EDUCATION
The Romanian educational system has been transformed to fit the
communist pattern of total subordination to the needs of the state.
Since 1948 the educational system has developed as a major force for
increasing the general educational level of the population, for
inculcating members of society with socialist ideals in support of the
regime and its policies, and for providing technical specialists and
skilled workers for the nation's labor force. Modifications and
adjustments in the system have taken place periodically, but such
changes have largely reflected a shift in emphasis among these major
objectives rather than any change in basic educational principles.
Considerable progress has been made in the educational field since the
end of World War II. An intensive campaign to eradicate illiteracy was
undertaken and, according to the government, was successfully concluded
by 1958. The number of schools was significantly increased, as were
student enrollments throughout the system, although in 1972 the number
of students continuing their education beyond the primary level was
still proportionately low. The growth of the school structure was
further indicated by the successive extension of the period of
compulsory education from four years in 1948 to ten in 1968. Full
enrollment under the ten-year program, however, was not expected to be
achieved before 1973.
To meet the demands for skilled and semiskilled industrial and
agricultural workers, the educational system was gradually transformed,
heavy emphasis being placed on scientific and technical programs and on
vocational training. The most recent reforms, promulgated in 1968, not
only reinforced education to meet national economic requirements but
also placed renewed stress on the need for increased ideological and
political training of the country's youth as a prime element in the
successful development of the Romanian socialist state.
Despite the progress achieved in producing a disciplined work force,
which benefits the country's economic development, the educational
system continued to show basic limitations and shortcomings.
Overspecialization and excessive student workloads served to limit the
effectiveness and efficiency of secondary and higher schools.
Furthermore, the constant effort to expand the mass base of the system,
although achieving uniform and satisfactory results by communist
standards, lowered the quality of education and sacrificed individual
creativity.
BACKGROUND
The educational history of Romania has followed closely the political
development of the country. The earliest educational institutions were
established in the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia during the
sixteenth century and served as the basis of the first system of public
education, which became operative in 1832. The unification of the
principalities in 1859 led to the adoption of the Educational Act of
1864, which established the principle of free and compulsory education,
"where schools were available," under state supervision. Despite the
legal provisions for an adequate school system, however, administrative
and financial limitations kept the number of schools small and pupil
enrollment low.
Little progress was made in improving the scope and substance of public
education until the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early
part of the twentieth. Beginning in 1893, the country's educational
process underwent extensive reorganization: the structure and functions
of elementary and normal schools were revised, the curricula of
secondary schools and institutions of higher education were revamped,
and the position of vocational training in the system was strengthened.
Although these advances served to improve the quality of education then
available, the number of state-supported schools continued to be low.
Romania's territorial acquisitions after World War I almost tripled its
population and added greatly to the problems of public education.
Educators considered the system deficient in many respects through the
1930s and the mid-1940s, but they succeeded in achieving considerable
uniformity among the school programs at the various educational levels
and, in the main, imparted a basic general education to the majority of
pupils who completed courses through the secondary school level.
Precommunist Education
The educational system that had evolved in precommunist Romania was
operated largely, but not exclusively, by the state and reflected the
traditional European order of the times, in which the socially and
economically privileged classes were the chief recipients of the
benefits of education. Only a limited number of children of the
peasantry received more than the four years of elementary education
required by the state, and both they and the children of the urban lower
classes were discouraged from going on to secondary schools either by
the lack of sufficient institutions or by the inability of their parents
to pay tuition fees beyond the compulsory level. The public,
state-supported system administered by the Ministry of Education
consisted of kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools,
vocational schools, and institutions of higher learning. Academic
standards were generally high, and advancement was based primarily on
scholastic merit.
Kindergartens were open to children between the ages of five and seven
in both state and private schools. No specific subjects were taught and,
although theoretically compulsory, attendance was seldom enforced.
Attendance records for the 1929-38 period indicated that only
approximately 13 percent of all eligible children attended public
kindergartens and that fewer than 1.5 percent were enrolled in private
ones.
