ARTISTIC AND INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION
The arts and intellectual activity reflect Romania's position as a
crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures. Elements of ancient Roman
culture from the second and third centuries mingle with Byzantine
elements (dating from the Middle Ages) and with Islamic elements
(brought by the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century) (see ch. 2).
In more recent times, these were joined by elements of Western European
culture. Underlying all these influences from abroad are elements of a
native peasant culture that can be traced back to the Neolithic
settlement found on the territory of the Romanian state. The mixing of
all the elements has produced a cultural mosaic that, although it has
much in common with the cultures of neighboring countries, is purely
Romanian.
The Romanian people are very proud of their cultural heritage and of the
artistic and intellectual expression that it has inspired. Artists and
intellectuals have always occupied a favored position in society as
transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They continue to feel an
identity as the social class that is responsible for the spiritual
well-being of the nation.
The communist government has promoted this pride in the cultural
heritage by devoting considerable funds and effort to the restoration
and preservation of antiquities. It has also fostered the preservation
of folk art and folk traditions through the establishment of the Village
Museums in Bucharest and Cluj and through the continued urging of
contemporary artists to produce a national art based on folk traditions.
The various ethnic minorities have preserved their own cultural
traditions and forms of expression. Although these forms reflect the
same modern influences of foreign origins that have affected Romanian
forms, they show relatively little direct borrowing from each other or
from the Romanian majority.
Because artistic and intellectual activity is a very effective means of
protest and social criticism and, therefore, opposition to the
established order, the communist leadership has tried to keep such
expression under control and to use it for its own purposes. The degree
of cultural freedom and the content of cultural output have been
indicators of the political situation in the country.
Despite controls, artists and intellectuals continue to create. Not all
of their effort becomes public, and that which does is not necessarily
sincere or direct. Symbolism and allusion have been developed to a high
degree and are well understood by both the creator and his audience.
THE ROLE OF THE ARTS UNDER COMMUNISM
Since the communists took control of the government in 1947, artistic
and intellectual expression has been dominated by the cultural policy of
the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist Roman--PCR), which
follows the model developed by the Soviet Union. The policy is based on
the concept known as Socialist Realism, whereby an artist must strive to
grasp the essence of human and social relations and depict them
truthfully in the light of socialist ideals. Art must be directed toward
the working man; therefore its style must be simple and straightforward.
Adherence to this concept in the formulation and execution of cultural
policy has varied, however, and generally reflects the political climate
of the time and the particular outlook of the men in power. During the
1950s, which has come to be known as the Dogmatic Period of cultural
life in post-World War II Romania, the content of the arts and of
intellectual expression was strictly controlled and restricted.
Socialist Realism was interpreted to mean the presentation of the
glories of communist ideals through the various forms of art and the use
of such forms to further these ideals. All cultural effort, therefore,
had to be directed to these goals, and no deviation was tolerated. The
merits of a book, painting, or play were judged only by how well they
fulfilled the propaganda function. Most individuals entrusted with
passing judgment on what was or was not acceptable had no professional
qualifications. As a result of all these factors, artistic production
that was made public during this period was, with few exceptions, dull
and mediocre.
With the discrediting of Stalin and his policies in the mid-1950s,
dogmatism in artistic expression gave way to a more liberal
interpretation of what was considered appropriate. Emphasis on Socialist
Realism was replaced with emphasis on nationalistic and historical
themes, as Romania strove to gain greater political and economic
independence from the Soviet Union. In order to be acceptable to the
administrators of cultural policy, artistic expression no longer had to
confine itself to the presentation of communist ideals in traditional
styles, but it could address itself to a variety of themes and could
experiment in innovative styles. Although artists were criticized for
submitting to so-called decadent bourgeois culture if they moved too far
away from the standards of Socialist Realism, they were not punished or
enjoined from further creative activity unless their work could be
interpreted as an attack on the regime or its policies.
At the same time, expanding relations between Romania and the
noncommunist world brought artists and intellectuals into contact with
cultural developments elsewhere and stimulated Romanian creative
expression. Cultural exchanges with Western countries were often used by
the government to allow artists more freedom of expression than could be
politically justified at home. Artists were allowed to exhibit or
perform abroad works that had been highly criticized at home. The
critical praise received abroad was proudly publicized at home as an
example of Romanian genius, at the same time that these very works were
being criticized for not meeting the desired standards of artistic
expression.
The apparent inconsistency in the application of cultural policy in the
late 1960s was indicative of a widespread effort to determine what the
role of art and literature should be in a socialist society. By 1971
this had become a much debated topic. Party ideologists, communist and
noncommunist artists and critics, and other members of the intellectual
elite, including students, aired their views through roundtable
discussions, through polemics in the press, and through other means. The
debates appeared to be unrestricted and lively, and the views expressed
ranged from strict adherence to the concept of Socialist Realism to a
plea for "art for art's sake." The opinion of the majority, however,
seemed to be that art and literature in a socialist society, as in any
other society, have both an aesthetic and a social role. Neither of
these functions should overshadow the other; social and political
elements in a work of art or literature should be implicit and
artistically presented rather than the sole justification for the
existence of the work.
In July 1971 President Nicolae Ceausescu announced a tightening of
cultural reins in order to bring cultural and educational activity back
toward its socialist purpose. The statement was followed by the removal
of some books from publication schedules, the cancellation of some
theatrical productions, and the resignation or removal of several
editors of literary and cultural periodicals. Most observers, however,
agreed that, despite some tightening of controls, artistic and
intellectual expression in Romania at the end of 1971 was far from
returning to the restrictions of the Dogmatic Period of the 1950s.
Cultural policy was administered in 1971 by the Council on Socialist
Culture and Education, which had replaced the State Committee for
Culture and Art. The council had the status of a ministry in the
government, as had the committee that preceded it (see ch. 8). The main
overseers of cultural policy and the principal organs of control on
artistic and intellectual expression, however, have been the various
professional unions. The role of the unions is to supervise and enforce
established standards of creative expression and to act as
representatives for the members of their professions. A close
relationship exists between the union leadership and the communist
party, whose control of the unions and, thereby, of the members is
exercised through the party leadership (see ch. 9).
Membership in the appropriate union is a prerequisite for effective
artistic and intellectual activity. Only members can be employed in
their professions and have their works published, performed, or
exhibited. Deviation from established cultural policy results in
expulsion from the union and consequent professional oblivion.
Therefore, most artists and intellectuals exercise self-censorship
rather than risk punishment, even if such censorship involves
compromising principles and artistic standards.
ART, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE
Folk Art
A long heritage of decorative folk art, expressed in wood carving,
embroidery, weaving, pottery, and other forms, has been important as
artistic expression for the peasants and has served as inspiration for
the more sophisticated painters, sculptors, and architects. Regional
differences in styles and materials reflect the way of life of the
people as well as their needs and the resources available to them.
Some of the typical forms and motifs used through the ages have been
found to date back to articles unearthed by archaeologists at Neolithic
settlements. In common with the folk art of other countries of Eastern
Europe, Romanian folk art uses mostly abstract and geometric designs.
When floral or animal forms are used, they are usually stylized.
The carving of wood is a natural form of folk expression in the heavily
forested areas of the Carpathians and Transylvania. Pillars and frames
of houses and other buildings, farmyard gates, and furniture are
decorated with carved geometric designs. Wooden household utensils are
also decorated with carved designs, as are farm tools and other objects
used in daily life.
Elaborate embroidery decorates the traditional costumes of both men and
women. Those used on festive occasions are particularly richly
embellished. Designs and colors vary with the regions and make it
possible to identify specific costumes with specific parts of the
country. Similar embroidery is also used to decorate household linens.
Particularly well known outside the country are the woven rugs,
tablecloths, and tapestries that decorate all rural homes and many urban
ones. Designs are mostly geometric, and particular designs and color
combinations are associated with particular regions. Well known for
their unusual design and warm colors are Oltenian textiles in which a
central animal, human, or floral design is surrounded by several frames
of different colors. Muntenian textiles, on the other hand, have small
geometric designs spread over the whole surface. Moldavian and
Transylvanian textiles vary a great deal from one location to another
and include both geometric and figurative designs. At one time, wool was
used exclusively for weaving rugs and tapestries, but since the
mid-nineteenth century cotton or hemp warp has been used in combination
with wool. All-cotton and all-hemp rugs and wall hangings are also
produced.
Pottery of various kinds is made both as decorative objects and as
household utensils. Plates, pots, and jugs are used to serve and store
food, but they are also displayed on shelves along the walls of peasant
houses, making the interiors colorful and cheerful. The shapes, colors,
and designs of the pottery show the many cultural influences from
Neolithic to modern West European. Two distinct types of pottery are
produced: a black pottery made by incomplete firing of clay with much
smoke, and the more common red pottery. Black pottery, the origins of
which date back to the Bronze Age or earlier, is made mostly in Moldavia
and eastern Transylvania. It has a highly polished finish, which is
achieved by the use of a special stone. The widely produced red pottery
may be glazed or unglazed and is usually decorated in some fashion--by
painting, scratching a design into the wet clay, or applying a design in
relief.
Among the more unusual forms of folk art that continue to be practiced
are the decoration of Easter eggs and painting on glass. Easter is a
special time not only because of its religious significance but also
because it heralds the beginning of the growing season, and Easter eggs
as a symbol of fertility are an important element of the festivities.
Eggs are decorated with highly ornamental patterns in various ways and
often become respected works of art.
Painting on glass was introduced into Transylvania in the seventeenth
century from Bohemia and was used for the production of religious
icons. Icon painting formed an important bridge between folk art and the
fine arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no longer
widely practiced.
A number of contemporary artists utilize the various forms of folk art
as their medium of artistic expression. Their designs include not only
the traditional but also elements of modern art styles, such as cubism
and abstraction.
Fine Arts
The beginnings of fine art in Romania date back to the fourteenth
century when frescoes and other paintings were created to decorate the
churches of the period. All of the early art was created in connection
with churches, although not all of it was religious in content.
Portraits of those responsible for the building of churches or
monasteries, and of their families, were often included among the
pictures of saints and biblical scenes that decorate the interior and
exterior walls of medieval religious buildings.
Romanian church art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
recognized as some of the finest and most unusual of the later period of
Byzantine art. It differs somewhat in style from other examples of
Byzantine art of that period by reflecting the influence of folk art.
Some of the finest examples are found at the Moldavian monasteries of
Putna, Sucevita, and Voronet. They are unusual in that they were painted
on the outside walls in order to educate the peasants in church history
and in elements of their faith. The quality and imaginativeness of these
frescoes has been termed one of the great contributions to European
religious art. Their freshness after more than 400 years of exposure to
the elements is remarkable.
In addition to paintings, religious art of the medieval period also
included various objects, such as vestments, furniture, and vessels
worked in wood, gold, or silver and richly decorated. Collections of
these objects are preserved at the monasteries, the largest exhibits
being at Sucevita and Putna.
During the seventeenth century a change in style took place in painting
and other decorative arts, although the subject matter remained
religious. Russian artists who had come to Moldavia and Walachia
introduced the small, detailed painting of Russian iconography, which
became evident in the murals and other painting of Romanian artists. At
the same time, the simple, folk art decorative forms were replaced by a
more elaborate style showing both Baroque and Oriental influences. A
distinct Walachian style developed, and schools emerged in Bucharest and
other cities. The most notable achievements of the Walachian school are
the interior frescoes of the Hurez Monastery.
A secular trend was introduced into art in the eighteenth century with a
greater involvement of merchants, craftsmen, and landowners as patrons.
Not until the nineteenth century, however, did a completely secular art
come into being, mostly through foreign influences. The earliest secular
artists reflect in their styles the training they had received as
religious artists.
