gods Krishna and Vishnu. The story goes that
this plant is the transformed nymph Tulasi, beloved of Krishna,
and for this reason near every Hindu house it is cultivated in pots,
or in brick or earthen pillars with hollows at the top (brindavanam
or brinda forest), in which earth is deposited. It is daily watered,
and worshipped by all the members of the family. Under favourable
circumstances, it grows to a considerable size, and furnishes a woody
stem large enough to make beads for the rosaries used by Hindus,
on which they count the number of recitations of their deity's
name." [163] Writing in the seventeenth century, Vincenzo Maria
[164] observes that "almost all the Hindus ... adore a plant like our
Basilico gentile, but of a more pungent odour.... Every one before
his house has a little altar, girt with a wall half an ell high,
in the middle of which they erect certain pedestals like little
towers, and in these the shrub is grown. They recite their prayers
daily before it, with repeated prostrations, sprinklings of water,
etc. There are also many of these maintained at the bathing-places,
and in the courts of the pagodas." The legend, accounting for the
sanctity of the tulsi, is told in the Padma Purana. [165] From the
union of the lightning that flashed from the third eye of Siva with
the ocean, a boy was born, whom Brahmadev caught up, and to whom he
gave the name of Jalandhar. And to him Brahmadev gave the boon that
by no hand but Siva's could he perish. Jalandhar grew up strong and
tall, and conquered the kings of the earth, and, in due time, married
Vrinda (or Brinda), the daughter of the demon Kalnemi. Naradmuni,
the son of Brahmadev, stirred up hatred against Siva in Jalandhar,
and they fought each other on the slopes of Kailas. But even Siva
could not prevail against Jalandhar, so long as his wife Vrinda
remained chaste. So Vishnu, who had lived with her and Jalandhar,
and had learnt their secret, plotted her downfall. One day, when she,
sad at Jalandhar's absence, had left her garden to walk in the waste
beyond, two demons met her and pursued her. She ran, with the demons
following, until she saw a Rishi, at whose feet she fell, and asked
for shelter. The Rishi, with his magic, burnt up the demons into thin
ash. Vrinda then asked for news of her husband. At once, two apes laid
before her Jalandhar's head, feet, and hands. Vrinda, thinking that
he was dead, begged the Rishi to restore him to her. The Rishi said
that he would try, and in a moment he and the corpse had disappeared,
and Jalandhar stood by her. She threw herself into his arms, and they
embraced each other. But, some days later, she learnt that he with
whom she was living was not her husband, but Vishnu, who had taken
his shape. She cursed Vishnu, and foretold that, in a later Avatar,
the two demons who had frightened her would rob him of his wife; and
that, to recover her, he would have to ask the aid of the apes who had
brought Jalandhar's head, feet, and hands. Vrinda then threw herself
into a burning pit, and Jalandhar, once Vrinda's chastity had gone,
fell a prey to Siva's thunderbolts. Then the gods came forth from their
hiding place, and garlanded Siva. The demons were driven back to hell,
and men once more passed under the tyranny of the gods. But Vishnu came
not back from Vrinda's palace, and those who sought him found him mad
from grief, rolling in her ashes. Then Parvati, to break the charm
of Vrinda's beauty, planted in her ashes three seeds. And they grew
into three plants, the tulsi, the avali, and the malti. By the growth
of these seeds, Vishnu was released from Vrinda's charm. Therefore
he loved them all, but chiefly the tulsi plant, which, as he said,
was Vrinda's very self. In the seventh incarnation, the two demons,
who had frightened Vrinda, became Ravan and his brother Kumbhakarna,
and they bore away Sita to Lanka. To recover her, Ramchandra had
to implore the help of the two apes who had brought her Jalandhar's
head and hands, and in this incarnation they became Hanuman and his
warriors. But, in the eighth incarnation, which was that of Krishna,
the tulsi plant took the form of a woman Radha, and wedded the gay
and warlike lord of Dwarka.