The seven-year elementary school system, four years of which were
theoretically compulsory, comprised two types of institutions for
children between the ages of seven and fourteen: four-year schools for
pupils preparing for secondary schools and seven-year schools for
students terminating their education at the elementary level. Elementary
education was free except in private schools and, although attendance
was supposedly mandatory, enrollments before 1940 averaged less than 75
percent of all children of elementary school age.
Curricular requirements were demanding at this level, particularly in
the four-year primary schools. All students studied the Romanian
language, literature, history, geography, and natural sciences, in
addition to participating in physical education classes and handicraft
programs. In the seven-year schools the curriculum during the last three
years also included a variety of vocational subjects.
Four types of educational institutions made up the secondary school
system: lyceums, primarily preparatory schools for universities; teacher
training schools; theological schools; and trade schools. Most of these
institutions were public, and each type offered an eight-year course
with varying degrees of specialization. Attendance was generally limited
to children of the landed aristocracy and the urban upper class. All
subjects, even those of a vocational nature, were taught on a
theoretical basis. The general curricula in the lyceums included the
Romanian language, history, literature, the physical sciences,
mathematics, and music. Before being accepted in a university, all
graduates of lyceums were required to have passed the baccalaureate, a
special comprehensive examination given after all graduation
requirements had been met.
The theological schools, also state supported, trained priests in the
different faiths; the teacher training schools trained kindergarten and
elementary school teachers; and the trade schools prepared students for
work in business and commercial concerns. No qualifying examinations
were given to graduates of theological, teacher training, or trade
schools, since none were eligible for admission to higher level schools.
Enrollment throughout the secondary schools was also low; statistics
show that over the 1928-39 period less than 6 percent of the total
number of students enrolled in elementary schools entered a secondary
school after completing four years of compulsory elementary education.
Higher education in precommunist Romania was centered in four
universities; two polytechnical institutes; and a limited number of
academies specializing in architecture, the arts, physical education,
agronomy, and higher commercial and industrial studies. All academic
disciplines could be pursued at one or another of these various
institutions, and three to seven years were required to obtain the basic
university degree. An additional two to four years of study and research
were required for the awarding of an advanced degree. The number of
students attending higher institutions was proportionately small, and
the number receiving the basic degree was even smaller.
Communist Educational Policies
After communist seizure of the government in 1948, the educational
system was reoriented away from basic French educational concepts toward
those based on the communist philosophy as developed in the Soviet
Union. The ultimate objective of the reformed system was to make
education available to as large a segment of the population as possible,
with a view to transforming the citizenry into a cohesive and effective
element for the building of a socialist society along Marxist-Leninist
lines. The new system was specifically designed to be tightly
controlled, uniform in operation and administration, exclusively secular
and public, and fully coordinated with the labor needs of the planned
economy.
The August 1948 decree revamping education spelled out in detail the
specific policies and methods that would be employed in meeting the new
educational goals. Foremost among the basic aims were the eradication of
illiteracy and the broadening of the educational base to include all
children of school age. Other specific goals of the educational process
included: inculcating all youth with the ideological spirit of so-called
popular democracy; guiding the use of leisure time by organizing
outside activities for students; educating, on a "scientific" basis, the
higher and lower cadres of specialists needed for the construction of
all aspects of a socialist society; and training the teachers necessary
for the proper functioning of the educational system.
Although these policies have been adjusted and modified and certain
aspects have received additional emphasis at particular times, they have
been retained as the basic guidelines for Romanian public education. The
implementation of these policies since 1948 has resulted in the
restructuring of the school system, the expansion of educational
facilities, the recasting of the content of curricula and courses, and a
major reorganization of the teaching profession, heavy stress being
placed on teachers as indoctrinators as well as educators.
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS SINCE 1948
Although the educational reform law of August 1948 has been amended many
times, most of the changes that have taken place have not materially
altered the basic pattern of communist education that the law
established but rather have reflected the vicissitudes of Romanian
political life and the country's economic needs. Almost all changes in
the educational process have served to implement the original concept
that the role of public education is primarily to serve as a vital
instrument in the creation of an industrialized society subservient to
the interests of the state.