In the early nineteenth century several foreign painters lived and
worked in Romania and exerted a strong influence on young Romanian
artists who, in turn, helped to train other artists of the nineteenth
century. The spirit of nationalism and revolution that was sweeping
Europe during that century involved Romanian artists as it did those in
other countries under foreign rule. Art was a medium for expressing
nationalist sentiments and the fight for self-determination. Most of the
art of the period, therefore, represents historic and heroic subjects.
Foremost among the revolutionary artists were Gheorghe Tattarescu and
Theodor Aman, both extremely popular in their lifetime. Together, they
exerted a great influence on the development of fine arts in Romania by
founding the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and by training young
artists. Aman, in particular, is considered the country's first great
modern painter.
By far the most outstanding artist of the nineteenth century was Nicolae
Grigorescu. His work remains extremely popular among Romanians, and his
lyrical landscapes and scenes of Romanian life are well known abroad.
The work of Stefan Luchian at the beginning of the twentieth century
introduced to Romania some of the avant-garde styles that were appearing
in European art elsewhere. Although he followed his predecessors in
painting landscapes and rural subjects, he opposed their conservative
style and introduced into his paintings a greater use of color than had
been common. He also introduced social themes into his paintings by
depicting the misery and poverty that were characteristic of the lives
of most people. His best paintings, however, are flower studies, which
bring out his love of color and of nature.
Luchian's break with tradition and his use of color were followed by a
number of artists, the most celebrated of whom was Nicolae Tonitza.
These and other artists of the interwar period were greatly influenced
by the impressionist and postimpressionist painters in Paris and Munich,
where they studied. Their landscapes, flower studies, and portraits show
the effective use of bright colors, which is considered characteristic
of Romanian art.
Because landscapes, floral studies, and other neutral subjects have
traditionally been the main concern of Romanian painters, this form of
artistic expression was the least affected by the strict controls of the
first decade of communist rule. A number of interwar artists and several
younger ones continued to produce their canvases in the precommunist
tradition, but during the 1960s some young artists experimented with
various avant-garde techniques and styles that were then current in
Western Europe. Although the government disapproved of these works, it
allowed the artists to exhibit them abroad and win considerable acclaim
for Romanian art. In the late 1960s the PCR was disturbed by the extent
to which abstract art had blossomed despite party disapproval. Artists
had been introducing cubism and primitivism into their work under the
guise of folk art, which is supposed to serve as their main inspiration.
Sculpture
Romanian sculpture has its origins in the tombstones and other grave
markers dating back to the Middle Ages. As a fine art, sculpture began
to develop in the mid-nineteenth century when the German sculptor Karl
Storck arrived in Bucharest to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Among
the earliest sculptors he trained were Ion Georgescu and his own son,
Carol Storck, both known for their statuary and busts. Stefan Ionescu
Valbudea, also in that group, was best known for his romantic statues
and classical male figures in movement.
In the period between the two world wars, several sculptors produced
large monumental works visible in public places. Dimitrie Paciurea was
the first in this group. He was followed by his students Corneal Madrea,
Ion Jalea, and Oscar Han. In addition to his monumental sculptures,
Jalea is also known for his busts and bas-reliefs. Han is particularly
known for his busts and statutes of famous Romanians.
Best known of all Romanian sculptors is Constantin Brancusi, who is
considered one of the great sculptors of the world. Brancusi studied in
Bucharest and in Paris. His earliest work, mostly busts, shows a strong
influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he broke with tradition and
developed a highly stylized and abstract style utilizing the simplest
forms. His best known works are found in important collections
throughout the world.
The work of contemporary sculptors included a wide range of styles and
mediums. Modernistic works in stone, wood, and various metals, some of
them completely abstract, can be seen in parks and other public places
throughout the country. A number of contemporary sculptors have taken
inspiration from folk art for their often massive works in wood.
Architecture
Architecture, more than any other form of artistic expression, reflects
the many cultural influences that have been exerted on the people of
Romania over the ages. The abundance of architectural styles found in
the country has been a source of great pride for Romanians who have
devoted much time and money to preserve them.
The simplest architectural forms are those of the peasant houses made of
wood and clay. The style and building technique of many of these houses
have been traced back to those used in Neolithic settlements.
Vestiges of Roman architecture can be found in Dobruja, Walachia, and
Transylvania. The most important of these are the remains of the bridge
built by Emperor Trajan across the Danube at Turnu Severin. A large
amphitheater has been unearthed at the site of the Dacian-Roman capital
of Sarmizegetusa at the southwestern tip of the Transylvanian plain.
Other Roman remains include several monuments as well as sections of
roads and aqueducts.
The period of greatest architectural creativity is usually referred to
as the feudal period, dating from the tenth century to the beginning of
the nineteenth century. The oldest structures of that period are the
fully preserved Byzantine church at Densus, Transylvania, and the ruins
of the Prince's Court at Curtea de Arges. Beginning in the fourteenth
century, distinctive architectural styles developed in Walachia,
Moldavia, and Transylvania.
The architecture of Walachia and Moldavia shows strong Byzantine
influences and includes all the special forms and decorative styles of
the several periods of Byzantine art. Specifically Romanian variations
are the exterior frescoes and the massive protecting walls of some of
the churches and monasteries.
Transylvanian architecture of the feudal period reflects Western
European influences, including Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and
Baroque styles. The fortified churches and castles built by German and
Hungarian settlers are reminiscent of similar structures in central
Europe but distinguished by their massiveness and fortifications. The
older architecture of several cities in central Transylvania is
completely Germanic or Hungarian in character, contrasting sharply with
that of Walachian and Moldavian cities. The typical Romanian
architecture found throughout the Transylvanian countryside is
particularly prominent in many rural wooden churches, which invariably
feature fine pointed spires.
During the seventeenth century the Brancovan style of architecture was
developed in Walachia, the name being derived from that of the ruling
Prince Constantin Brincoveanu. It is characterized by the use of open
porches supported by large pillars. The pillars and door and window
frames are usually elaborately carved with floral designs. The exterior
of the building is usually ringed by a wide, carved wooden band.
Outstanding examples of the Brancovan style are the Hurez Monastery and
the Mogosoaia Palace in Bucharest. More recent adaptations of the style
are seen in several public buildings and private villas built in
Bucharest before World War I.
Starting in the nineteenth century, Byzantine influences began to
disappear from architecture. Most building after that period followed
contemporary European styles, although elements of Romanian folk art
were often incorporated in the decorative details. Modern architecture
began to develop in the period between the world wars and reached a high
level of accomplishment in the 1950s and 1960s with the construction of
the seaside resorts of Mangalia, Eforie Nord, and Mamaia. Most
contemporary architecture, however, is oversized and utilitarian. The
needs for rapid and cheap construction forced architects to disregard
aesthetics and produce monotonous, dreary structures.
MUSIC
Romanians have the reputation of being a musical people. Song and dance
play an important role in their daily lives, particularly among the
peasants. A rich heritage of folk music, both vocal and instrumental,
has been passed down from generation to generation and has formed the
background for serious Romanian music that began to develop in the
mid-nineteenth century.
Folk music can be broadly classified as dance music, ballads and
laments, and pastoral music. Dance music is most frequently performed
and is a major component of any festivity. Dance tunes are generally
lively to accompany the fast and intricate steps of the dancers.
Sometimes they are sung by the dancers, but more often they are played
by one or more of the traditional instruments.
The basic instrument in folk music is the violin. It is often
accompanied by the _cobza_, a large stringed instrument resembling the
lute, or by a _tambal_, a zither-like instrument played with small
hammers. A variety of flutes are also used both as solo instruments and
in orchestras. The accordion is popular as a solo accompaniment for
singing or dancing.
Folk musicians are known as _lautari_ (lute players) and are often
Gypsies. Small orchestras are found at weddings and other celebrations
in every village and in the cities. Larger, specially formed folk
ensembles perform on radio and television and give concerts.
Ballads and laments vary in style and subject matter from region to
region. Over the years, ballads have lost most of their importance as a
contemporary musical form, although they retain value as poetry.
Laments, however, continue to play an important role in the musical life
of the people. They reflect in song the hardships and problems of daily
life and the trials and tribulations of love. Some laments have a
distinctly Oriental quality.
Pastoral music was developed by the shepherds of the Carpathians as a
diversion for their long, lonely days in the mountains and as a means of
communication. The melodies are very simple, usually played on any of
several types of alphorns or on flutes. With the changing way of life in
the mountains, pastoral music has been disappearing as a musical form.
In the early nineteenth century folklorist Anton Pann began to collect
Romanian folk music, to publish it, and to popularize it among educated
Romanians, who were more familiar with the classical music of Germany,
Italy, and France than with their own musical heritage. This resulted in
the emergence of a group of Romanian composers who utilized folk
melodies in the composition of operas, symphonies, and chamber music.
The period between the two world wars saw several composers adding to
the repertoire of Romanian music. One who achieved international fame
was Georghe Enescu. Dinu Lipatti became well known as a pianist,
although he was also a composer.
The music of the interwar composers showed the influence of German
romanticism and postromanticism and of modern French music. All of it,
however, had a strongly Romanian character attained through the use of
intonations and rhythms borrowed from folk music.
Several of the interwar composers were still active in 1970, together
with new younger composers. Their music is regularly performed in
Romania and in some of the other communist countries, but it is not well
known elsewhere. Some of the young composers have experimented with
avant-garde styles that have not been well received by the guardians of
cultural policy. Composers are urged to use folklore as their source of
inspiration and to write compositions reflecting the cultural policies
of the PCR.
THEATER
Theater has always played a vital role in the life of the educated
Romanian, and regular attendance at plays, operas, and ballets is
considered an essential part of his cultural and intellectual life. The
performing arts, therefore, have had a faithful and critical audience in
all urban centers, which has stimulated playwrights and directors. In
cities such as Cluj and Brasov, which have sizable minority populations,
Hungarian and German theaters thrive beside the Romanian.
Since the end of the rigid restrictions of the 1950s, the performing
arts have been flourishing with talented performers, directors, and
writers. The government has been promoting the presentation of Romanian
plays, and Romanian playwrights have striven to compete for audience
favor with the best of contemporary and classical foreign plays, which
are regularly presented.
Among contemporary playwrights who have achieved critical acclaim at
home and abroad are Paul Everac, D. R. Popescu, Horia Lovinescu, Iosif
Naghiu, and Paul Anghel. Eugene Ionesco, although Romanian by birth, is
generally considered a French playwright since he writes in French.
Romanians, however, proudly claim him as one of their own, even though
his plays do not follow the desired standards of form and content.
Most contemporary plays have been categorized by critics as tribunal
drama in that they pass judgment on ideas or actions and follow a format
where one or more characters take the role of the accused and others act
as prosecutors. Some plays are in the form of confessions of wrongdoings
or wrongthinking. Both forms lend themselves well to imparting a
message. Pure entertainment plays are usually boulevard comedies.
Historic themes seem to be popular and safe topics, particularly if they
promote Romanian nationalism. For the most part, plays are of local
rather than universal interest, for they deal with matters limited in
time and space. They usually arouse interest outside Romania for what
they reveal of the Romanian character and society rather than for
artistic merit.
The tightening of cultural reins in July 1971 seems to have had a
greater effect on the theater than on any other form of artistic
expression. The management of several major theaters was changed in late
1971 following admission by the replaced managers of having favored
artistic merit over ideological value in the selection of plays for
their repertory. The new managers pledged themselves to presenting plays
that contain a clear-cut message conforming to high political,
ideological, and educational standards. They also pledged themselves to
encourage young playwrights to write such plays. In the meantime, the
plays selected for the 1971-72 season were almost all true and tried
classics, devoid of any political implications. Romanian directors,
nevertheless, have shown themselves in the past to be able to impart to
the audience a great deal of political meaning through their
interpretation of such seemingly innocuous plays.