The Shodasopachara, or sixteen acts of homage, are next performed in
due order, viz.--
1. Avahana, or invocation of the gods.
2. Asanam, or seat.
3. Padhya, or water for washing the feet.
4. Arghya, or oblation of rice or water.
5. Achamanam, or water for sipping.
6. Snanam, or the bath.
7. Vastra, or clothing of tulsi leaves.
8. Upavastra, or upper clothing of tulsi leaves.
9. Gandha, or sandal paste.
10. Pushpa, or flowers.
11. 12. Dhupa and Dhipa, or incense and light.
13. Naivedya, or offering of food.
14. Pradakshina, or circumambulation.
15. Mantrapushpa, or throwing flowers.
16. Namaskara, or salutation by prostration.
While the five stones already referred to are bathed by pouring water
from a conch shell, the Purusha Suktha, or hymn of the Rig Veda, is
repeated. This runs as follows:--"Purusha has thousands of heads,
thousands of arms, thousands of eyes, and thousands of feet. On
every side enveloping the earth, he transcended this mere space of
ten fingers. Purusha himself is this whole (universe); whatever has
been, and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality,
since through food he expands. Such is his greatness, and Purusha is
superior to this. All existing things are a quarter of him, and that
which is immortal in the sky is three quarters of him. With three
quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced
below. He then became diffused everywhere among things, animate and
inanimate. From him Viraj was born, and from Viraj Purusha. As soon as
born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. When the
gods offered up Purusha as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified
butter (ghi), summer its fuel, and the autumn the oblation. This
victim, Purusha born in the beginning, they consecrated on the
sacrificial grass. With him as their offering, the Gods, Sadhyas,
and Rishis sacrificed. From that universal oblations were produced
curds and clarified butter. He, Purusha, formed the animals which are
subject to the power of the air (Vayavya), both wild and tame. From
that universal sacrifice sprang the hymns called Rik and Saman, the
Metres, and the Yajus. From it were produced horses, and all animals
with two rows of teeth, cows, goats, and sheep. When they divided
Purusha, into how many parts did they distribute him? What was his
mouth? What were his arms? What were called his thighs and feet? The
Brahman was his mouth; the Rajanya became his arms; the Vaisya was
his thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. The moon was produced
from his soul; the sun from his eye; Indra and Agni from his mouth;
Vayu from his breath. From his navel came the atmosphere; from his
head arose the sky; from his feet came the earth; from his ears the
four quarters; so they formed the worlds. When the gods, in performing
their sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven pieces
of wood laid for him round the fire, and thrice seven pieces of fuel
employed. With sacrifice the gods worshipped the sacrifice. These
were the primæval rites. These great beings attained to the heaven,
where the Gods, the ancient Sadhyas, reside."