The initial changes introduced by the Communists immediately after
coming to power in 1948 affected the content more than the form of
education. The public school structure was left virtually unchanged
except for the addition of those religious and private educational
facilities that had been expropriated by the government. An extensive
purge of all categories of teachers was undertaken, and a number of
special schools were set up for the political indoctrination of those
retained in the system. In addition, the student bodies, particularly in
the schools of higher learning, were carefully sifted, and adjustments
were made in the availability of courses and in the size of classes in
order to redirect students into selected fields of study.
As a further means of control the regime organized students into
associations comparable to communist labor unions. The groups included
the Union of Student Associations, the Union of Communist Youth, and the
Pioneers Organization. The activities of these organizations affected
students at all levels and consisted of planned and supervised
extracurricular programs. Among the activities scheduled were special
exhibitions, sports events, meetings, lectures, and competitions based
on ideological themes.
By the late 1950s the reorganization of the educational process along
communist lines was virtually completed, and some expansion of
facilities had taken place. Curricular requirements had been codified;
new textbooks had been written, printed, and introduced throughout the
system; new teaching methods were in general use; and the revised
teacher training program had produced adequate numbers of "reliable"
teachers at all school levels. Additional schools for minority groups
had been built, and overall progress throughout the system was
sufficient to permit the extension of the compulsory system of education
from four to seven years beginning with the 1958/59 school year.
In the early 1960s demands for skilled and semiskilled agricultural and
industrial workers brought further changes in the educational system. A
renewed general emphasis was placed on polytechnical education, and a
period of practical on-the-job training before entering permanent
employment was instituted for all secondary technical school graduates.
The achievement of this new objective required a further extension of
the compulsory education period to eight years and a relative deemphasis
of the amount of class time allocated to the humanities and other purely
academic subjects.
In 1968 a new educational law was enacted that had far-reaching
consequences, but by late 1971 it had not yet been fully implemented.
Changes provided for under this law were intended to improve the general
quality of education at all levels and to relate education more closely
to expanding technological and industrial needs. In addition, the law
instituted new measures that gave stronger impetus to the political
indoctrination of youth in order to counteract student unrest and
dissatisfaction as well as the spread of Western liberalism (see ch. 9).
Specific modifications to be made in the system under the 1968 law
included the extension of compulsory education to ten years, the
establishment of additional specialized secondary schools, the
introduction of more practical classroom work on vocational and
technical subjects, closer coordination and supervision of
extracurricular projects by the Union of Communist Youth, and the
requirement that teachers include a greater number of political and
ideological themes in all social science courses. The importance
attached to the political aspects of the new program by the regime was
indicated by the creation, in July 1971, of the new post of first
deputy minister of education with the specific function of expanding and
supervising all ideological indoctrination throughout the school system.
LITERACY
Before World War II the literacy rate in Romania ranked among the lowest
in Europe. In 1930, at the time of the first official census, more than
38 percent of the population over seven years of age were considered
illiterate--50 percent of the women and over 25 percent of the men in
the entire population of about 18 million were unable to read or write.
In rural areas, where most of the population lived, it was generally
considered that the illiteracy rate was even higher. Much of the lack of
literacy could be attributed to the fact that children of school age
either were not enrolled in school or, if they were enrolled, did not
attend classes regularly. There was also a fairly large percentage of
children who left school without completing their studies or, having
completed only the mandatory first four grades, relapsed into illiteracy
in adult life.
Although the proportion of literacy had been increased somewhat by the
time the Communists came to power, it was still low. The emphasis given
to expanded educational opportunities by the party and government
between 1948 and 1956 brought a substantial decline in the number of
illiterates. Classes were organized throughout the country by the
various people's councils, and a determined campaign was undertaken to
increase enrollment. Most of these courses lasted two years and were
conducted on a weekly basis by both regular teachers and literate
volunteers; successful completion was officially considered equivalent
to graduation from a four-year elementary school.
As a result of these increased efforts, the 1956 census showed an
overall increase in the literacy rate to about 90 percent. According to
this census the greatest proportion of illiterates was still to be found
in the rural areas and among women. Literacy courses were continued
until late 1958, when the government officially declared that illiteracy
had been eliminated. Despite this authoritative statement, Western
demographers consider that, although illiteracy has been significantly
reduced, it probably still exists among older segments of the
population, particularly in remote areas of the country.
