These churches are called cathedral, because the bishops dwell or lie

near unto the same, as bound to keep continual residence within their

jurisdictions for the better oversight and governance of the same, the

word being derived _a cathedra_--that is to say, a chair or seat where

he resteth, and for the most part abideth. At the first there was but

one church in every jurisdiction, whereinto no man entered to pray but

with some oblation or other toward the maintenance of the pastor. For

as it was reputed an infamy to pass by any of them without visitation,

so it was no less reproach to appear empty before the Lord. And for

this occasion also they were builded very huge and great; for

otherwise they were not capable to such multitude as came daily unto

them to hear the Word and receive the sacraments.

But as the number of Christians increased, so first monasteries, then

finally parish churches, were builded in every jurisdiction: from

whence I take our deanery churches to have their original (now called

"mother churches," and their incumbents, archpriests), the rest being

added since the Conquest, either by the lords of every town, or

zealous men, loth to travel far, and willing to have some ease by

building them near hand. Unto these deanery churches also the clergy

in old time of the same deanery were appointed to repair at sundry

seasons, there to receive wholesome ordinances, and to consult upon

the necessary affairs of the whole jurisdiction if necessity so

required; and some image hereof is yet to be seen in the north parts.

But as the number of churches increased, so the repair of the faithful

unto the cathedrals did diminish; whereby they now become, especially

in their nether parts, rather markets and shops for merchandise than

solemn places of prayer, whereunto they were first erected. Moreover,

in the said cathedral churches upon Sundays and festival days the

canons do make certain ordinary sermons by course, whereunto great

numbers of all estates do orderly resort; and upon the working days,

thrice in the week, one of the said canons (or some other in his

stead) doth read and expound some piece of holy Scripture, whereunto

the people do very reverently repair. The bishops themselves in like

sort are not idle in their callings; for, being now exempt from court

and council, which is one (and a no small) piece of their felicity

(although Richard Archbishop of Canterbury thought otherwise, as yet

appeareth by his letters to Pope Alexander, Epistola 44, Petri

Blesensis, where he saith, because the clergy of his time were

somewhat narrowly looked unto, _"Supra dorsum ecclesiæ fabricant

peccatores," etc._),[4] they so apply their minds to the setting forth

of the Word that there are very few of them which do not every Sunday

or oftener resort to some place or other within their jurisdictions

where they expound the Scriptures with much gravity and skill, and yet

not without the great misliking and contempt of such as hate the Word.

Of their manifold translations from one see to another I will say

nothing, which is not now done for the benefit of the flock as the

preferment of the party favoured and advantage unto the prince, a

matter in time past much doubted of--to wit, whether a bishop or

pastor might be translated from one see to another, and left undecided

till prescription by royal authority made it good. For, among princes,

a thing once done is well done, and to be done oftentimes, though no

warrant be to be found therefore.

[4] "Sinners build on the back of the church."

They have under them also their archdeacons, some one, divers two, and

many four or more, as their circuits are in quantity, which

archdeacons are termed in law the bishops' eyes; and these (beside

their ordinary courts, which are holden within so many or more of

their several deaneries by themselves or their officials once in a

month at the least) do keep yearly two visitations or synods (as the

bishop doth in every third year, wherein he confirmeth some children,

though most care but a little for that ceremony), in which they make

diligent inquisition and search, as well for the doctrine and

behaviour of the ministers as the orderly dealing of the parishioners

in resorting to their parish churches and conformity unto religion.

They punish also with great severity all such trespassers, either in

person or by the purse (where permutation of penance is thought more

grievous to the offender), as are presented unto them; or, if the

cause be of the more weight, as in cases of heresy, pertinacy,

contempt, and such like, they refer them either to the bishop of the

diocese, or his chancellor, or else to sundry grave persons set in

authority, by virtue of an high commission directed unto them from the

prince to that end, who in very courteous manner do see the offenders

gently reformed or else severely punished if necessity so enforce.