FILMS
The film industry has a long and venerable history dating back to 1912,
when the first full-length feature was produced. The silent comedies of
the 1920s compare favorably with those produced by the best film makers
of the time. In the 1930s and 1940s, until the communist takeover,
Romanian musicals and tales of suspense and of the supernatural were
popular at home and abroad. Most of these films were produced with
technical and financial assistance from France and other countries (see
ch. 11).
Cultural restrictions in the 1950s and early 1960s prevented the
Romanian film industry from taking part in the technical and artistic
developments that were changing the film industry in France and other
Western countries. As a result, films produced in Romania as late as
1970 were technically and artistically old-fashioned compared to those
produced in noncommunist countries and even in Czechoslovakia. Most
critics outside the country compare them to the good films produced by
Hollywood in the 1940s. Nevertheless, several Romanian films in the
1960s have won prizes at lesser known international film festivals.
Two of the important directors in the late 1960s were Mircea Dragan and
Ion Popescu-Gopo. Dragan specializes in historic adventure films of epic
proportions, whereas Popescu-Gopo concentrates on fantasies, including
science fiction. Popescu-Gopo is also well known for his animated films.
LITERATURE
Literature in the form of folk tales and poetry is of ancient origin. A
vast collection of legends, tales, ballads, proverbs, and riddles has
been preserved and is known to both rural and urban Romanians. Legends
and tales deal with the daring exploits of a national hero, sometimes
real and sometimes imaginary. In the oldest tales, the adversaries are
monsters and inhabitants of the underworld; in later ones, they are the
foreign conquerors and occupiers.
Ballads were originally intended to be sung but are now more often
recited as poems. They deal with the same subjects as legends and tales,
and many are of epic proportions. In the mountains of Transylvania and
Moldavia separate groups of ballads developed dealing with the pastoral
life of the people.
The earliest known texts written in Romania are chronicles in Old Church
Slavonic. In the sixteenth century a number of religious texts were
translated into Romanian, and the introductions to them are the first
known original writings in the Romanian language.
Of significance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the
chronicles written by a number of writers in Moldavia and in Walachia.
Dimitrie Cantemir, ruler of Moldavia, wrote the _Description of
Moldavia_ and _History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_
during the same period. A Transylvanian school of writing stressed the
Latin origin of the Romanian people and their language and utilized a
latinized Romanian in its writing. It was influential in awakening the
national consciousness of Transylvanian Romanians.
Four members of the Vacarescu family wrote lyrical poetry in the
eighteenth century. The best of them, Iancu Vacarescu, is regarded as
the father of Romanian poetry. The lyric tradition was carried on in the
early nineteenth century, and much of the poetry dealt with historic
subjects and expressed the growing patriotism and nationalist sentiment
of the time.
In the early nineteenth century the Latinist movement of Transylvania
spread into Moldavia and Walachia and began to Romanianize the hitherto
Hellenic culture of the Romanian upper class. The founding of the
College of Saint Sava in Bucharest, using Romanian as the language of
instruction, laid the foundation for the development of a reading public
for Romanian literature. At the same time, the founding of a
Romanian-language newspaper with a literary supplement gave writers a
publication outlet. The newspaper was founded by Eliade Radulescu, who
also founded the Philharmonic Society and the Romanian Academy, thus
giving major impetus to the development of Romanian literature and
culture.
In Moldavia, Gheorghe Asachi originated the historical short story,
wrote verse, and also founded a newspaper. The literary supplement of
Asachi's newspaper provided an outlet for Moldavian writers.
The nineteenth century was the romantic age of Romanian literature.
Writers and poets wrote under the influence of Russian, French, and
English romanticists whose works were widely translated. Outstanding
among the poets was Grigore Alexandrescu, who also wrote fables and
satires along the lines of Alphonse de Lamartine and Jean de LaFontaine.
Many historical works were written by Nicolae Balcescu and Mihail
Kogalniceanu, both of whom were political figures in the nationalist
movement of their time as well as important writers. The founding in
1840 of the literary magazine _Dacia Literata_ by Kogalniceanu marked
the beginning of the traditionalist school, which was characterized by
the use of specifically Romanian themes. An outstanding exponent of this
school was the short story writer, Constantine Negruzzi.
The second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of modern
literature through the impetus of serious criticism based on German and
French philosophical thought and cultural trends. The period was
dominated by Vasile Alecsandri and Mihail Eminescu. During Alecsandri's
long career, he produced outstanding works in every form of literary
expression--prose, poetry, drama, and nonfiction. Together with Negruzzi
and Kogalniceanu, he was one of the early directors of the National
Theatre in Iasi.
Eminescu is Romania's outstanding poet and holds his place among the
important poets of the world. His lyrical poetry is influenced by
Romanian folklore, Hindu thought, and German philosophy. His ballad
_Luceafarul_ (Evening Star) is a well-known classic. In addition to
poetry, Eminescu wrote short stories and political and philosophical
essays. He was one of the leaders of the Junimea, a literary circle for
youth in Iasi, which was founded by the important critic Titu Mairescu.
Other important members of the circle were Ion Luca Caragiale, a
playwright who first introduced social comedy to Romania, and Ion
Creanga, who wrote about the peasant life from which he stemmed.
Around the beginning of the twentieth century the growing popularity of
peasant themes and descriptions of peasant life in the writing of such
authors as Ion Slavici and Gheorghe Cosbuc led to the publication of a
new literary periodical, _Samanatorul_, and the development of a
literary school that took its name. The school stressed the national
heritage of Romania, its folklore, and its rustic life as subjects for
literary creation, in contrast to the cosmopolitan outlook of the
Junimea circle.
Parallel to the Samanatorul school developed _poporanism_ (of the
people), which was similar to the then-current Russian populism in its
social and political motivation. Its organ was _Viata Romaneasca_, which
featured populist causes.
Several writers remained apart from any of the schools. Among them was
Barbu Delavrancea, well-known for his trilogy about Stephen the Great
and for stories of Walachian peasant life, and the poet Alexandru
Macedonski, who introduced French symbolism to Romanian literature.
The period between the two world wars gave rise to the novel, which
quickly took its place beside lyrical poetry as an important form of
literary expression. An important contributor to the development of the
novel was Liviu Rebreanu, whose _Forest of the Hanged_ is a powerful
description of the horrors of war. His other important novels are
_Ion_, dealing with peasant life, and _Ciuleandra_, a psychological
novel.
Mihail Sadoveanu, whose most important works were published in the 1920s
and 1930s, is considered the foremost realist of the twentieth century.
His writings deal mostly with history and with peasant life. In 1924 he
won the national prize for literature, and in 1949, the Gold Peace
Medal.
Outstanding interwar poets were Lucian Blaga, Ion Barbu, and Tudor
Arghezi. Blaga's poetry was an exposition of his philosophy based on the
traditional way of life interpreted as a cosmic mystery. Barbu's poems
are of an abstract and esoteric nature. Arghezi is considered the
greatest poet since Eminescu on the basis of his use of language and
symbolism.
Immediately after World War II poetry again took the lead in literary
expression. Although much prose was published, none of it was considered
of particular importance. The poetry can be divided into three main
schools: surrealist poetry, poetry of spiritual revolt, and a
return-to-tradition balladry.
Several of the prewar writers and poets continued to produce after the
communist takeover and subjected themselves to the constraints of
Socialist Realism. Among them were Sadoveanu, Calinescu, Camil Petrescu,
and Arghezi. Others were denounced for their previous writings and
became silent. The literary output of the 1950s is generally regarded as
second rate. Several notable novels, however, were published in the
early 1960s. Among them were George Calinescu's _Bietul Ioanide_ (Poor
Ioanide), Ion Sadoveanu's _Ion Sintu_ (Saint John), and Petru Dimitriu's
_Cronica de Familie_ (Family Chronicle). Of particularly outstanding
merit and lasting quality are Marin Preda's peasant epic _Morometii_
(The Moroments) and Eugen Barbu's naturalist novel _Groapa_ (The
Trench).
With the relaxing of cultural controls in the mid-1960s, many of those
who had been silent resumed their writing, together with a new group of
younger writers. The mid-and late-1960s saw an outpouring of literary
creativity that had been pent up during the preceding decade. The
variety of genres and styles was impressive; some continued the
traditions of the past, others repudiated their literary traditions and
ventured into new areas of expression. Lyricism dominated the poetry of
Ion Alexandru, Adrian Paunescu, Marin Sorescu, and others. Their
greatest appeal was among young people whose doubts, hopes, and
restlessness they expressed.
Prose showed two trends: realism, which was now free to examine all
aspects of human existence; and antirealism, which showed influences of
some contemporary French writers.
Literary criticism, which had played an important role in the
development of Romanian literature, was revived as a literary art and
was removed from politics. Both old and new works were examined and
evaluated, and Romanian literary traditions were studied and analyzed.
The literary output of the 1950s was attacked for its lack of
imagination and creativity.
The retightening of controls in 1971 reduced the volume of new works
being published, and many writers retreated into a self-censorship,
which restricted their creativity. Literary periodicals and other
publication media were more selective in deciding what to publish,
whereas some critics attacked the volume and quality of the recent
literary output.
SCHOLARSHIP AND RESEARCH
A tradition of scholarship and research has in the past been limited to
a small intellectual elite centered in Bucharest and Iasi. The group was
oriented toward France and, to a lesser extent, Germany in terms of
professional contacts and sources of inspiration. During the 1930s a
number of sociologists at the University of Bucharest established a
reputation for outstanding and original work in their field.
The great expansion of the educational system since the 1940s has
provided a much broader base for scholarly activity but, in keeping with
ideological dictates, scholarly activity must be socially useful, that
is, directly applicable to the needs of the society. Therefore, great
emphasis has been placed on applied research in the sciences and
technology designed to improve the economy. All research is sponsored by
the state and is directed and supervised by the National Council for
Scientific Research.
The interest in sociology has continued, but work in this field, as in
the other social sciences, has suffered from the restrictions imposed by
communist ideology. The only accepted philosophy is that of
Marxism-Leninism, and all scholarly work must be based on its precepts,
which frequently leads to sterile research or preconceived results.
Two developments by Romanians in the field of medicine have caused
considerable controversy among specialists in other parts of the world.
One is a regeneration therapy for the aged based on the administration
of procaine, which was developed by Anna Aslan of the Institute of
Gerontology. The therapy, strongly backed by the government, is intended
to free the elderly from the various chronic discomforts of advanced age
and thereby make them more active. Many prominent gerontologists have
questioned the efficacy of the treatments and the results claimed by
the Institute of Gerontology, but others have reported it to be fully
effective. A Romanian-developed drug used in the treatment is
extensively sold in Europe. The other medical development acclaimed by
Romania but questioned by many specialists in the field is the use of an
extract obtained from cattle eyes for the treatment of many human eye
diseases. The extract was developed by Professor Petre Vancea.
SECTION II. POLITICAL
CHAPTER 8
GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM
As of early 1972 the structure of the government remained essentially
the same as that established by the 1965 Constitution. Power is declared
to belong to the working people united under the leadership of the
Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR). That power is
said to be expressed through their representatives to the Grand National
Assembly, the nation's sole legislative body, and through the people's
councils, the organs of government on county and local levels.
Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly, as the highest voice of
the people, is asserted to be the supreme organ of state power, and all
other government bodies are theoretically subordinate to it.
Actual political power, however, is monopolized by the PCR and
particularly by the highest organs of the party under the leadership of
Nicolae Ceausescu, who is simultaneously head of state. Although the
system of government is, in theory, designed to emphasize participatory
democracy, the government functions largely as the administrative
structure through which the party exerts its will in all aspects of
Romanian society (see ch. 9).