Some Smarthas, e.g., the Brahacharnams, are more Saivite than other
sections of Tamil-speaking Brahmans. During worship, they wear round
the neck rudraksha (Elæocarpus Ganitrus) beads, and place on their head
a lingam made thereof. In connection with the rudraksha, the legend
runs that Siva or Kalagni Rudra, while engaged in Tripura Samhara,
opened his third eye, which led to the destruction of the three cities,
of which Rakshasas or Asuras had taken the form. From this eye liquid
is said to have trickled on the ground, and from this arose the
rudraksha tree. The mere mention of the word rudraksha is believed
to secure religious merit, which may be said to be equivalent to the
merit obtained by the gift of ten cows to Brahmans. Rudraksha beads are
valued according to the number of lobes (or faces, as they are called),
which are ordinarily five in number. A bead with six lobes is said to
be very good, and one with two lobes, called Gauri Sankara rudraksha,
is specially valued. Dikshitar Brahmans, and Pandaram priests of the
higher order, wear a two-lobed bead mounted in gold. In a manuscript
entitled Rudrakshopanishad, it is stated that a good rudraksha bead,
when rubbed with water, should colour the water yellow. The Madhvas
worship in the same way as Smarthas, but the objects of worship are
the salagrama stone, and images of Hanuman and Adi Sesha. Food offered
to Adi Sesha, Lakshmi, and Hanuman, is not eaten, but thrown away. The
Madhvas attach great importance to their spiritual guru, who is first
worshipped by a worshipper. Some keep a brindavanam, representing the
grave of their guru, along with a salagrama stone, which is worshipped
at the close of the Devata puja. Sri Vaishnavas keep for domestic
worship only salagrama stones. Like the Madhvas, they are scrupulous
as to the worship of their gurus (acharyas), without whose intervention
they believe that they cannot obtain beatitude. Hence Sri Vaishnavites
insist upon the Samasrayanam ceremony. After the Sandhya service and
Brahma yagna, the guru is worshipped. All orthodox Vaishnavas keep with
them a silk cloth bearing the impressions of the feet of their Acharya,
an abhayastha or impression of the hand of Vishnu in sandal paste,
a few necklaces of silk thread (pavitram), and a bit of the bark of
the tamarind tree growing at the temple at Alvartirunagiri in the
Tinnevelly district. The worshipper puts on his head the silk cloth,
and round his neck the silk necklaces, and, if available, a necklace
of Nelumbium (sacred lotus) seeds. After saluting the abhayastha
by pressing it to his eyes, he repeats the prayer of his Acharya,
and proceeds to the Devatarchana, which consists in the performance
of the sixteen upacharas already described. The salagrama stone is
bathed, and the Purusha Suktha repeated.
The daily observances are brought to a close by the performance of the
Vaisvadeva ceremony, or offering to Vaisvadevas (all the gods). This
consists in offering cooked rice, etc., to all the gods. Some regard
this as a sort of expiatory ceremony, to wipe out the sin which may
have accidentally been committed by killing small animals in the
process of cooking food.
The male members of a family take their meals apart from the
females. The food is served on platters made of the leaves
of the banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Butea frondosa, Bauhinia, or
plantain. Amongst Smarthas and Madhvas, various vegetable preparations
are served first, and rice last, whereas, amongst the Sri Vaishnavas,
especially Vadagalais, rice is served first. Before commencing
to eat, a little water (tirtham), in which a salagrama stone has
been bathed, is poured into the palms of those who are about to
partake of the meal. They drink the water simultaneously, saying
"Amartopastaranamasi." They then put a few handfuls of rice into
their mouths, repeating some mantras--"Pranayasvaha, Udanayasvaha,
Somanayasvaha," etc. At the end of the meal, all are served with a
little water, which they sip, saying "Amartapithanamasi." They then
rise together.