Beside this, in many of our archdeaconries, we have an exercise lately

begun which for the most part is called a _prophecy_ or _conference_,

and erected only for the examination or trial of the diligence of the

clergy in their study of holy Scriptures. Howbeit, such is the thirsty

desire of the people in these days to hear the Word of God that they

also have as it were with zealous violence intruded themselves among

them (but as hearers only) to come by more knowledge through their

presence at the same. Herein also (for the most part) two of the

younger sort of ministers do expound each after other some piece of

the Scriptures ordinarily appointed unto them in their courses

(wherein they orderly go through with some one of the Evangelists, or

of the Epistles, as it pleaseth the whole assembly to choose at the

first in every of these conferences); and when they have spent an hour

or a little more between them, then cometh one of the better learned

sort, who, being a graduate for the most part, or known to be a

preacher sufficiently authorised and of a sound judgment, supplieth

the room of a moderator, making first a brief rehearsal of their

discourses, and then adding what him thinketh good of his own

knowledge, whereby two hours are thus commonly spent at this most

profitable meeting. When all is done, if the first speakers have

shewed any piece of diligence, they are commended for their travel,

and encouraged to go forward. If they have been found to be slack, or

not sound in delivery of their doctrine, their negligence and error is

openly reproved before all their brethren, who go aside of purpose

from the laity after the exercise ended to judge of these matters, and

consult of the next speakers and quantity of the text to be handled in

that place. The laity never speak, of course (except some vain and

busy head will now and then intrude themselves with offence), but are

only hearers; and, as it is used in some places weekly, in other once

in fourteen days, in divers monthly, and elsewhere twice in a year, so

is it a notable spur unto all the ministers thereby to apply their

books, which otherwise (as in times past) would give themselves to

hawking, hunting, tables, cards, dice, tippling at the alehouse,

shooting of matches, and other like vanities, nothing commendable in

such as should be godly and zealous stewards of the good gifts of God,

faithful distributors of his Word unto the people, and diligent

pastors according to their calling.

But alas! as Sathan, the author of all mischief, hath in sundry

manners heretofore hindered the erection and maintenance of many good

things, so in this he hath stirred up adversaries of late unto this

most profitable exercise, who, not regarding the commodity that riseth

thereby so well to the hearers as speakers, but either stumbling (I

cannot tell how) at words and terms, or at the leastwise not liking to

hear of the reprehension of vice, or peradventure taking a misliking

at the slender demeanours of such negligent ministers as now and then

in their course do occupy the rooms, have either by their own

practice, their sinister information, or suggestions made upon

surmises unto other, procured the suppression of these conferences,

condemning them as hurtful, pernicious, and daily breeders of no small

hurt and inconvenience. But hereof let God be judge, unto the cause

belongeth.

Our elders or ministers and deacons (for subdeacons and the other

inferior orders sometime used in popish church we have not) are made

according to a certain form of consecration concluded upon in the time

of King Edward the Sixth by the clergy of England, and soon after

confirmed by the three estates of the realm in the high court of

parliament. And out of the first sort--that is to say, of such as are

called to the ministry (without respect whether they be married or

not)--are bishops, deans, archdeacons, and such as have the higher

places in the hierarchy of the church elected; and these also, as all

the rest, at the first coming unto any spiritual promotion do yield

unto the prince the entire tax of that their living for one whole

year, if it amount in value unto ten pounds and upwards, and this

under the name and title of first fruits.

With us also it is permitted that a sufficient man may (by

dispensation from the prince) hold two livings, not distant either

from other above thirty miles; whereby it cometh to pass that, as her

Majesty doth reap some commodity by the faculty, so that the unition

of two in one man doth bring oftentimes more benefit to one of them in

a month (I mean for doctrine) than they have had before peradventure

in many years.

Many exclaim against such faculties, as if there were more good

preachers that want maintenance than livings to maintain them. Indeed

when a living is void there are so many suitors for it that a man

would think the report to be true, and most certain; but when it

cometh to the trial (who are sufficient and who not, who are staid men

in conversation, judgment, and learning), of that great number you

shall hardly find one or two such as they ought to be, and yet none

more earnest to make suit, to promise largely, bear a better shew, or

find fault with the stage of things than they. Nevertheless I do not

think that their exclamations, if they were wisely handled, are

altogether grounded upon rumours or ambitious minds, if you respect

the state of the thing itself, and not the necessity growing through

want of able men to furnish out all the cures in England, which both

our universities are never able to perform. For if you observe what

numbers of preachers Cambridge and Oxford do yearly send forth, and

how many new compositions are made in the Court of First Fruits by the

deaths of the last incumbents, you shall soon see a difference.