There is no separation of powers between the branches of the government,
and it is difficult to draw distinctions between the executive and the
legislative functions. The Council of State is closely tied to the
structure and membership of the Grand National Assembly and functions as
a permanent assembly presidium. The nation's highest administrative
body, the Council of Ministers, is elected by the assembly and
responsible to both the assembly and the Council of State. Although it
is theoretically independent in its judicial decisions, the Supreme
Court is also constitutionally responsible to the assembly.
The entire structure of the government, from national down to local
levels, is organized on a principle of centralized control by which all
lower bodies are subject to the authority and control of the next higher
unit, the ultimate power resting in the central government. The
governmental system consists of nominally representative bodies at
community, town, and county levels, which are hierarchically
subordinated to the authority of the central government. Throughout the
entire system the predominant influence of the party is evident, the key
positions at each level being held by party members.
THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM
Constitutional Development
Since coming under full communist control in December 1947, Romania has
had three constitutions. The first, designating the country a "People's
Republic," was adopted by the Grand National Assembly in April 1948,
just four weeks after the assembly had been reorganized under new
communist leadership. The second, officially adopted in September 1952,
had first been made public the preceding July after Gheorghe
Gheorghiu-Dej had assumed the post of prime minister in addition to his
position as head of the party. A third constitution, incorporating the
elements of Romania's changed social and ideological position, entered
into force on August 20, 1965.
In many ways similar to the initial constitutions of the other
Soviet-dominated states of Eastern Europe, the 1948 Constitution was
designed to mark Romania's entry into the first stage of the transition
from capitalism to socialism. As a people's democracy, state power was
said to derive from the people as expressed through the Grand National
Assembly, nominally, the supreme organ of state power. A nineteen-member
Presidium was elected by and from the membership of the assembly to
provide continuity of legislative authority when the assembly itself was
not in session. The highest executive and administrative organ was the
Council of Ministers, which functioned under the direction of the prime
minister. Although it was not mentioned in the constitution, the
Communist Party functioned as the supreme decisionmaking authority over
and above that of the government.
The right of ownership of private property was guaranteed, although the
constitution provided that privately held means of production, banks,
and insurance companies could be nationalized when the "general
interest" so required. Less than two months after the adoption of the
constitution, the Grand National Assembly applied this "general
interest" principle and nationalized all banking, industrial, insurance,
mining, and transportation enterprises.
Described in the constitution in anticipation of their actual
establishment, the organs of state power in the regions, counties,
districts, and communes were designated "people's councils." Formally
established by law in 1949, these bodies were organized into a
centralized system in which the lower level councils were fully
subordinated to the next higher council and all functioned under the
direct control of the central organs of government.
Changes that were effected in the political, social, and economic
structure of the country after 1948 were incorporated into a new
constitution in 1952. Patterned largely after the 1936 Constitution of
the Soviet Union, the 1952 document specifically designated the Romanian
Workers' Party (title of the Communist Party between 1948 and 1965) as
the representative of the working class and the country's leading
political force. The nation's close ties with the Soviet Union were
strongly emphasized. Several references to the Soviet Union glorified
its role in the liberation of the country from fascism during World War
II and described the Soviets as great friends of the Romanian people.
Whereas the 1948 Constitution declared that "the Romanian People's
Republic was born amid the struggle conducted by the people, under the
leadership of the working class, against fascism, reaction, and
imperialism," that of 1952 asserted the republic "was born and
consolidated following the liberation of the country by the armed forces
of the Soviet Union."
As did the 1948 Constitution, that of 1952 guaranteed full equality to
the country's national minority groups, but the 1952 Constitution also
established an autonomous administrative unit, the Hungarian Autonomous
Region (Mures-Magyar), for the large Hungarian population. The region
was given its own people's council and local authorities, although these
were clearly subordinated to the organs of the central government.
Including the Hungarian Autonomous Region, the country was administered
through twenty regional units that, in turn, were subdivided into
districts, towns, and rural localities.
Citizens were guaranteed the right to work for remuneration; the right
to rest, assured by the establishment of the eight-hour workday and paid
annual vacations for workers and office employees; the right to material
security when old, ill, or disabled; and the right to education. Full
equality in all aspects of economic, political, and cultural life was
guaranteed to all working people regardless of nationality, race, or
sex.
Freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and public demonstration were
likewise assured, as was freedom of religion. Churches, however, were
forbidden to operate schools except for the training of religious
personnel. Other rights guaranteed the protection of the person from
arbitrary arrest, the inviolability of the home, and the secrecy of the
mail. The right of citizens to form public and private organizations was
also assured, although associations having a "fascist or anti-democratic
character" were prohibited.
Citizen duties to the state included the observance of the constitution
and the laws of the republic and the obligation to preserve and develop
socialist property, to practice discipline in regard to work, and to
work in general for the strengthening of the "regime of people's
democracy." Military service and the defense of the nation were
described as duties of honor for all citizens.
In March 1961 the Grand National Assembly established a commission to
prepare a new draft constitution. At the same time the 1952 Constitution
was revised to transform the Presidium of the assembly into the Council
of State. The new council, vested with supreme executive authority,
consisted of a president, three vice presidents, and thirteen members.
As was the case with the Presidium, the Council of State was elected by
and from the assembly membership and was, in theory at least,
responsible to it.
The authority of the council was threefold, consisting of permanent
powers, powers to be exercised between assembly sessions, and special
powers that could be exercised in exceptional circumstances. The
permanent powers were exercised by the president, who was by virtue of
his position the head of state, and focused primarily on the
representation of the republic in international relations. Between
sessions of the assembly the Council of State was empowered to oversee
the activity of the Council of Ministers, appoint and recall members of
the Supreme Court and the commander in chief of the armed forces,
supervise the functioning of the Office of the Prosecutor General, and
convene standing commissions of the assembly.
The council could also issue decrees having the force of law although,
at least technically, these had to be submitted to the next assembly
session for ratification. In the event of circumstances that might
prevent the assembly from convening, the council was authorized to
appoint the Council of Ministers, declare war, order mobilization,
proclaim a state of emergency, approve the budget, and prepare economic
plans. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, first secretary of the Romanian Workers'
Party, was elected as president of the Council of State. Ion Gheorghe
Maurer--who had been chairman of the assembly Presidium, and thus
titular head of state, since 1958--became prime minister.
Although the draft constitution prepared by the commission appointed in
1961 was never adopted, it was used as the basis for the work of a
second commission named in June 1965. Under the chairmanship of
Ceausescu, the commission prepared a new draft and submitted it to the
party congress and the Council of State. After being approved by these
bodies the Constitution was adopted by the Grand National Assembly on
August 20, 1965.
The Constitution of 1965
After the adoption of the first communist constitution in 1948 the
country had officially borne the title of a people's republic. With the
promulgation of the new Constitution in 1965 the name of the country was
changed to the Socialist Republic of Romania (Republica Socialista
Romania). In adopting this title, the Romanian leadership was asserting
that the country had completed the transition from capitalism and had
become a full-fledged socialist state.
Observers of Eastern European politics considered the emphasis placed on
national sovereignty and independence in the new Constitution to be
significant. Whereas the 1952 Constitution repeatedly stressed the
country's close ties to the Soviet Union and the role of the Soviet army
in the liberation of Romania during World War II, the 1965 Constitution
omits all reference to the Soviet Union. Instead, it refers only to the
policy of maintaining friendly and fraternal relations with all
socialist states and, in addition, expresses the intention of promoting
friendly relations with nonsocialist states.
There is also increased provision for civil liberties in the 1965
Constitution, including the right of petition, the right of individual
recourse to the courts in the event of illegal acts of state agencies,
and rights equivalent to habeas corpus. The extent of individual freedom
is qualified, however, by the declaration that the "freedom of speech,
of the press, reunion, meeting and demonstration cannot be used for aims
hostile to the socialist system and to the interests of the working
people." While proclaiming freedom of association and organization, the
1965 Constitution, as did that of 1952, prohibits associations of a
"fascist or anti-democratic character."
Perhaps owing to the declared advancement to the stage of socialism, the
1965 Constitution contains no reference to the "private capitalist
sector" of the economy, as had the 1952 document. Whereas the 1952
Constitution had recognized the private sector as one of three elements
of the economic system, along with the socialist sector and the sector
described as "small-scale commodity production," that of 1965 declares
the basis of the economy to rest solely on the socialist ownership of
the means of production. Cooperative farmers, however, are permitted the
personal ownership of some livestock and tools, certain craftsmen are
guaranteed ownership of their workshops, and peasants who are not in
cooperatives are able to own small parcels of land and some farm
implements.
Changes that had been made in the organizational structure of the
government after 1952 were incorporated into the 1965 Constitution. The
Council of State is described as the "supreme body of state power with a
permanent activity," although it remains theoretically subordinate to
the Grand National Assembly, which is designated as "the supreme body of
state power." In contrast to the 1952 Constitution, which provided for
representation to the Grand National Assembly on the basis of one deputy
for every 40,000 persons, the 1965 document fixes the number of assembly
deputies at 465 and requires the establishment of that number of
constituencies of equal population.
Although the Hungarian Autonomous Region continued to exist, the 1952
provision guaranteeing "administrative and territorial autonomy" to the
Hungarian population was omitted from the 1965 Constitution. All of the
sixteen regional units were subsequently eliminated by a territorial
reorganization of 1968, at which time a system of _judete_ (counties)
was established.
All power is ascribed to the people and exercised by their
representatives in the people's councils and the Grand National
Assembly. The Communist Party is described as the country's leading
political force under whose leadership the working people have the
expressed goal of building the socialist system to create "the
conditions for transition to communism."
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE GOVERNMENT
The Central Government
According to the 1965 Constitution the major institutions of the central
government are the Grand National Assembly, the Council of State, and
the Council of Ministers (see fig. 1). Although the Constitution
declares the Grand National Assembly and the Council of State to be the
supreme organs of state power, in practice the authority of both of
these organs ranks after that of the PCR. The Constitution itself states
unequivocally that "the leading political force of the whole society is
the Romanian Communist Party." The basic national policy decisions are
made in the ruling bodies of the party and subsequently communicated to
the government for adoption and implementation.
[Illustration: _Figure 7. Structure of the Government of Romania,
1971._]
The Grand National Assembly
The Grand National Assembly, which supervises and controls the functions
of all other state organs, consists of 465 deputies elected from an
equal number of electoral districts for a four-year term of office. In
the event of exceptional circumstances that prevent the holding of
elections, however, the assembly is empowered to prolong its term of
office for the duration of these circumstances. Regular assembly
sessions are held twice yearly, and special sessions may be convened on
the initiative of the Council of State or on demand of one-third of the
total number of deputies.
Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly is empowered to elect,
supervise, and recall the members of the Council of State, the Council
of Ministers, and the Supreme Court. It is also empowered to name the
prosecutor general and control the activity of his office. It is given
ultimate authority in the regulation of the electoral system, the
national economic plan, the state budget, and the organization and
functioning of the people's councils.
The assembly is empowered to establish the general line of the country's
foreign policy and has ultimate responsibility for the maintenance of
public order and national defense. As a part of this responsibility the
assembly appoints and recalls the supreme commander of the armed forces.
Declarations of war, however, are constitutionally limited to the
protection of Romanian national sovereignty in the event of aggression
or in the event of aggression against another state with which Romania
has mutual defense obligations.
Other powers attributed to the assembly include adopting and amending
the Constitution and the general control over its application. Assembly
authority extends as well to the interpretation of the Constitution and
decisions on the constitutionality of laws, making it in effect its own
constitutional court. In exercising that power the assembly elects the
Constitutional Commission, which functions for the duration of the
legislative term. The Constitution specifies that up to one-third of the
commission members may be persons who are not deputies, but members of
the Supreme Court, college and university teachers, and scientific
researchers are specifically excluded from commission membership. Duties
of the commission focus primarily on providing the assembly with reports
and opinions on constitutional questions.