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
In early 1972 the public education system included all levels of
instruction from preschool or kindergarten through elementary,
secondary, and higher polytechnical schools and universities (see fig.
6). At the beginning of the 1971/72 academic year approximately 4.5
million students were enrolled in the more than 16,000 schools operated
throughout the system. Kindergartens and nurseries were organized on a
voluntary basis, but attendance at elementary school and through the
first two years of secondary school was compulsory for students between
the ages of six and sixteen. Attendance at higher level institutions was
voluntary, but admission was subject to selective procedures that
included heavy emphasis on political reliability as well as scholastic
achievement.
All schools were state owned, and tuition, textbooks, and other
classroom materials were free at all levels. An extensive system of
scholarships existed, sponsored by government agencies, labor unions,
state enterprises, and mass organizations. These scholarships were
awarded on a selective basis to students in both secondary and higher
schools to help defray transportation costs, living costs, and
recreational expenses. The state also operated hostels, low-cost
boardinghouses, child care centers, dining halls, and canteens for
students above the elementary level. A planned increase in the number of
these facilities, however, had not been achieved, and the authorities
were under pressure to both improve and expand them.
The educational system, in general, stressed technical, political, and
economic subjects; and the classroom work in the elementary and
secondary schools was underscored by the Pioneers Organization, whose
extracurricular activities were considered an integral part of the
educational program. The Union of Communist Youth and the Union of
Student Associations performed similar functions in the higher schools.
The academic year ran from October to September, and elementary and
secondary classes ended at the end of May. At the university level all
instruction was divided into two semesters, running respectively from
October 1 to January 14 and from February 15 to June 30. The grading
system at all levels utilized numbers from a high of ten to a low of
one, five being the minimal passing grade.
Administration and Finance
The Ministry of Education exercised overall control and direction of the
educational system and implemented all party policies and directives
concerning its management. In carrying out this broad mission, the
ministry cooperated with other central organs of state administration
and principally with the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
Sciences. Under the country's highly centralized control system, the
ministry's specific functions included: the determination of the number
and kinds of institutions to be organized in the school network and the
types of trades and specialties to be taught; the drawing up of plans,
curricula, syllabi, and textbooks and teaching materials; the
supervision over the training, appointment, promotion, and dismissal of
all educational personnel; the general supervision of research plans at
higher institutions of learning; and the coordination of the assignment
of graduates to meet the planned requirements of the economy.
[Illustration:
UNIVERSITIES AND HIGHER
POSTGRADUATE STUDY POLYTECHNICAL
INSTITUTES
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
AGE---------------------------------------------------------------GRADE
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
18 SCHOOLS FOR SCHOOLS VOCATIONAL TECHNICAL AND XII
UNIVERSITY FOR THE ARTS SCHOOLS TEACHER TRAINING
17 PREPARATION SCHOOLS XI
16 X
15 IX
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
14 VIII
13 VII
12 VI
11 8-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS V
10 IV
9 III
8 II
7 I
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
6 NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS
5
4
3
----------------------------------------------------------
Note--Attendance is compulsory through grade X.
_Figure 6. Romania, Structure of Education, 1972._]
The Ministry of Education also defined general policy for, and
supervised the work of, the educational sections of the various regional
and district people's councils, which were assigned certain
responsibilities for organizing and administering local primary and
secondary schools. The operation of these schools was subject to
periodic detailed checks by a body of inspectors general to ensure the
uniform application of government regulations and policies. All
institutions of higher learning were controlled directly by the Ministry
of Education, which appointed and dismissed all rectors and their
assistants. The ministry also employed an intertwined system of advisory
councils and commissions to ensure compliance with party and government
directives and guidelines.
The overall budgeting for the educational system was also coordinated by
the Ministry of Education and consisted of the budgets submitted by the
various people's councils for primary and secondary schools as well as
the ministry's own estimated budget needs for vocational and higher
schools and for operating the entire system. In 1969, the latest year
for which official statistics were available, approximately 6 percent of
the state budget was allocated to education.