Wherefore, if in country towns and cities, yea even in London itself,

four or five of the little churches were brought into one, the

inconvenience would in great part be redressed and amended.

And, to say truth, one most commonly of those small livings is of so

little value that it is not able to maintain a mean scholar, much less

a learned man, as not being above ten, twelve, sixteen, seventeen,

twenty, or thirty pounds at the most, toward their charges, which now

(more than before time) do go out of the same. I say more than before,

because every small trifle, nobleman's request, or courtesy craved by

the bishop, doth impose and command a twentieth part, a three score

part, or twopence in the pound, etc., out of the livings, which

hitherto hath not been usually granted, but by the consent of a synod,

wherein things were decided according to equity, and the poorer sort

considered of, which now are equally burdened.

We pay also the tenths of our livings to the prince yearly, according

to such valuation of each of them as hath been lately made: which

nevertheless in time past were not annual, but voluntary, and paid at

request of king or pope.[5]...

[5] Here follows a story about the bootless errand of a pope's

legate in 1452.--W.

But to return to our tenths, a payment first as devised by the pope,

and afterward taken up as by the prescription of the king, whereunto

we may join also our first fruits, which is one whole year's commodity

of our living, due at our entrance into the same, the tenths abated

unto the prince's coffers, and paid commonly in two years. For the

receipt also of these two payments an especial office or court is

erected, which beareth name of First Fruits and Tenths, whereunto, if

the party to be preferred do not make his dutiful repair by an

appointed time after possession taken, there to compound for the

payment of his said fruits, he incurreth the danger of a great

penalty, limited by a certain statute provided in that behalf against

such as do intrude into the ecclesiastical function and refuse to pay

the accustomed duties belonging to the same.

They pay likewise subsidies with the temporalty, but in such sort that

if these pay after four shillings for land, the clergy contribute

commonly after six shillings of the pound, so that of a benefice of

twenty pounds by the year the incumbent thinketh himself well

acquitted if, all ordinary payments being discharged, he may reserve

thirteen pounds six shillings eightpence towards his own sustentation

or maintenance of his family. Seldom also are they without the compass

of a subsidy; for if they be one year clear from this payment (a thing

not often seen of late years), they are like in the next to hear of

another grant: so that I say again they are seldom without the limit

of a subsidy. Herein also they somewhat find themselves grieved that

the laity may at every taxation help themselves, and so they do,

through consideration had of their decay and hindrance, and yet their

impoverishment cannot but touch also the parson or vicar, unto whom

such liberty is denied, as is daily to be seen in their accounts and

tithings.

Some of them also, after the marriages of their children, will have

their proportions qualified, or by friendship get themselves quite out

of the book. But what stand I upon these things, who have rather to

complain of the injury offered by some of our neighbours of the laity,

which daily endeavour to bring us also within the compass of their

fifteens or taxes for their own ease, whereas the tax of the whole

realm, which is commonly greater in the champagne than woodland soil,

amounteth only to 37,930 pounds ninepence halfpenny, is a burden easy

enough to be borne upon so many shoulders, without the help of the

clergy, whose tenths and subsidies make up commonly a double, if not

treble sum unto their aforesaid payments? Sometimes also we are

threatened with a _Melius inquirendum_, as if our livings were not

racked high enough already. But if a man should seek out where all

those church lands which in time past did contribute unto the old sum

required or to be made up, no doubt no small number of the laity of

all states should be contributors also with us, the prince not

defrauded of her expectation and right. We are also charged with

armour and munitions from thirty pounds upwards, a thing more needful

than divers other charges imposed upon us are convenient, by which and

other burdens our ease groweth to be more heavy by a great deal

(notwithstanding our immunity from temporal services) than that of the

laity, and, for aught that I see, not likely to be diminished, as if

the church were now become the ass whereon every market man is to ride

and cast his wallet.