The Grand National Assembly functions under an elected chairman who
presides over assembly sessions and is responsible for directing its
activities. The chairman and four elected vice chairmen form the Bureau
of the Grand National Assembly and are assisted in their duties by a
panel of six executive secretaries. In addition to the Constitutional
Commission, other standing commissions of the assembly include the
Agriculture and Forestry Commission; Credentials Commission; Defense
Commission; Economic and Financial Commission; Education, Science, and
Culture Commission; Foreign Policy Commission; Health, Labor, and Social
Welfare Commission; Industry, Construction, and Transportation
Commission; Legal Commission; and the People's Councils and State
Administration Commission. Any deputy may be elected to the standing
commissions of the assembly or to temporary commissions created to
perform specific functions. Reports, bills, or other legislative matters
are submitted to the standing commissions by the assembly chairman for
study and for recommendations on further action.
The assembly may function if one-half of the deputies plus one
additional deputy are present. Laws and decisions are adopted by simple
majority vote with the exception of an amendment to the Constitution,
which requires a two-thirds majority of the total number of assembly
deputies. Laws and decisions are signed by the presiding officer present
at the time the decision is voted. Within ten days after adoption, laws
are required to be signed by the president of the Council of State and
published in the _Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of
Romania_.
The Council of State
Described as the supreme body of state power with a permanent activity,
the Council of State exercises certain permanent powers as well as
special powers that fall to it when the Grand National Assembly is not
in session. Formed of nineteen members, the Council of State is elected
by the assembly, from its own membership, at the first assembly session
as it begins a new term of office. The council's authority continues
until the election of a new Council of State by the succeeding
legislature. Although the president of the council is the head of state,
the Constitution asserts that the functioning of the council is to be
based on the principle of collective leadership. Almost all the members
of the Council of State also hold leading party posts.
Among the most important permanent powers of the Council of State are
the establishment of election dates; the appointment and recall of the
heads of central government agencies, except for the Council of
Ministers; and the ratification or denunciation of international
treaties. The president of the council represents the republic in
international relations. Other permanent powers include the granting of
senior military ranks; the conferral of honors; the granting of
citizenship, pardon, and refuge; and the appointment and recall of
diplomatic representatives.
Grand National Assembly powers that devolve to the Council of State
between assembly sessions, or in the event of exceptional circumstances
that prevent the assembly from acting, include the authority to appoint
and recall members of the Council of Ministers, members of the Supreme
Court, and the prosecutor general. Also included in this category are
powers to establish norms having the power of law, control over the
application of laws and decisions passed by the assembly, and
supervision of the Council of Ministers and other central administrative
bodies as well as the activities of the people's councils.
Although the legal decisions passed by the council must be submitted for
approval to the next session of the Grand National Assembly, they take
effect as law immediately on passage by the council or on a date
specified in the ruling itself. In the event of a national emergency the
Council of State can also exercise the assembly's power to declare a
state of war, subject to the same qualifications imposed upon the
assembly--that is, in the event that Romania or one of its allies is the
victim of external armed aggression.
In December 1967 PCR General Secretary Ceausescu was elected president
of the Council of State by the Grand National Assembly and, by virtue of
this position, became the head of state. The reason given for the
concentration of the principal party and government positions in
Ceausescu's hands was the desire to provide unitary leadership both as a
means of efficiency and of ensuring full party control at the highest
level of the government. The decision to unite the two posts, as well as
to combine a number of party and government positions on lower
administrative levels, had been taken at a national party conference a
few days earlier and followed action taken by the PCR Central Committee
in October. Outside observers saw the move as one of a series of steps
designed to ensure the continued subordination of the state apparatus to
the party.
In March 1970 the Grand National Assembly voted to establish the Defense
Council, to be headed by Ceausescu and responsible to the Council of
State. The formation of the Defense Council, which was given
decisionmaking powers for high-level military affairs, served to
strengthen Council of State control over the armed forces and further
enhance Ceausescu's personal authority. The same legislation that
established the Defense Council also decreed that foreign troops could
not enter Romania under any circumstances without the prior approval of
the assembly. Coming in the aftermath of the Soviet-led invasion of
Czechoslovakia, observers of Eastern European affairs interpreted this
ruling as a means of preventing any dissident group from inviting
foreign intervention on the pretext of preserving orthodox communist
rule.
The membership of the Defense Council reflected the importance given it.
Besides the head of state, other members of the council include the
prime minister, the minister of the armed forces, the chairman of the
Council of State Security, the minister of internal affairs, the
minister of foreign affairs, the chairman of the State Planning
Committee, and eight other members who also held leading government and
party positions. The secretary of the council in 1971 was the chief of
the general staff and a member of the PCR Central Committee.
Also connected to the Council of State and subordinate to it is the
Economic Council. This body functions to advise on economic matters,
coordinate planning, and make recommendations to the Council of State
for the development of the national economy and the improvement of state
enterprises. In late 1971 the chairman of the Economic Council was also
a member of the PCR Secretariat.
The Council of Ministers
Defined in the Constitution as the supreme body of state administration,
the Council of Ministers exercises control over the activities of all
state agencies on both the national and local levels. The council is
composed of a chairman (who is the prime minister), a first deputy
chairman, an unspecified number of deputy chairmen, the ministers, and
the heads of certain other important government agencies (see fig. 8).
Unlike the 1952 Constitution, in which twenty-six specific ministries
were listed, that of 1965 fixes neither the number of ministries nor
their particular areas of competence, this being left to other laws.
In 1971 the Council of Ministers was composed of forty-four members,
including the prime minister, first deputy, seven deputies, twenty-three
ministers, and ten committee chiefs with ministerial rank. All but two
of the members of the council were also members, or alternate members,
of the PCR Central Committee, and the prime minister and his first
deputy were members of the Standing Presidium of the party. These two,
along with two other deputies, were also full members of the PCR
Executive Committee.
[Illustration: _Figure 8. Romania, Organization of the Council of
Ministers, 1971._]
The Constitution charges the Council of Ministers with responsibility
for the general implementation of the nation's domestic and foreign
policies, the application of laws, and the maintenance of public order.
As the supreme administrative body of the government, the council
coordinates and controls the activity of the ministries and other state
organs at all levels. In economic matters the council administers the
drafting of the overall state plan and the national budget and provides
for their implementation. In addition, it directs the establishment of
the economic enterprises and other industrial and commercial
organizations (see ch. 14). The council's responsibilities also include
the general administration of relations with other states, the
conclusion of international agreements, and the general organization of
the armed forces.
Formally elected by the Grand National Assembly at the beginning of each
new assembly session, the council's term of office continues until the
election of a new council by the succeeding assembly. Both collectively
and individually, the council members are responsible to the Grand
National Assembly; and in the interval between assembly sessions, to the
Council of State. The Constitution asserts that the Council of Ministers
is to operate on the principle of collective leadership to ensure the
unity of its political and administrative actions.
In late 1969 the Grand National Assembly enacted legislation aimed at
strengthening the concept of collective leadership in the ministries and
extending the principle to other national administrative agencies. In
the case of the Council of Ministers, the measure provided for the
establishment of a collegium in each ministry consisting of the
minister, department heads, certain specialists, and representatives of
labor unions or other organizations. Purposes of the collegium included
collective decisionmaking, review of ministry activities, and
recommendations on ministry programs and policies. The meetings of the
collegium, at which decisions are made by majority vote, are also
attended by representatives of the PCR appointed by the party Central
Committee. In the event of serious disagreements within the collegium,
the law provides for the matter to be referred to the Council of
Ministers. No such disagreements have been reported, however.
Since the promulgation of the 1965 Constitution, the Council of
Ministers has been reorganized several times. In late 1971 the
importance of a number of the ministries and state commissions was
emphasized by the prominence of the party position held by their
ministers or chairmen: almost all of the members of the Council of
Ministers were either full or alternate members of the PCR Central
Committee; the chairmen of the General Union of Trade Unions, the
National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives, and the State
Planning Committee were full members of the party Executive Committee;
the chairmen of the Council of State Security and the State Committee
for Local Economy and Administration were alternate members of the
Executive Committee, as was the head of the Ministry of the Armed
Forces. The chairmen of the State Planning Committee and the Council of
State Security and the ministers of internal affairs and the armed
forces also were members of the Defense Council.
The Judicial System
The general organization and functioning of the judiciary is established
by the Constitution and by the 1968 Law on the Organization of the Court
System. Overall responsibility for the functioning of the courts is
vested in the Ministry of Justice, whereas the prosecutor general
(attorney general) is charged with the general application of the law
and the executing of criminal proceedings.
To fulfill its responsibility for the functioning of the courts and the
supervision of state marshals, state notaries, and the national bar
organization, the Ministry of Justice is divided into six directorates:
civil courts, military courts, studies and legislation, personnel,
administration, and planning and accounting. In addition, the ministry
includes a corps of inspectors, an office of legal affairs, the State
Notary Office, and a lawyer and legal expert service.
The court system includes the Supreme Court, _judet_ courts, lower
courts, military courts, and local judicial commissions. The
Constitution places the judiciary under the authority of the Grand
National Assembly; and between assembly sessions, under the authority of
the Council of State. The Supreme Court, seated in Bucharest, exercises
general control over the judiciary activities of all lower courts.
Members of the Supreme Court are professional judges appointed by the
Grand National Assembly to four-year terms of office. The Supreme Court
functions as an appeals court for sentences pronounced in lower
tribunals and, in certain matters specified by law, may act as a court
of first instance. It may also issue guidance, in the form of
directives, on legal and constitutional questions for the judicial
actions of lower courts and the administrative functions of government
agencies. To fulfill its responsibilities, the Supreme Court is divided
into three sections: civil, criminal, and military. Each of these
sections is presided over by a panel of three judges, and plenary
sessions of the entire court are held at least once every three months
in the presence of the minister of justice for the purpose of issuing
guidance directives.
With the territorial-administrative reorganization of February 1968, the
jurisdictions of the former regional and district courts were
restructured to correspond to the new administrative units. Accordingly,
there are thirty-nine _judet_ courts and the municipal court of
Bucharest, which has _judet_ court status. Each court on this level is
presided over by a panel of two judges and three lay jurors, known as
people's assessors, and decisions are made by majority vote. People's
assessors were first introduced in December 1947 and given additional
legal status in 1952 by the Grand National Assembly's Law on the
Organization of Justice. The law required these lay assessors to be
Romanian citizens and at least twenty-three years of age. Most of the
people's assessors are appointed by the PCR or by one of the district
bodies of the mass organizations (see ch. 9).
Below the _judet_ courts, and subordinate to them, are the lower courts.
In the city of Bucharest these consist of eight sectional courts, which
function under the supervision of the municipal court. For the remainder
of the country the number of these lower courts and the extent of their
territorial jurisdiction are established by the Ministry of Justice.
Courts on this level are presided over by a panel composed of one judge
and two people's assessors; decisions are based on a majority vote.
Military courts are established on a territorial basis, subdivisions
being determined by the Council of Ministers. The lower military
tribunals have original jurisdiction over contraventions of the law
committed by members of the armed forces; the territorial military
tribunals exercise appellate jurisdiction for decisions of the lower
units. In certain situations specified by law, cases involving civilians
may be assigned to military courts. At each level, the military courts,
when acting in the first instance, consist of two judges and three
people's assessors. In appeals cases on the territorial level, the
courts consist of three judges only. As in the civil courts, decisions
are reached by majority vote.