In connection with the salagrama stone, which has been referred
to several times, the following interesting account thereof [166]
may be quoted:--"Salagrams are fossil cephalopods (ammonites), and
are found chiefly in the bed of the Gandak river, a mountain torrent
which, rising in the lofty mountains of Nepal, flows into the Ganges
at Salagrami, a village from which they take their name, and which is
not far from the sacred city of Benares. In appearance they are small
black shiny pebbles of various shapes, usually round or oval, with a
peculiar natural hole in them. They have certain marks to be described
later, and are often flecked and inlaid with gold [or pyrites]. The
name salagram is of Sanskrit derivation, from sara chakra, the weapon
of Vishnu, and grava, a stone; the chakra or chakram being represented
on the stone by queer spiral lines, popularly believed to be engraved
thereon at the request of Vishnu by the creator Brahma, who, in
the form of a worm, bores the holes known as vadanas, and traces
the spiral coil that gives the stone its name. There is a curious
legend connected with their origin. In ancient times there lived a
certain dancing-girl, the most beautiful that had ever been created,
so beautiful indeed that it was impossible to find a suitable consort
for her. The girl, in despair at her loveliness, hid herself in the
mountains, in the far away Himalayas, and there spent several years in
prayer, till at last Vishnu appeared before her, and asked what she
wanted. She begged him to tell her how it was that the great creator
Brahma, who had made her so beautiful, had not created a male consort
for her of similar perfect form. Then she looked on Vishnu, and asked
the god to kiss her. Vishnu could not comply with her request as she
was a dancing-girl, and of low caste, but promised by his virtue that
she should be reincarnated in the Himalayas in the form of a river,
which should bear the name Gandaki, and that he would be in the river
as her eternal consort in the shape of a salagram. Thereupon the river
Gandaki rose from the Himalayas, and salagrams were found in it. How
the true virtue of the salagram was discovered is another strange
little fable. A poor boy of the Kshatriya or warrior class once found
one when playing by the river side. He soon discovered that when he
had it in his hand, or secreted in his mouth, or about his person,
his luck was so extraordinary at marbles or whatever game he played,
that he always won. At last he so excelled in all he undertook that
he rose to be a great king. Finally Vishnu himself came to fetch him,
and bore him away in a cloud. The mystic river Gandaki is within the
jurisdiction of the Maharaja of Nepal, and is zealously guarded on
both banks, while the four special places where the sacred stones are
mostly picked up are leased out under certain conditions, the most
important being that all true salagrams found are to be submitted to
the Maharaja. These are then tested, the selected ones retained, and
the others returned to the lessee. The first test of the salagrams
to prove if they are genuine is very simple, but later they are put
through other ordeals to try their supernatural powers. Each stone,
as it is discovered, is struck on all sides with a small hammer,
or, in some cases, is merely knocked with the finger. This causes
the soft powdery part, produced by the boring of the worm, to fall
in and disclose the vadana or hole, which may, in the more valuable
salagrams, contain gold or a precious gem. In addition to the real
stone with chakram and vadana formed by natural causes, there are
found in many mountain streams round black pebbles resembling the
true salagram in colour, shape, and size, but lacking the chakram and
vadana. These are collected by Bairagis, or holy mendicants, who bore
imitation vadanas in them, and, tracing false chakrams in balapa or
slate stone, paste them on the pebbles. So skilfully is this fraud
perpetrated that it is only after years of use and perpetual washing
at the daily puja that in time the tracery wears away, and detection
becomes possible. There are over eighteen known and different kinds
of true salagrams, the initial value of which varies according to
the shape and markings of the stone. The price of any one salagram
may be so enhanced after the further tests have been applied, that
even a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000) will fail to purchase it; and,
should experience prove the stone a lucky one, nothing will, as a
rule, induce the fortunate owner to part with it. The three shapes
of salagrams most highly prized are known as the Vishnu salagram,
the Lakshmi Narasimha salagram, and the Mutchya Murti salagram. The
first has a chakram on it the shape of a garland, and bears marks
known as the shenka (conch) gada padma, or the weapons of Vishnu,
and is peculiar to that god. The second has two chakrams on the left
of the vadana, and has dots or specks all over it. This stone, if
properly worshipped, is believed to ensure to its owner prosperity
and eternal life. The third, the Mutchya Murti, is a long-shaped
flat stone with a vadana that gives it a resemblance to the face of a
fish. It bears two chakrams, one inside and one outside the vadana,
and also has specks and dots on it in the shape of a shoe. There
are four or five varieties of this species, and it also, if duly
worshipped, will infallibly enrich its possessor. One salagram there
is which has no vadana, and is known as the ugra chakra salagram. It
is quite round with two chakrams, but it is not a particularly safe
one to possess, and is described as a 'furious salagrama,' for, if
not worshipped with sufficient ardour, it will resent the neglect,
and ruin the owner. The first thing to do on obtaining a salagram