The other payments due unto the archbishop and bishop at their several

visitations (of which the first is double to the latter), and such

also as the archdeacon receive that his synods, etc., remain still as

they did without any alteration. Only this I think he added within

memory of man, that at the coming of every prince his appointed

officers do commonly visit the whole realm under the form of an

ecclesiastical inquisition, in which the clergy do usually pay double

fees, as unto the archbishop.

Hereby then, and by those already remembered, it is found that the

Church of England is no less commodious to the prince's coffers than

the state of the laity, if it do not far exceed the same, since their

payments are certain, continual, and seldom abated, howsoever they

gather up their own duties with grudging, murmuring, suit, and

slanderous speeches of the payers, or have their livings otherwise

hardly valued unto the uttermost farthing, or shrewdly cancelled by

the covetousness of the patrons, of whom some do bestow advowsons of

benefices upon their bakers, butlers, cooks, good archers, falconers,

and horsekeepers, instead of other recompense, for their long and

faithful service, which they employ afterward unto the most advantage.

Certes here they resemble the pope very much; for, as he sendeth out

his idols, so do they their parasites, pages, chamberlains, stewards,

grooms, and lackeys; and yet these be the men that first exclaim of

the insufficiency of the ministers, as hoping thereby in due time to

get also their glebes and grounds into their hands. In times past

bishoprics went almost after the same manner under the lay princes,

and then under the pope, so that he which helped a clerk unto a see

was sure to have a present or purse fine, if not an annual pension,

besides that which went to the pope's coffers, and was thought to be

very good merchandise.

To proceed therefore with the rest, I think it good also to remember

that the names usually given unto such as feed the flock remain in

like sort as in times past, so that these words, _parson, vicar,

curate_, and such, are not yet abolished more than the canon law

itself, which is daily pleaded, as I have said elsewhere, although the

statutes of the realm have greatly infringed the large scope and

brought the exercise of the same into some narrower limits. There is

nothing read in our churches but the canonical Scriptures, whereby it

cometh to pass that the Psalter is said over once in thirty days, the

New Testament four times, and the Old Testament once in the year. And

hereunto, if the curate be adjudged by the bishop or his deputies

sufficiently instructed in the holy Scriptures, and therewithal able

to teach, he permitteth him to make some exposition or exhortation in

his parish unto amendment of life. And for so much as our churches and

universities have been so spoiled in time of error, as there cannot

yet be had such number of able pastors as may suffice for every parish

to have one, there are (beside four sermons appointed by public order

in the year) certain sermons or homilies (devised by sundry learned

men, confirmed for sound doctrine by consent of the divines, and

public authority of the prince), and those appointed to be read by the

curates of mean understanding (which homilies do comprehend the

principal parts of Christian doctrine, as of original sin, of

justification by faith, of charity, and such like) upon the Sabbath

days unto the congregation. And, after a certain number of psalms

read, which are limited according to the dates of the month, for

morning and evening prayer we have two lessons, whereof the first is

taken out of the Old Testament, the second out of the New; and of

these latter, that in the morning is out of the Gospels, the other in

the afternoon out of some one of the Epistles. After morning prayer

also, we have the Litany and suffrages, an invocation in mine opinion

not devised without the great assistance of the Spirit of God,

although many curious mind-sick persons utterly condemn it as

superstitious, and savouring of conjuration and sorcery.

This being done, we proceed unto the communion, if any communicants be

to receive the Eucharist; if not, we read the Decalogue, Epistle, and

Gospel, with the Nicene Creed (of some in derision called the "dry

communion"), and then proceed unto an homily or sermon, which hath a

psalm before and after it, and finally unto the baptism of such

infants as on every Sabbath day (if occasion so require) are brought

unto the churches; and thus is the forenoon bestowed. In the afternoon

likewise we meet again, and, after the psalms and lessons ended, we

have commonly a sermon, or at the leastwise our youth catechised by

the space of an hour. And thus do we spend the Sabbath day in good and

godly exercises, all done in our vulgar tongue, that each one present

may hear and understand the same, which also in cathedral and

collegiate churches is so ordered that the psalms only are sung by

note, the rest being read (as in common parish churches) by the

minister with a loud voice, saving that in the administration of the

communion the choir singeth the answers, the creed, and sundry other

things appointed, but in so plain, I say, and distinct manner that

each one present may understand what they sing, every word having but

one note, though the whole Harmony consist of many parts, and those

very cunningly set by the skilful in that science.