In 1968 the Grand National Assembly enacted a law establishing a system
of judicial commissions to function as courts of special jurisdiction in
the state economic enterprises and in localities. These commissions were
designed as "an expression of socialist democracy" to provide for the
increased participation of working people in the settlement of problems
involving minor local disputes and local economic issues. Functioning
under the direction of enterprise management or municipal executive
committees, the judicial commissions are assigned such matters as labor
disputes, misdemeanors, property disputes, and violations of proper
social conduct, a category that appears to provide broad latitude for
prosecution. As a rule, the commissions consist of five members elected
for a term of two years; however, in labor disputes two additional
members are added to the commission, one representing the enterprise
management and one representing the labor union committee.
General supervision over the application of the law and the initiation
of criminal proceedings is exercised by the Office of the Prosecutor
General. Headed by the prosecutor general, the office exercises
supervisory powers that extend to all levels of the society, from the
government ministries down to the ordinary citizen. Subunits of the
Office of the Prosecutor General are hierarchically organized and
include offices in each judicial district plus the prosecutor's military
bureau. The prosecutor general is elected by the Grand National Assembly
for a four-year term and is responsible to the assembly or, between
assembly sessions, to the Council of State for the activities of his
office. Three deputy prosecutors assist the prosecutor general in
carrying out his official duties.
An important part of the prosecutor general's responsibilities consists
of supervising the activities of the courts to ensure the uniform
application of the law. Prosecutors on the _judet_ level have a
consultative vote in the meetings of local government agencies when
important legal questions are being decided. The prosecutor general
participates in those plenary sessions of the Supreme Court at which
guidance decisions are made. In the event the prosecutor does not agree
with a decision, he may appeal to the county people's council or to its
executive committee for a review of the decision. On the national level,
the Office of the Prosecutor General may appeal alleged violations of
the law to the Council of Ministers.
Local Government
Local government bodies, known as people's councils, exist on the
_judet_, town, and commune levels. The 1965 Constitution had also
provided for subunits of state administration on regional and district
levels, but a territorial-administrative reorganization voted by the
Grand National Assembly in 1968 replaced the existing sixteen regions
and 150 intermediate districts with a system of thirty-nine counties and
forty-four independent municipal administrations. The expressed purpose
of the change was the provision of more efficient administration.
In addition to the establishment of county and municipal people's
councils, local councils were also set up in 142 smaller towns, and
communal councils were formed in rural areas. A number of the smaller
communes were combined in order to give them a larger population base.
Boundaries of each of the new _judete_ were drawn to include about fifty
communes consisting of some 4,000 to 5,000 persons.
Along with the territorial reorganization, the decision was also made to
combine party and government functions of the _judet_ level so that the
same person acted both as party committee first secretary and people's
council chairman. In explaining this fusion of party and state
authority, Ceausescu stated that there were many instances in which
offices in both the party and the government dealt with the same areas
of interest, a practice that resulted in inefficiency and the
unnecessary duplication of party and state machinery. He asserted that
the consolidation of these administrative positions would serve to
eliminate this overlapping. At the same time, Ceausescu declared that,
inasmuch as the government was responsible for the implementation of the
PCR's economic decisions, there was no justification for the continued
existence of the numerous economic sections of the party Central
Committee and that future economic policy would be implemented within
the structure of the government (see ch. 9).
According to the Constitution and the 1968 Grand National Assembly's Law
on the Organization and Operation of People's Councils, the people's
councils are responsible for the implementation of central government
decisions and the economic, social, and cultural administration of their
particular jurisdictions. Deputies to the people's councils are elected
to four-year terms--except for the communes where the term is two
years--from single-member constituencies of equal population. Based on
population, the _judet_ people's councils may have a maximum of 231, or
a minimum of 141, deputies. The membership of the Bucharest People's
Council is fixed at 369, and there are 151 deputies on the councils of
each of its subdistricts. City people's councils range from eighty-one
to 221 deputies, and those of the towns consist of from thirty-five to
ninety-one deputies. Commune council memberships range from twenty-five
to seventy-one persons.
Organized on the basis of highly centralized control, the people's
councils function under the general supervision of the Grand National
Assembly; and between assembly sessions the councils function under the
direction of the Council of State. The Law on the Organization and
Operation of People's Councils specifically places the people's councils
under the overall leadership of the PCR as the leading political force
of the society.
To expedite its work, each people's council established an executive
committee as its chief administrative organ and a number of permanent
committees to which it assigns specific responsibilities. The executive
committee, consisting of a chairman, two or more deputy chairmen, and an
unspecified number of other members, functions for the duration of the
council's term of office. Each of the people's council executive
committees also has a secretary, who is appointed with the approval of
the next higher ranking council and is considered an employee of the
central government rather than of the local executive committee itself.
The chairman of executive committees in the cities, towns, and communes
are officially considered the mayors of these units. The executive
committees are responsible to the people's council that elected them as
well as to the executive committee of the next higher council.
The executive committee meets whenever necessary and is required to
convene at least once a month; full council sessions are held every two
months on the city, town, and commune level and every three months on
the county level. Responsibilities of the executive committees include
the implementation of laws, decrees, and decisions of the central
government, the carrying out of the decisions made by the people's
councils, the working out of the local budget, and the drafting of the
local economic plan. The executive committee is also charged with the
direction and control of the economic enterprises within its area of
jurisdiction and with the exercising of supervision over the executive
committees of the councils inferior to it. The executive committees are
also responsible for the organization and functioning of public
services, educational institutions, medical programs, and the militia.
THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
According to the 1965 Constitution, all power belongs to the working
people joined in a worker-peasant alliance; power is exercised through
the people's representative bodies--the Grand National Assembly and the
several levels of people's councils. Theoretically, these bodies are
elected by, controlled by, and responsible to the working people.
Emphasis is placed on the direct participation of the citizens through
their local people's councils, party units, and chapters of the mass
organizations (see ch. 9).
Although the Constitution asserts the right of all citizens eighteen
years of age and older to participate in the election of all
representative bodies on the basis of a universal, direct, equal, and
secret vote, it does not determine how elections are to be organized or
specify who is responsible for conducting them. The Constitution does
declare, however, that the right to nominate candidates belongs to the
PCR, as well as to all labor unions, cooperatives, youth and women's
leagues, cultural associations, and other mass organizations. Citizens
who have reached the age of twenty-three are eligible to be candidates
for elective office.
Separate legislation provides for general elections to be held every
four years and local communal elections to be conducted every two years.
Elections are organized under the direction of the Socialist Unity
Front, the national entity that incorporates the country's numerous mass
organizations under the leadership of the PCR (see ch. 9). All
candidates for elective office must have the approval of the front in
order to be placed on the ballot, a requirement that ensures that no
candidate unacceptable to the front's leadership will be placed in
nomination.
The Socialist Unity Front was officially established in November 1968 as
a replacement for the People's Democratic Front, which had existed since
the Communists began to organize effectively in the country during World
War II. The Socialist Unity Front lists among its member organizations,
in addition to the PCR, the labor unions; cooperative farm
organizations; consumer cooperatives; professional, scientific, and
cultural associations; student, youth, women's, and veterans'
organizations; religious bodies; and representatives of the Hungarian,
German, Serbian, and Ukrainian minorities. At the time of its formation,
Ceausescu was elected as the front's chairman, and Ion Gheorghe Maurer,
the prime minister, was named as first vice chairman. Both continued in
these positions in early 1972.
General elections were conducted by the Socialist Unity Front in March
1969. Official results indicated that ballots were cast by 99.96 percent
of the country's 13,582,249 eligible voters. Of the votes cast, a
reported 99.75 percent were marked in favor of the single list of
Socialist Unity Front candidates. Although the great majority of the
candidates for the Grand National Assembly who were placed on the ballot
belonged to the PCR, some non-members gained front approval and were
elected. Nearly half of the candidates elected were newcomers to the
assembly and included forty-one Hungarian, twelve German, and nine other
minority representatives. The front has scheduled the next general
elections for 1973.
CHAPTER 9
POLITICAL DYNAMICS AND VALUES
At the beginning of 1972 the country's political system continued to be
based on the leading position of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul
Communist Roman--PCR). Within the party, political power was centralized
in a small group of men who occupied the leading party and government
offices. Political authority was particularly concentrated in the hands
of the general secretary of the PCR, Nicolae Ceausescu, who was also the
head of state.
Regarding itself as the leading force of the society, the PCR has made
the government apparatus an instrument of party policy and, through a
broad network of subordinate mass organizations, has mobilized all
elements of the society in support of its programs and goals. Individual
and group participation in the political process was limited to the
forms and means permitted by the PCR.
The concentration of all political authority in the central bodies of
the party has effectively precluded the emergence of any open opposition
to the PCR leadership as well as the assertion of any particular group
interests. Under Ceausescu's leadership the party has sought to
strengthen its role in all spheres of social, economic, and political
life and, at the same time, to broaden its base of support by taking
steps to increase its membership. Although the party leaders have
periodically demonstrated a cautious relaxation of the highly
centralized system of control, the PCR has continued to be extremely
sensitive to any potential threats or challenges to its position.
In attempting to build a broad base of popular support the party has
drawn upon the symbols of nationalism and has made extensive use of
Romanian history and tradition. Its independent stance in relation to
Soviet domination has served to enhance its image among the general
population; at the same time, the fact that membership in the party has
been made relatively easy has helped the PCR become one of the largest
communist parties of Eastern Europe.
In mid-1971 Ceausescu initiated a campaign to strengthen ideological and
cultural orthodoxy and, for the first time in the six years since he had
come to power, some political observers believed they were able to
detect opposition to his proposals both within and outside the party.
There was no indication, however, that the resistance was organized or
was strong enough to affect Ceausescu's position. Throughout the period
of Ceausescu's control there have never been any recognizable factions
in the party in opposition to his leadership.
MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1965 TO 1970
The leadership of the PCR changed hands in March 1965 when Nicolae
Ceausescu became first secretary after the death of Gheorghe
Gheorghiu-Dej, who had headed the party almost continually since 1944
(see ch. 2). Ceausescu's emergence as head of the party came in the
midst of a period of growing Romanian nationalism that had begun in the
early 1960s. Initiated by Gheorghiu-Dej, the policy of greater national
autonomy was given additional form and substance by Ceausescu, who
sought to cast himself in the role of the restorer of Romanian history
and the country's national traditions.
As Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Ceausescu was confronted with the
necessity of consolidating his power. No member of the party Secretariat
owed his position to Ceausescu, and he found particular challenges to
his authority from three men who had been among Gheorghiu-Dej's closest
associates: Chivu Stoica, a veteran party leader; Gheorghe Apostol,
first deputy premier and a former PCR secretary; and Alexandru Draghici,
minister of internal affairs and, as such, head of the powerful state
security apparatus.
A temporary solution to the problem was found in a system of collective
leadership by which Ceausescu became head of the party and Stoica took
over Gheorghiu-Dej's other leading position as president of the Council
of State and, as such, head of state. Apostol continued as first deputy
prime minister, and Draghici remained as minister of internal affairs.
Ion Gheorghe Maurer, who had served as prime minister under
Gheorghiu-Dej, continued in that position. At the same time, changes
were made in the party statutes to prevent one man from holding dual
party and government offices as Gheorghiu-Dej had done.
In April, just one month after taking over as head of the PCR, Ceausescu
announced that a party congress would be convened in July. During the
month of June, while preparations were being made for the congress, he
revealed plans to redefine the character and structure of the party and
announced that its name would no longer be the Romanian Workers' Party,
as it had been known since 1948, but would again be the Romanian
Communist Party. Observers of East European political affairs saw the
change of name as an assertion of the equality of Romanian communism
with the communist parties of the Soviet Union and other communist
states. During the same month the new PCR leaders also proclaimed that
the official designation of the state would be the Socialist Republic of
Romania rather than the Romanian People's Republic as it had previously
been known (see ch. 8).