Preschool Education
Preschool education, consisting principally of kindergartens, was
available on an optional basis for all children between the ages of
three and six. Attendance was free, and enrollment was encouraged by the
government as an essential step in the communist educational system of
developing "correct" socialist values and attitudes in youth.
Kindergartens were organized by districts and were located at the
facilities of local enterprises, state organizations, and cooperative
agencies. In certain areas, day nurseries attached to kindergartens
provided care for the children of working mothers, for which a fee,
generally in proportion to the parents' wages, was charged.
If the school was large enough, classes were generally organized on an
age-group basis, each with a teacher or supervisor. The number of
children attending kindergartens has steadily increased since 1960.
During the 1969/70 school year more than 428,000 children, approximately
40 percent of all those eligible, were enrolled in about 10,000
kindergartens and nurseries. Official estimates anticipated that this
attendance figure would increase appreciably in future years as more
working mothers were added to the labor force.
Primary Education
Primary education was provided, in early 1972, to all children between
the ages of six and sixteen in eight-year elementary schools as part of
the compulsory education program. During the 1969/70 school year
enrollment was about 3.3 million students in about 15,000 schools
throughout the country. Instruction was conducted principally in the
Romanian language, but in those areas with large minority populations
Hungarian- or German-speaking teachers were employed, and special texts
were also available in those languages.
Courses taught throughout the first four years, in addition to stressing
the Romanian language, included history, geography, arithmetic,
elementary biology, art, music, and physical education. Classes usually
met six days a week for periods ranging from four to five hours,
depending on the type of subject matter to be covered. Grades five
through eight emphasized the development of the pupils' ability to
express themselves orally and in writing through the intensified
teaching of many of the subjects presented in the first four grades. In
addition, foreign-language instruction was introduced in the fifth
grade, offering a choice of French, German, Russian, or English. In all
grades the foundation of political education was laid within the scope
of Marxist-Leninist tenets concerning the materialistic development of
society, usually presented as part of other general subjects.
Examinations were held in each area of study at the end of the school
year. Promotion to the next higher class required a passing grade of
five (on the one-to-ten scale) in the substantive work covered, as well
as a minimum grade of six for general conduct. A student was permitted
to repeat an examination before being failed in a course but, if he
failed that too, the entire course had to be repeated.
At the end of the eight-year program all graduates were required to
pass written examinations in history, geography, and literature as well
as oral tests in other selected subjects. Those successfully completing
both examinations were awarded diplomas and became eligible to take the
competitive entrance examinations for secondary school. It was at this
point that students were grouped into general categories according to
their aptitudes for advanced education: ultimate university-level study,
teaching and technical training, the professional arts, and vocational
training.
Secondary Education
In late 1971 the necessary adjustments in the secondary school structure
to accommodate the changeover from eight to ten years of compulsory
education, as provided in the 1968 educational law, had not yet been
completed. Although the extension of the program through the tenth grade
began with the 1969/70 school year, shortages in funds, educational
personnel, and facilities needed for higher student enrollment still
existed and were not expected to be overcome until 1973. Secondary
schools of all types numbered about 800 in 1970 and had an enrollment of
about 370,000 students, roughly one-quarter of those of secondary school
age.
General education secondary schools were of the college preparatory
type, offered a four-year program, and had the most rigid entrance
requirements. Students could select a course either in the humanities or
in the natural sciences. The humanities course included such subjects as
the Romanian language, a modern language, Latin, history, psychology and
logic, and the history of literature. The science course covered
mathematics through advanced algebra and probability theory, astronomy,
physics, chemistry, biology, and economic and political geography.
Physical education and art were included in both courses, as was a
subject called sociopolitical science, which covered elements of
political economy, "scientific" socialism, and the history of the
Communist Party and the labor movement in Romania.