Certes this translation of the service of the church into the vulgar

tongue hath not a little offended the pope almost in every age, as a

thing very often attempted by divers princes, but never generally

obtained, for fear lest the consenting thereunto might breed the

overthrow (as it would indeed) of all his religion and hierarchy;

nevertheless, in some places where the kings and princes dwelled not

under his nose, it was performed maugre his resistance. Wratislaus,

Duke of Bohemia, would long since have done the like also in his

kingdom; but, not daring to venture so far without the consent of the

pope, he wrote unto him thereof, and received his answer inhibitory

unto all his proceeding in the same....

I would set down two or three more of the like instruments passed from

that see unto the like end, but this shall suffice, being less common

than the other, which are to be had more plentifully.

As for our churches themselves, bells and times of morning and evening

prayer remain as in times past, saving that all images, shrines,

tabernacles, rood-lofts, and monuments of idolatry are removed, taken

down, and defaced, only the stories in glass windows excepted, which,

for want of sufficient store of new stuff, and by reason of extreme

charge that should grow by the alteration of the same into white panes

throughout the realm, are not altogether abolished in most places at

once, but by little and little suffered to decay, that white glass may

be provided and set up in their rooms. Finally, whereas there was wont

to be a great partition between the choir and the body of the church,

now it is either very small or none at all, and (to say the truth)

altogether needless, sith the minister saith his service commonly in

the body of the church, with his face toward the people, in a little

tabernacle of wainscot provided for the purpose, by which means the

ignorant do not only learn divers of the psalms and usual prayers by

heart, but also such as can read do pray together with him, so that

the whole congregation at one instant pour out their petitions unto

the living God for the whole estate of His church in most earnest and

fervent manner. Our holy and festival days are very well reduced also

unto a less number; for whereas (not long since) we had under the pope

four score and fifteen, called festival, and thirty _profesti_, beside

the Sundays, they are all brought unto seven and twenty, and, with

them, the superfluous numbers of idle wakes, guilds, fraternities,

church-ales, help-ales, and soul-ales, called also dirge-ales, with

the heathenish rioting at bride-ales, are well diminished and laid

aside. And no great matter were it if the feasts of all our apostles,

evangelists, and martyrs, with that of all saints, were brought to the

holy days that follow upon Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and

those of the Virgin Mary, with the rest, utterly removed from the

calendars, as neither necessary nor commendable in a reformed church.

The apparel in like sort of our clergymen is comely, and, in truth,

more decent than ever it was in the popish church, before the

universities bound their graduates unto a stable attire, afterward

usurped also even by the blind Sir Johns. For, if you peruse well my

Chronology ensuing, you shall find that they went either in divers

colours like players, or in garments of light hue, as yellow, red,

green, etc., with their shoes piked, their hair crisped, their girdles

armed with silver, their shoes, spurs, bridles, etc., buckled with

like metal, their apparel (for the most part) of silk, and richly

furred, their caps laced and buttoned with gold, so that to meet a

priest in those days was to behold a peacock that spreadeth his tail

when he danceth before the hen, which now (I say) is well reformed.

Touching hospitality, there was never any greater used in England,

sith by reason that marriage is permitted to him that will choose that

kind of life, their meat and drink is more orderly and frugally

dressed, their furniture of household more convenient and better

looked unto, and the poor oftener fed generally than heretofore they

have been, when only a few bishops and double or treble beneficed men

did make good cheer at Christmas only, or otherwise kept great houses

for the entertainment of the rich, which did often see and visit them.