is to find out whether or not it is a lucky stone, for a stone that
will bring luck to one owner may mean ruin for another. The tests
are various; a favourite one is to place the salagram with its exact
weight of rice together in one place for the night. If the rice has
increased in the morning (and, in some cases, my informant assures me,
it will be found to have doubled in quantity), then the stone is one
to be regarded by its lucky holder as priceless, and on no account to
be parted with. If, on the other hand, the rice measures the same,
or--dreadful omen--has even become less, then let the house be rid
of it as early as possible. If no purchaser can be found, make a
virtue of necessity, and send it as a present to the nearest temple
or mutt (religious institution), where the Gurus know how to appease
the wrath of the Deity with daily offerings of fruits and flowers. A
salagram will never bring any luck if its possession is acquired by
fraud or force. The story runs that once a Brahman, finding one with a
Mahomedan butcher, obtained it by theft. The luckless man speedily rued
the day of his time, for, from that time onwards, nothing prospered,
and he ended his days a destitute pauper. Again, possession of them
without worship is believed by all Hindus to be most unlucky, and,
as none but Brahmans can perform the worship, none but Brahmans will
retain the stones in their keeping. For an orthodox Brahman household,
the ownership of three or more stones is an absolute necessity. These
must be duly worshipped and washed with water, and the water drunk
as tirtha, and sacrifice of boiled rice and other food must be daily
performed. When this is done, speedy success in all the business of
life will fall to the lot of the inmates of the house, but otherwise
ruin and disgrace await them."
In some temples, the Mula Vigraha, or idol fixed in the inner
sanctuary, is decorated with a necklace of salagrama stones. For
example, at Tirupati the god is thus decorated.
The following incident in connection with a salagrama stone is
narrated by Yule and Burnell [167]:--"In May, 1883, a salagrama was
the ostensible cause of great popular excitement among the Hindus
of Calcutta. During the proceedings in a family suit before the
High Court, a question arose regarding the identity of a salagrama,
regarded as a household god. Counsel on both sides suggested that the
thing should be brought into court. Mr. Justice Morris hesitated to
give this order till he had taken advice. The attorneys on both sides,
Hindus, said there could be no objection; the Court interpreter, a
high-caste Brahman, said it could not be brought into Court because of
the coir matting, but it might with perfect propriety be brought into
the corridor for inspection; which was done. This took place during
the excitement about the 'Ilbert Bill,' giving natives magisterial
authority in the provinces over Europeans; and there followed most
violent and offensive articles in several native newspapers reviling
Mr. Justice Morris, who was believed to be hostile to the Bill. The
Editor of the Bengallee newspaper, an educated man, and formerly
a member of the Covenanted Civil Service, the author of one of the
most unscrupulous and violent articles, was summoned for contempt of
court. He made an apology and complete retraction, but was sentenced
to two months' imprisonment."
The sacred chank, conch, or sankhu, which has been referred to in
connection with ceremonial observance, is the shell of the gastropod
mollusc Turbinella rapa. This is secured, in Southern India, by
divers from Tuticorin in the vicinity of the pearl banks. The chank
shell, which one sees suspended on the forehead and round the neck
of bullocks, is not only used by Hindus for offering libations, and
as a musical instrument in temples, but is also cut into armlets,
bracelets, and other ornaments. Writing in the sixteenth century,
Garcia says:--"This chanco is a ware for the Bengal trade, and formerly
produced more profit than now ... and there was formerly a custom
in Bengal that no virgin in honour and esteem could be corrupted
unless it were by placing bracelets of chanco on her arms; but,
since the Patans came in, this usage has more or less ceased." "The
conch shell," Captain C. R. Day writes, [168] "is not in secular use
as a musical instrument, but is found in every temple, and is sounded
during religious ceremonials, in processions, and before the shrines
of Hindu deities. In Southern India, the sankhu is employed in the
ministration of a class of temple servers called Dasari. No tune,
so to speak, can of course be played upon it, but still the tone is
capable of much modulation by the lips, and its clear mellow notes are
not without a certain charm. A rather striking effect is produced when
it is used in the temple ritual as a sort of rhythmical accompaniment,
when it plays the part of kannagolu or talavinyasa." In a petition
from two natives of the city of Madras in 1734, in connection with the
expenses for erecting a town called Chintadrepettah, the following
occurs [169]:--"Expended towards digging a foundation, where chanks
was buried with accustomary ceremonies." A right-handed chank (i.e.,
one which has its spiral opening to the right), which was found off
the coast of Ceylon at Jaffna in 1887, was sold for Rs. 700. Such
a chank is said to have been sometimes priced at a lakh of rupees;
and, writing in 1813, Milburn says [169] that a chank opening to the
right hand is greatly valued, and always sells for its weight in
gold. Further, Baldæus narrates the legend that Garroude flew in
all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna the chianko or kinkhorn
twisted to the right. The chank appears as a symbol on coins of the
Chalukyan and Pandyan dynasties of Southern India, and on the modern
coins of the Maharajas of Travancore.