At the July party congress Ceausescu was successful in adding a number
of his supporters to an enlarged PCR Central Committee and in having his
own title changed to general secretary. At the same time the party
structure was changed to add a new body, the Executive Committee,
between the Standing Presidium (Politburo) and the Central Committee.
Although he was not able to gain full control of the Executive Committee
immediately, in time this new body provided Ceausescu with the means for
including his supporters in the leading organs of the PCR and for
implementing his own policies.
During the party congress Ceausescu was able to turn the PCR
proscription against an individual's holding dual party and government
positions to his own advantage by engineering the election of Draghici
to the party Secretariat, a move that resulted in Draghici losing his
power base as minister of internal affairs as well as his direct control
over the state security forces. Later in the year the appointment of two
additional "first deputy prime ministers" undermined the power of
Apostol who had been, until that time, the only first deputy.
Simultaneously, Ceausescu was making preparations for even more
definitive actions against his rivals, preparations that took the form
of an unpublicized decision of the PCR Central Committee, in November
1965, to establish a commission of inquiry to reexamine the political
trials conducted by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime during the 1950s. The
commission was particularly directed to investigate the 1954 trial and
execution of Lucretiu Patrascanu, who had been the Romanian minister of
justice from 1944 to 1948 and an important member of the party
hierarchy. The formation of the commission of inquiry and its findings
were not announced publicly until April 1968.
Political observers identified three principal factions within the PCR
during the 1965-67 period: Ceausescu and his supporters; the veteran
party men led by Stoica, Apostol, and Draghici; and the intellectuals,
of whom Maurer was perhaps the nominal representative. Those allied with
Ceausescu, who was forty-seven years old when he came to power, tended
to be men of his own generation and outlook, and whenever possible he
engineered their appointment or promotion into important party,
government, and military positions.
One of Ceausescu's foremost concerns was what he termed the
revitalization of the PCR. To achieve this end, he not only brought his
own younger men into the top party organs but also sought to broaden the
professional skills represented in these bodies through the recruitment
of technically trained men and academicians. At the same time, increased
technical and scientific contacts were permitted with Western nations,
and previously banned works of foreign writers and artists were allowed
to be reintroduced--moves that helped Ceausescu gain additional support
among the PCR's intellectuals.
Although the party encouraged a revival of nationalism and introduced
several limited domestic reforms, it did not relax its tight political
control and continued to direct the country's economy through a highly
centralized system. The maintenance of strict party control was
evidenced in the congresses of the youth and labor union organizations
in mid-1966, when the delegates were informed that the PCR would begin
to enforce the "patriotic education" of their members.
The 1967 National Party Conference
At a specially convened National Conference of the PCR in December
1967--the first such conference in twenty-two years--Ceausescu continued
to strengthen his own position. The conference was attended by the
members of the Central Committee as well as by 1,150 delegates from
local party organizations. Ceausescu elected to employ the technique of
the party conference rather than a special party congress in order to
have his proposals approved by a larger body than the Central Committee.
At the same time, he wanted to avoid the requirement of having to elect
a new Central Committee, which would have been the case had a congress
been held.
In his address to the conference, Ceausescu declared that in order to
modernize Romania as a socialist state it was imperative to adopt new
organizational and ideological forms. To achieve this end, he proposed a
number of reforms in the structure and functioning of both the party and
the government and defended the country's policy of independent
development. Speaking of the relationship between party and government
responsibilities, Ceausescu asserted the need to eliminate overlapping
and duplication in party and government functions. As a remedy, he
proposed that only one individual, whether in the party or in the
government, should deal with a particular sector of activity. In
addition, he called for a clearer delineation of the responsibilities of
the government and the party. It was not necessary, he declared, for the
Central Committee to decide all questions of economic affairs and
continue to maintain a number of economic departments that duplicated
the functions of the Council of Ministers and the economic ministries.
He proposed that the Central Committee limit itself to basic decisions
of economic policy and that the specific matters of implementation be
left to the government ministries.
Political and ideological activity, Ceausescu proposed, would remain
under the control of the Central Committee and would be given greater
emphasis and direction through the creation of an ideological commission
that would work to develop an intensified program of political
education. A defense council, composed of the party's Standing Presidium
and other members, would be established to deal with most military
questions, but the basic questions of guidance for both the armed forces
and the state security apparatus would continue to be the responsibility
of the Central Committee. Major foreign policy questions would be
decided by the Standing Presidium (see ch. 8).
Ceausescu also proposed reforms in the organization and responsibilities
of governmental organs. In addition to proposing a reorganization of the
state's territorial subdivisions, he asserted the need to broaden the
activities of the Grand National Assembly and to increase the
responsibilities of the assembly commissions in order to give that body
a greater role in the government. Ministers and other high government
officials were to be more aware of their responsibilities to keep the
assembly informed of the activities of their departments. Ceausescu also
declared the need to strengthen the role and organization of the Council
of Ministers to enable it to provide for long-term economic planning. In
addition, he suggested that the heads of three of the more important
mass organizations--the General Union of Trade Unions, the Union of
Communist Youth, and the National Union of Agricultural Production
Cooperatives--be included in the government and be given ministerial
ranking.
The party conference represented a major success for Ceausescu in his
drive to gain undisputed political control. All of his proposals were
unanimously adopted, and the party statutes were changed to enable him
to become the head of state, as president of the Council of State, as
well as head of the party, a reversal of the 1965 proscription against
one individual simultaneously holding prominent posts in both the party
and state. The nomination of Ceausescu was made by Stoica, the incumbent
president of the Council of State, on the grounds that uniting the
highest offices of the party and the state would eliminate the
duplication of functions and increase efficiency. Stoica was given a
position in the party Secretariat and later, in 1969, was named chairman
of the Central Auditing Commission, a post he continued to hold in early
1972.
As a result of the approval of Ceausescu's recommendations, a number of
changes were effected in local government and party organizations.
Certain positions in the party and state organizations were fused, the
county or city party first secretary also becoming chairman of the local
people's council (see ch. 8). The secretaries of local party units and
labor union representatives were included on the councils of the
industrial enterprises.
Following the recommendations of the party conference, the day after the
conference adjourned the Grand National Assembly convened to elect
Ceausescu as president of the Council of State, and it approved
legislation to implement most of the other conference decisions. At the
same time, the assembly elected a new Council of State consisting of (in
addition to Ceausescu) three vice presidents and fifteen other members.
A new Council of Ministers was also elected, with Maurer again named as
prime minister. Apostol was demoted from his position as a first deputy
prime minister to his previously held post as chairman of the General
Union of Trade Unions. Draghici was removed from the party Secretariat
and given a position as a deputy prime minister under Maurer. With the
successful demotion of his chief rivals, Ceausescu emerged at the close
of 1967 as the undisputed leader of both the party and the state.
Rehabilitation and De-Stalinization
With his power base firmly established, Ceausescu acted to fully
disassociate his regime from the Gheorghiu-Dej era. In April 1968, at a
plenary session of the Central Committee, the report of the commission
of inquiry, which had been secretly established in late 1965, was made
public. The Gheorghiu-Dej regime was severely indicated for fraudulently
conspiring to arrange the trial and execution of Patrascanu in 1954 and
for violations of justice in the other political show trials of the
1950s. Patrascanu was exonerated of all charges, and several other of
the trial victims were officially rehabilitated.
Because of this close association with Gheorghiu-Dej and his position as
head of the internal affairs ministry during the period of the trials,
the Central Committee dismissed Draghici from all his positions. Apostol
and Stoica were censured but were allowed to remain in their posts,
although their standing in the party was considerably weakened.
Throughout the 1968-70 period the Ceausescu regime continued a gradual
and cautious policy of de-Stalinization in domestic affairs and
continued, as well, to assert the country's independent stance in
international relations. The domestic relaxation was limited, however,
and, in an address to an association of artists in April 1968, Ceausescu
cautioned both intellectuals and artists not to overstep the bounds
established by the party.
The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Treaty
Organization (Warsaw Pact) in August 1968 posed a crisis to the
Ceausescu regime and raised the possibility of Soviet intervention in
Romania. Ceausescu's firm denunciation of the invasion, however, served
to unify the population behind him. His call for national mobilization
and the creation of a home guard for national defense elicited broad
popular support and gained him stature as the defender of Romanian
independence.
In late 1968 the PCR leadership acted to establish a new national
political organization, the Socialist Unity Front, in order to bring
representatives of the major mass organizations and other associations
into a party-dominated framework for the political mobilization of the
population (see ch. 8). As a replacement for the older and largely
ineffective People's Democratic Front, the new front organization was
structured around a national council and, theoretically, was given
advisory powers on important policy matters.
In addition to the PCR, the Socialist Unity Front's National Council
included representatives of: labor unions; cooperative farmers'
organizations; consumers' cooperatives; professional, cultural, and
scientific associations; women's youth, and veterans' organizations;
religious bodies; and the councils of the Hungarian, German, Serbian,
and Ukrainian minorities. Ceausescu was elected president of the front,
and Maurer, the vice president.
The first major activity of the Socialist Unity Front was the conducting
of national elections on March 2, 1969. As only the front was allowed to
nominate candidates, just one candidate was named for each Grand
National Assembly seat. The official results indicated that over 99
percent of the eligible voters cast their ballots and, of these, 99.75
percent endorsed the Socialist Unity Front slate. Elections to the newly
organized bodies of local government took place at the same time (see
ch. 8).
Convening ten days after the election, the new Grand National Assembly
reelected Ceausescu as president of the Council of State and renamed
Maurer as prime minister. At the same time, the assembly enacted
legislation establishing the Defense Council that Ceausescu had earlier
proposed. Observers of East European political affairs considered the
timing of this enactment, coming just three days before an important
meeting of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, as a further assertion of
Romania's independent course in international affairs (see ch. 10).
The Tenth Party Congress
Almost 2,000 delegates attended the Tenth Party Congress of the PCR held
in Bucharest from August 6 to 12, 1969. In addition, delegations were
present from sixty-six foreign communist parties (see ch. 10). The main
features of the congress included Ceausescu's unanimous reelection as
general secretary of the party for a five-year term, the enlargement of
the Central Committee from 121 to 165 members, and the approval of
revisions of the party statutes.
Among other things, the statute revisions provided for the election of
the Central Committee by secret ballot and transferred the
responsibility for electing the general secretary from the Central
Committee to the party congress. It was also decided that party
congresses would be convened every five years rather than every four so
that each congress could discuss and adopt a five-year economic plan for
the country. A unique feature of the congress was the division of the
delegates into five working commissions, with their sessions open to
foreign journalists.
When it came time for the congress to elect the Central Committee,
nearly half of the remaining older members were replaced by younger men
who were supporters of Ceausescu. Apostol and Stoica were conspicuously
not reelected and, immediately after the congress, Apostol was
discharged from his position as chairman of the General Union of Trade
Unions after being charged with "serious breaches of Communist
morality."
Although the modifications in the party statutes were designed to allow
for more democratic procedures in party affairs, the principle of
centralized control continued to be strongly maintained. Whereas all
party members were encouraged to voice their opinions on any given
issue, once a decision was adopted the minority was expected to yield to
the majority and aid in implementation of policies. The congress
resolved that party control and ideological guidance must reach into all
aspects of the life of the people.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
The Romanian Communist Party
Originally founded in 1921, the Romanian Communist Party was declared
illegal in 1924 and forced into a clandestine existence until the
closing years of World War II. After the war, fully supported by the
Soviet Union, the party gradually consolidated power and sought to
extend its base of popular support through intensified propaganda
activity. In early 1948 the PCR merged with one wing of the Social
Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers' Party. By the end of
1952, however, almost all of the former Social Democrats had been
expelled from the leading party bodies and replaced by active Communists
(see ch. 2).