It is thought much peradventure that some bishops, etc., in our time

do come short of the ancient gluttony and prodigality of their

predecessors; but to such as do consider of the curtailing of their

livings, or excessive prices whereunto things are grown, and how their

course is limited by law, and estate looked into on every side, the

cause of their so doing is well enough perceived. This also offended

many, that they should, after their deaths, leave their substances to

their wives and children, whereas they consider not that in old time

such as had no lemans nor bastards (very few were there, God wot, of

this sort) did leave their goods and possessions to their brethren and

kinsfolks, whereby (as I can shew by good record) many houses of

gentility have grown and been erected. If in any age some one of them

did found a college, almshouse, or school, if you look unto these our

times, you shall see no fewer deeds of charity done, nor better

grounded upon the right stub of piety than before. If you say that

their wives be fond, after the decease of their husbands, and bestow

themselves not so advisedly as their calling requireth (which, God

knoweth, these curious surveyors make small account of truth, further

than thereby to gather matter of reprehension), I beseech you then to

look into all states of the laity, and tell me whether some duchesses,

countesses, barons' or knights' wives, do not fully so often offend in

the like as they? For Eve will be Eve, though Adam would say nay. Not

a few also find fault with our threadbare gowns, as if not our patrons

but our wives were causes of our woe. But if it were known to all that

I know to have been performed of late in Essex, where a minister

taking a benefice (of less than twenty pounds in the Queen's books, so

far as I remember) was enforced to pay to his patron twenty quarters

of oats, ten quarters of wheat, and sixteen yearly of barley (which he

called _hawks' meat_), and another let the like in farm to his patron

for ten pounds by the year which is well worth forty at the least, the

cause of our threadbare gowns would easily appear: for such patrons do

scrape the wool from our cloaks. Wherefore I may well say that such a

threadbare minister is either an ill man or hath an ill patron, or

both; and when such cooks and cobbling shifters shall be removed and

weeded out of the ministry, I doubt not but our patrons will prove

better men, and be reformed whether they will or not, or else the

single-minded bishops shall see the living bestowed upon such as do

deserve it. When the Pragmatic Sanction took place first in France, it

was supposed that these enormities should utterly have ceased; but

when the elections of bishops came once into the hands of the canons

and spiritual men, it grew to be far worse. For they also, within a

while waxing covetous, by their own experience learned aforehand,

raised the markets, and sought after new gains by the gifts of the

greatest livings in that country, wherein (as Machiavelli writeth) are

eighteen archbishoprics, one hundred forty and five bishoprics, 740

abbeys, eleven universities, 1,000,700 steeples (if his report be

sound). Some are of the opinion that, if sufficient men in every town

might be sent for from the universities, this mischief would soon be

remedied; but I am clean of another mind. For, when I consider

whereunto the gifts of fellowships in some places are grown, the

profit that ariseth at sundry elections of scholars out of grammar

schools to the posers, schoolmasters, and preferers of them to our

universities, the gifts of a great number of almshouses builded for

the maimed and impotent soldiers by princes and good men heretofore

moved with a pitiful consideration of the poor distressed, how

rewards, pensions, and annuities also do reign in other cases whereby

the giver is brought sometimes into extreme misery, and that not so

much as the room of a common soldier is not obtained oftentimes

without a _"What will you give me?"_ I am brought into such a mistrust

of the sequel of this device that I dare pronounce (almost for

certain) that, if Homer were now alive, it should be said to him:

"Tuque licet venias musis comitatus Homere,

Si nihil attuleris, ibis Homere foras!"

More I could say, and more I would say, of these and other things,

were it not that in mine own judgment I have said enough already for

the advertisement of such as be wise. Nevertheless, before I finish

this chapter, I will add a word or two (so briefly as I can) of the

old estate of cathedral churches, which I have collected together here

and there among the writers, and whereby it shall easily be seen what

they were, and how near the government of ours do in these days

approach unto them; for that there is an irreconcilable odds between

them and those of the Papists. I hope there is no learned man indeed

but will acknowledge and yield unto it.