After satisfactory completion of either course of study, all students
were required to take the state baccalaureate examination, which
qualified them for admission to higher schools or for district
employment in middle-level positions in government or in industry. The
number of entrants to schools of higher education was determined by the
Ministry of Education each year in the light of the needs of the various
sectors of the economy and of cultural life. Since the number of
applicants usually exceeded the number of spaces allocated to each
higher institution, competitive examinations were held, and candidates
were selected on the basis of marks received and their general political
attitude. Those who either failed the entrance examination--that is, did
not receive marks sufficiently high to qualify for a university or
polytechnical institute--or were considered politically apathetic were
usually placed in short-term vocational courses to qualify them for
employment as technicians.
Specialized secondary education was conducted in schools for the
professional arts and in technical and teacher training schools. Studies
in art schools lasted one or two years and consisted of combined courses
of general subjects and specialized training in cultural activities,
including various forms of art and drama. Technical schools specialized
in industrial fields, agriculture and its associated subfields,
forestry, socialist economics, and public health. Courses offered
covered four or five years, the time depending on the area of
specialization, and included basic courses in general education.
Graduates in these technical fields were designated for employment in
intermediate-level positions. Teacher training schools, also of four or
five years' duration, trained students exclusively for teaching
positions at the preschool and elementary levels.
Vocational secondary education encompassed the largest number of schools
and was reported to enroll almost 50 percent of all secondary school
students. These schools provided a one- or two-year program of combined
general education and vocational training in all the trades necessary
for the national economy. Vocational schools were usually organized at
the locations of industrial enterprises and socialist cooperatives, and
students were trained as skilled workers. Additional vocational training
was also provided in the form of apprentice or on-the-job training to
workers already employed in industrial installations. The bulk of these
trainees had either completed the compulsory level of education and then
dropped out of school or had failed to be selected in the competitive
examination for entrance into secondary school. Vocational training had
not kept pace with increasing industrialization, and in 1972 the demand
for trained workers continued to surpass the supply (see ch. 16).
Higher Education
The system of higher education was comprised primarily of universities
and polytechnical and specialized institutes, which in 1971 had a total
enrollment of approximately 150,000 students. All institutions were
under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education and were
geared to produce specialists in the humanities, in the social, natural,
physical, and engineering sciences, and in education as needed to fill
positions in government and all sectors of the economy. The schools of
higher learning were generally headed by a rector (university) or a
director (technical institute), who was appointed by the Ministry of
Education for a period of four years.
Schools were divided into faculties, headed by deans; faculties, in
turn, were divided into departments, each headed by a chairman.
Collectively the rector, deans, chairmen, and certain other selected
faculty members were grouped into an advisory council, which had broad
authority in carrying out the government's educational policies,
approving the faculty work programs, supervising the instruction carried
out by the departments, and granting degrees at the graduate level.
Students were admitted to all higher schools on the basis of competitive
examination and assigned to particular faculties according to
government-directed areas of study. Most degree courses at universities
required three to six years to complete, and those at polytechnical
institutes, from two to three years. Medical and dental degrees were
granted at institutes attached to universities and required six years of
study.
After completing all course requirements and passing a comprehensive
state examination, graduates of the various institutions were assigned
to positions in the government or industry as dictated by their
specialized work. Students who graduated with distinction were given
preference in assignment to positions and in the selection of candidates
for postgraduate study. Two higher degrees were available: the Candidate
of Science, which required an additional three years of study, the
passing of several examinations, and the successful defense of a thesis
that made an original contribution to the student's field of
specialization; and the Doctor of Science, which also required extensive
study, the passing of oral and written examinations, and the successful
defense of a thesis based on original and extensive research work in the
student's selected field.
Adult Education
Adult education as a supplementary form of instruction was considered an
integral part of the educational process. Initiated in the early 1950s,
the program was intended to give the workers and peasants the
opportunity to improve their level of education and skill and, at the
same time, to provide the government with the means of intensifying the
ideological and political indoctrination of the general population.
A variety of schools was established throughout the country that offered
evening and correspondence courses to volunteer enrollees, mostly
between the ages of forty and sixty. The courses consisted of lectures
given by volunteer instructors in the social, natural, and political
sciences; although no degree or diploma was offered, those who
successfully completed courses were eligible, after passing a state
examination, for certificates as elementary or higher school graduates.