Temple worship is entirely based on Agamas. As Brahmans take part
only in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, temples dedicated to these
gods are largely frequented by them. The duties connected with
the actual worship of the idol are carried out by Gurukkals in
Siva temples, and by Pancharatra or Vaikhanasa Archakas in Vishnu
temples. The cooking of the food for the daily offering is done by
Brahmans called Parcharakas. At the time of worship, some Brahmans,
called Adhyapakas, recite the Vedas. Some stanzas from Thiruvaimozhi or
Thevaram are also repeated, the former by Brahmans at Vishnu temples,
and the latter by Pandarams (Oduvar) at Siva temples. In a typical
temple there are usually two idols, one of stone (mula vigraha) and
the other of metal (utsava vigraha). The mula vigraha is permanently
fixed within the inner shrine or garbagraha, and the utsava vigraha
is intended to be carried in procession. The mula vigrahas of Vishnu
temples are generally in human form, either in a standing posture, or,
as in the case of Ranganatha, Padmanabha, and Govindarajaswami, in a
reclining posture, on Adisesha. Ordinarily, three idols constitute
the mula vigraha. These are Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), and Bhudevi
(earth goddess). In temples dedicated to Sri Rama, Lakshmana is
found instead of Bhudevi. Sridevi and Bhudevi are also associated
with Vishnu in the utsava vigraha. In all the larger temples, there
is a separate building in the temple precincts dedicated to Lakshmi,
and within the garbagraha thereof, called thayar or nachiyar sannadhi,
is a mula vigraha of Lakshmi. There may also be one or more shrines
dedicated to the Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and the Acharyas--Desikar
and Manavala Mahamunigal. The sect mark is put on the faces of the
mula and utsava vigrahas. The mula vigraha in Siva temples is a lingam
(phallic emblem). In Siva temples, there is within the garbagraha
only one lamp burning, which emits a very feeble light. Hence arise
the common sayings "As dim as the light burning in Siva's temple,"
or "Like the lamp in Siva's temple." The utsava vigraha is in the
human forms of Siva and Parvathi. In all important Saivite temples,
Parvathi is housed in a separate building, as Lakshmi is in Vishnu
temples. Vigneswara, Subramanya, and the important Nayanmars also
have separate shrines in the temple precincts.
So far as ordinary daily worship is concerned, there is not much
difference in the mode of worship between temple and domestic
worship. Every item is done on a large scale, and certain special
Agamic or Tantric rites are added to the sixteen Upacharas already
mentioned. At the present time, there are, especially in the case
of Vishnu temples, two forms of temple worship, called Pancharatra
and Vaikhanasa. In the former, which is like domestic worship in all
essential points, any Brahman may officiate as temple priest. In the
latter, only Vaikhanasa Archakas may officiate.