Organization
Basic decisions concerning the organization, operation, and membership
of the PCR are contained in the party statutes, the fundamental document
of the party. Originally adopted in May 1948, the statutes have
undergone several modifications, with more significant revisions being
made in 1955, 1965, 1967, and 1969.
All organs of the party are closely interrelated and operate on the
principle of democratic centralism. Derived from the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union, the concept of democratic centralism provides for the
election of party bodies at all levels but requires a firm hierarchical
subordination of each party organ to the next higher unit. In practice,
this means that party programs and policies are directed from a single
center and that decisions of higher organs are unconditionally binding
on all lower organs as well as on individual members. The statutes call
for the free and open discussion of policy questions at congresses,
conferences, local membership meetings, and in the party press; however,
discipline requires that once a decision is made the minority fully
submits to decisions of the majority.
According to the party statutes, the supreme organ of the PCR is the
party congress consisting of delegates elected by the county (_judet_)
conferences on the basis of one delegate for every 1,000 party members.
As revised in 1969, the statutes call for the convening of a party
congress every five years. Duties of the congress include the election
of the PCR general secretary, election of the Central Committee and the
Central Auditing Commission, and the discussion and adoption of programs
and policies proposed by the central organs of the party.
Between congresses the leading party organ is the Central Committee.
Consisting of 165 full members and 120 alternate members, the Central
Committee is responsible for the overall direction of all party
activities and the implementation of policies established by the party
congress. In addition, the Central Committee screens nominations for the
more important party and state positions. Party statutes require a
plenary session of the Central Committee at least four times a year (see
fig. 9).
[Illustration: _Figure 9. Organization of the Romanian Communist
Party, 1972._]
After its election by the party congress, the Central Committee in turn
elects, from among its own number, the members of the leading party
bodies: the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the
Secretariat. The election is largely a formality, however, for in
practice the Standing Presidium is the primary center of political power
and is a self-perpetuating body. Any change in its membership or in that
of the Secretariat is generated from within rather than through a
democratic decision of the Central Committee. As general secretary of
the party, Ceausescu heads both the Standing Presidium and the
Secretariat and chairs the Executive Committee.
To accomplish its administrative tasks the Central Committee is provided
with an extensive bureaucratic structure that in many instances
parallels the organization of the government ministries. A chancellery
office, headed by a chief and three deputies, coordinates the
committee's overall administrative activities. Party work is organized
under three directorates, each headed by a supervisory secretary, and a
number of administrative sections and functional commissions. The
directorates, designated as international affairs and propaganda, party
organization, and press and cultural affairs, supervise and direct the
work of the administrative sections. Not all of these sections are
listed in the party statutes or by the party press. A partial listing
includes sections for the economy, local administration, propaganda,
press, international affairs, party organs and personnel, national
minorities, and state security.
In addition to the directorates and administrative sections there were,
in 1970, eight formally established commissions directly tied to the
Central Committee. These were listed as the commissions for agriculture
and forestry; economic problems; ideological and cultural-educational
problems; international relations; organizational problems and internal
party activity; training of cadres, education, and science; development
of the social and state system; and social questions, public health, and
living standards.
Two party training institutions, the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy of
Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres and the
Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies, operate under the
direct supervision of the Central Committee. Located in Bucharest, both
of these institutions are designed to train and indoctrinate key
bureaucratic personnel. The Central Committee also maintains a museum of
party history in Bucharest.
In charge of all of the political machinery of the PCR, the Standing
Presidium of the Central Committee is the party's center for
decisionmaking and policy control and, as such, is the most powerful
body in the country. There were, at the beginning of 1972, four party
leaders who held positions concurrently on the Standing Presidium, the
Executive Committee, and the Secretariat: Ceausescu, Manea Manescu,
Paul Niculescu-Mizil, and Gheorghe Pana. Political observers considered
these men to be the most powerful in the party and, hence, the nation.
All of the nine members of the Standing Presidium are also members of
the Executive Committee.
Little information is available on the responsibilities given the
Executive Committee, although some observers have described it as
providing an administrative link between the Standing Presidium and the
Central Committee. In practice it has functioned as a rump Central
Committee when the latter is not in session. The Secretariat serves as
the continuing administrative unit of the party. It supervises the
execution of policies decided upon by the Standing Presidium. Three
members of the Secretariat serve as the supervising secretaries of the
major directorates of the Central Committee.
Two other important party organs function under the supervision of the
Standing Presidium and the Secretariat: the Central Auditing Commission
and the Central Collegium, formerly known as the Party Control
Commission. Consisting of forty-five members (none of whom may belong to
the Central Committee), the Central Auditing Commission is empowered to
exercise general control over party financial affairs and examine the
management of finances by the various party organs. The nine-member
Central Collegium deals with matters of party discipline and serves as a
type of appeals court for penalties imposed on members by county or
local party committees.
An interlocking of authority and functions at the highest level of the
party and state is evidenced in the frequency with which the senior
party officials also hold important government posts. All of the members
of the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the Secretariat
are also deputies to the Grand National Assembly, and most of them hold
other prominent government positions in the Council of State, the
Defense Council, or the Council of Ministers.
The party statutes describe the local cell, the basic party unit, as the
foundation of the party. Cells exist in factories, offices,
cooperatives, military and police units, social and cultural
organizations, and residential areas. Some of these cell groups consist
of as few as three members, whereas those in the larger enterprises may
have as many as 300 members. In 1969 there were an estimated 69,000 of
these local party units.
Functions of the local and occupational cell units include the
implementation of party directives and programs, the recruitment and
indoctrination of new members, and the dissemination of propaganda
directed at those outside the party. Members have the duty to
participate in social, economic, and cultural activities, particularly
in the direction of the economic enterprises, and to critically examine
production and community life in the light of party ideology and goals.
In all of its activities the local cell is required to uphold the
discipline of the party and to adhere to the policies established by the
ruling bodies of the PCR.
Between the local cell unit and the higher organs of the PCR stands a
hierarchy of party committees organized on the county, town, and
communal levels. Each of these units is directly subordinate to the next
higher level of the party organization. In Bucharest a city party
committee supervises the activities of the communal and enterprise
cells. Each party committee sets up its own bureau and elects a
secretariat. In most cases the secretariat consists of a first
secretary, a first vice chairman, and three or more vice chairmen or
secretaries.
The activity of the bureaus is conducted through several functional
departments, which generally consist of sections on personnel,
administration, agitation and propaganda, economic enterprises, youth,
and women's affairs. The county and city committees also have their own
control commissions and training programs. The first secretary of the
county committee also serves as chairman of the county people's council,
interlocking the party and government offices (see ch. 8).
The party leadership decided in late 1967 to require the active
participation of the party secretaries in the administrative organs of
the enterprises and other institutions in their respective areas. County
committees are aided in their administrative duties by economic
commissions that oversee the general economic development of the county
and fix both current and long-range goals. In addition, the economic
commissions are charged with the coordination of all economic activity,
the conducting of studies and making of proposals for setting production
goals, and the allocation of material and human resources in the county.
At each of these levels--county, city, town, and commune--the highest
authoritative organ is the party conference, which fills a role on these
lower levels similar to that of the party congress on the national
level. The party statutes as revised in 1969 call for the convening of
conferences every fourth year in the counties, in the city of Bucharest,
and in the larger towns. In the communes and smaller towns the
conference is required to be held once every two years. Although the
conferences are held ostensibly to discuss problems and formulate
policies, they serve in practice as transmission belts for the official
party line set down by the central PCR authorities. County conferences
and the Bucharest city conference elect delegates to the national party
congress.
Membership
The PCR emerged at the close of World War II with only about 1,000
members. Four years later, just before its merger with the Social
Democratic Party and after an intensive propaganda campaign and a strong
membership drive, the party reported over 700,000 members. When the PCR
merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers'
Party in 1948, some 200,000 Social Democrats were added to the
membership roll. A purge of so-called hostile and nominal members during
1950 resulted in the expulsion of 190,000 persons from the party,
reducing the total membership to about 720,000 at the beginning of 1951.
During the early years of full communist control of Romania, the party
considered itself the vanguard of the working class and made a sustained
effort to recruit workers into party membership. By the end of 1950 the
PCR reported that 64 percent of the leading party positions and 40
percent of the higher government posts were filled by members of the
working class. The efforts to recruit workers into the party have
consistently fallen short of the set goals, however, and from time to
time throughout the period since 1950 party leaders have decried the
fact that the social composition of the membership has not included an
adequate proportion of workers.
By 1964 the party membership was reported at 1.2 million. This total was
increased to 1.5 million by 1966, a figure that represented about 8
percent of the country's population. Membership composition, in 1966,
was reported as 40 percent workers, 32 percent peasants, and 22 percent
intelligentsia, with the remaining 6 percent not classified.
After Ceausescu's accession to power in 1965, he sought to increase the
party's influence, broaden the base of popular support, and bring in new
members. At a first step, he eliminated the probationary period, which
had varied from one year for industrial workers to two years for
peasants, white-collar workers, and intellectuals. Additional members
were also sought by enticing those who had belonged to the old Social
Democratic Party and the former Socialist Party by dating their
membership from the time of their entry into those parties.
The result of the membership drive, announced at the 1967 party
conference, was the addition of 230,000 new PCR members, bringing the
total to 1,730,000. At the 1969 party congress it was announced that the
PCR had 1,924,500 members, representing about one-seventh of the total
adult population. In February 1971 the Central Committee reported that
the membership had grown to 2.1 million, making the PCR one of the
largest communist parties in Eastern Europe.
Statistics reported by the party press indicated the nationality
composition of the PCR as consisting of 88.8 percent Romanians, 8.4
percent Hungarians, and slightly over 1 percent Germans, with the
remainder encompassing other nationalities. As the 1966 census had shown
that Hungarians represented 8.4 percent of the total population, the
Germans 2 percent, and other nationalities about 2 percent, the
nationality composition of the party compares favorably with that of the
country as a whole.
Workers reportedly made up 44 percent of the party membership; peasants,
26 percent; and intellectuals and white-collar workers, 23 percent.
Seven percent were unclassified as to status. Statistics indicating the
age composition of the party were also published, revealing that 24
percent of the membership was under thirty years of age; persons between
the ages of thirty and forty made up 36 percent of the membership, and
40 percent of the members were over forty years old.
The PCR membership campaign had been given particular emphasis in the
major industries, such as the metal, machine-building, coal, petroleum,
and chemical industries, where 27 to 36 percent of the workers were
reported to belong to the party. Female membership was reported as 23
percent, up from 17 percent in 1960 and 21 percent in 1965. The report
contained a recommendation that a larger number of women be assigned to
responsible positions. Statistics for the army revealed that 90 percent
of the officers and 55 percent of the noncommissioned officers were
party members. The fact that over 926,000 members lived in rural areas
was asserted by the PCR leaders to be proof of peasant support and a
demonstration of the effectiveness of the party in organizing at the
village level.
In 1970 the party press reported that an analysis of the leading
national and local PCR bodies revealed that the greater proportion of
their memberships consists of those drawn from the ranks of the working
class. Of the 285 members and alternate members of the Central
Committee, 197, or nearly 70 percent, were workers or persons who had
come from the workers' ranks. Of the 4,698 members of county party
committees, 2,144 or 45.6 percent were said to be workers or from the
working class. Together, workers and peasants were reported to make up
over 64 percent of the membership of county committees. As many as 81
percent of the activists of the county, municipal, and communal party
committees were--according to their basic professions--workers, foremen,
or technicians.