In 1958 the program was revised and expanded. In that year people's and
workers' "universities" were established under the guidance of labor
unions, local committees on art and culture, and committees of the Union
of Communist Youth. These universities were established at cultural
centers, in libraries, in museums, and at collective farms and
industrial enterprises. The enrollment age was lowered to twenty to
attract youthful school dropouts, and a greater variety of basic general
educational and technical courses was introduced. Despite these changes,
in 1967 the press reported a general lack of public support for the
program. Deficiencies in the system included a lack of adequate
classrooms and equipment, the low quality of instruction, and the
absence of a vigorous recruitment program.
After the enactment of the new law on education in 1968, the system was
again revised; extensive modifications were made in the curricula, and
closer supervision of the program was undertaken. In rural areas the
school year was shortened to four or six months during the winter, and
additional general cultural courses were offered, as well as special
courses in foreign languages and modern agricultural techniques. In
urban schools the program was reduced to eight or nine months, and
modern courses in stenography, television repair, and automatic data
processing were made available. As a result of these efforts, official
reports in 1970 claimed that the number of schools providing adult
education had increased to 171 and that student enrollment totaled
almost 100,000.
Teacher Training
Teachers and educators were considered important elements in the
ideological and political conditioning process directed toward the
country's youth. In addition to their primary task of teaching, they
were relied upon to supplement the educational program by acting as
disseminators and interpreters of the communist line and by encouraging
and influencing young students to participate in state-sponsored
activities. In 1971 there were approximately 200,000 teachers assigned
to the 16,000 schools throughout the country, and this number was
expected to increase with the continued emphasis on mass education.
Teacher training was accomplished at three main levels: pedagogical
schools for training preschool and elementary teachers; pedagogical
faculties or departments at universities and teachers' institutes for
training secondary teachers; and a postgraduate studies program to
prepare lecturers and professors for higher educational institutions.
There were also refresher training courses conducted at various centers,
which all teachers were required to attend once every five years until
they had accumulated twenty-five years of experience in the profession.
These courses varied in length and generally stressed advances in
pedagogical science, counseling techniques, and utilization of modern
teaching aids.
As evidence of the importance it placed on the teaching profession, the
government, since 1967, has instituted many practices intended to
improve the social position of teachers in the community as well as to
increase their personal benefits. Among these innovations was the
creation of the titles of professor emeritus, educator emeritus,
outstanding professor, and outstanding educator in order to honor
individuals for exceptional work. The government also authorized several
orders and medals to be awarded to teachers for outstanding service and
accomplishments.
Teachers were also nominated for places on local people's councils, and
increasing numbers were declared eligible for election to the Grand
National Assembly. To raise the standard of living for the teaching
corps, a new wage system was introduced in 1969, which granted pay
increases at all teaching levels, improved promotions, and raised
retirement benefits. Government assistance was made available to all
teachers for the construction of individual homes in either urban or
rural areas in which they were assigned.
EDUCATION OF MINORITIES
Although the government has recognized in principle the right of the
national minorities to use their native languages in education, the
implementation of official educational policies has reflected a strong
preference for the incorporation or integration of all minority groups
into the general population. The dissatisfaction of the large Hungarian
and German minorities with the inadequacies of minority education
eventually surfaced in early 1969 at the national congress of
educational workers, and since that time the regime has taken steps to
reduce inequalities in the system by providing additional facilities,
trained personnel, and teaching materials for the improvement of
minority instruction.
As a result of this increased government support, groups as small as six
were made eligible to be instructed by a full-time teacher in any
non-Romanian native language. High schools with instruction in Hungarian
or German were set up in a number of the larger cities and towns that
had sizable populations in those nationalities. In addition, sections or
classes were organized in certain vocational and industrial schools for
the teaching of selected subjects in minority languages, and candidates
for admission to higher schools were permitted to take competitive
examinations in either Romanian or their native language. By the opening
of the 1971/72 school year the government reported that more than
280,000 minority students in 3,162 schools and sections were receiving
instruction in their native languages from approximately 14,000
teachers.