All big temples are generally well endowed, and some temples receive
from Government annual grants of money, called tasdik. The management
of the temple affairs rests with the Dharmakarthas (trustees), who
practically have absolute control over the temple funds. All the
temple servants, such as Archakas, Parcharakas, and Adhyapakas, and
the non-Brahman servants (sweepers, flower-gatherers, musicians and
dancing-girls) are subject to the authority of the Dharmakartha. For
their services in the temple, these people are paid partly in money,
and partly in kind. The cooked food, which is offered daily to the
god, is distributed among the temple servants. On ordinary days, the
offerings of cooked food made by the Archakas, and the fruits brought
by those who come to worship, are offered only to the mula vigraha,
whereas, on festival days, they are offered to the utsava vigrahas.
For worship in Vishnu temples, flowers and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)
are used. In Siva temples, bilva (bael: Ægle Marmelos) leaves are
substituted for tulsi. At the close of the worship, the Archaka
gives to those present thirtham (holy water), tulsi or bilva leaves,
and vibhuthi (sacred ashes) according to the nature of the temple. At
Vishnu temples, immediately after the giving of thirtham, an inverted
bowl, bearing on it the feet of Vishnu (satari or sadagopam), is placed
by the Archaka first on the head, and then on the right shoulder,
and again on the head, in the case of grown up and married males,
and only on the head in the case of females and young people. The
bowl is always kept near the mula vigraha, and, on festival days,
when the god is taken in procession through the streets, it is carried
along with the utsava vigraha. On festival days, such as Dhipavali,
Vaikunta Ekadasi, Dwadasi, etc., the god of the temple is taken in
procession through the main streets of the town or village. The idol,
thus borne in procession, is not the stone figure, but the portable
one made of metal (utsava vigraha), which is usually kept in the
temple in front of the Mula idol. At almost every important temple,
an annual festival called Brahmotsavam, which usually lasts ten days,
is celebrated. Every night during this festival, the god is seated on
the clay, wooden or metal figure of some animal as a vehicle, e.g.,
Garuda, horse, elephant, bull, Hanuman, peacock, yali, etc., and taken
in procession, accompanied by a crowd of Brahmans chanting the Vedas
and Tamil Nalayara Prapandhams, if the temple is an important one. Of
the vehicles or vahanams, Hanuman and Garuda are special to Vishnu,
and the bull (Nandi) and tiger to Siva. The others are common to both
deities. During the month of May, the festival of the god Varadaraja
takes place annually. On one of the ten days of this festival, the
idol, which has gone through a regular marriage ceremony, is placed
on an elaborately decorated car (ratha), and dragged through the main
streets. The car frequently bears a number of carved images of a very
obscene nature, the object of which, it is said, is to avert the evil
eye. Various castes, besides Brahmans, take part in temple worship,
at which the saints of both Siva and Vishnu--Nayanmar and Alvars--are
worshipped. The Brahmans do not entirely ignore the worship of the
lower deities, such as Mariamma, Muneswara, Kodamanitaya, etc. At
Udipi in South Canara, the centre of the Madhva cult, where Madhva
preached his Dvaitic philosophy, and where there are several mutts
presided over by celibate priests, the Brahmans often make a vow
to the Bhuthas (devils) of the Paravas and Nalkes. Quite recently,
we saw an orthodox Shivalli Brahman, employed under the priest of one
of the Udipi mutts, celebrating the nema (festival) of a bhutha named
Panjurli, in fulfilment of a vow made when his son was ill. The Nalke
devil-dancers were sent for, and the dance took place in the courtyard
of the Brahman's house. During the leaf festival at Periyapalayam near
Madras, Brahman males and females may be seen wearing leafy twigs of
margosa (Melia Azadirachta), and going round the Mariamma shrine.
I pass on to a detailed consideration of the various classes of
Brahmans met with in Southern India. Of these, the Tamil Brahmans,
or Dravidas proper, are most numerous in the southern districts. They
are divided into the following sections:--