We find therefore in the time of the primitive church that there was

in every see or jurisdiction one school at the least, whereunto such

as were catechists in Christian religion did resort. And hereof, as we

may find great testimony for Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Jerusalem,

so no small notice is left of the like in the inferior sort, if the

names of such as taught in them be called to mind, and the histories

well read which make report of the same. These schools were under the

jurisdiction of the bishops, and from thence did they and the rest of

the elders choose out such as were the ripest scholars, and willing to

serve in the ministry, whom they placed also in their cathedral

churches, there not only to be further instructed in the knowledge of

the world, but also to inure them to the delivery of the same unto the

people in sound manner, to minister the sacraments, to visit the sick

and brethren imprisoned, and to perform such other duties as then

belonged to their charges. The bishop himself and elders of the church

were also hearers and examiners of their doctrine; and, being in

process of time found meet workmen for the Lord's harvest, they were

forthwith sent abroad (after imposition of hands and prayer generally

made for their good proceeding) to some place or other then destitute

of her pastor, and other taken from the school also placed in their

rooms. What number of such clerks belonged now and then to some one

see, the Chronology following shall easily declare; and, in like sort,

what officers, widows, and other persons were daily maintained in

those seasons by the offerings and oblations of the faithful it is

incredible to be reported, if we compare the same with the decays and

oblations seen and practised at this present. But what is that in all

the world which avarice and negligence will not corrupt and impair?

And, as this is a pattern of the estate of the cathedral churches in

those times, so I wish that the like order of government might once

again be restored unto the same, which may be done with ease, sith the

schools are already builded in every diocese, the universities, places

of their preferment unto further knowledge, and the cathedral churches

great enough to receive so many as shall come from thence to be

instructed unto doctrine. But one hindrance of this is already and

more and more to be looked for (beside the plucking and snatching

commonly seen from such houses and the church), and that is, the

general contempt of the ministry, and small consideration of their

former pains taken, whereby less and less hope of competent

maintenance by preaching the word is likely to ensue. Wherefore the

greatest part of the more excellent wits choose rather to employ their

studies unto physic and the laws, utterly giving over the study of the

Scriptures, for fear lest they should in time not get their bread by

the same. By this means also the stalls in their choirs would be

better filled, which now (for the most part) are empty, and prebends

should be prebends indeed, there to live till they were preferred to

some ecclesiastical function, and then other men chosen to succeed

them in their rooms, whereas now prebends are but superfluous

additiments unto former excesses, and perpetual commodities unto the

owners, which before time were but temporal (as I have said before).

But as I have good leisure to wish for these things, so it shall be a

longer time before it will be brought to pass. Nevertheless, as I will

pray for a reformation in this behold, so will I here conclude my

discourse on the estate of our churches.

CHAPTER VI

OF THE FOOD AND DIET OF THE ENGLISH

[1577, Book III., Chapter 1; 1587, Book II., Chapter 6.]

The situation of our region, lying near unto the north, doth cause the

heat of our stomachs to be of somewhat greater force: therefore our

bodies do crave a little more ample nourishment than the inhabitants

of the hotter regions are accustomed withal, whose digestive force is

not altogether so vehement, because their internal heat is not so

strong as ours, which is kept in by the coldness of the air that from

time to time (especially in winter) doth environ our bodies.

It is no marvel therefore that our tables are oftentimes more

plentifully garnished than those of other nations, and this trade hath

continued with us even since the very beginning. For, before the

Romans found out and knew the way unto our country, our predecessors

fed largely upon flesh and milk, whereof there was great abundance in

this isle, because they applied their chief studies unto pasturage and

feeding. After this manner also did our Welsh Britons order themselves

in their diet so long as they lived of themselves, but after they

became to be united and made equal with the English they framed their

appetites to live after our manner, so that at this day there is very

little difference between us in our diets.

In Scotland likewise they have given themselves (of late years to

speak of) unto very ample and large diet, wherein as for some respect

nature doth make them equal with us, so otherwise they far exceed us

in over much and distemperate gormandise, and so ingross their bodies

that divers of them do oft become unapt to any other purpose than to

spend their times in large tabling and belly cheer. Against this

pampering of their carcasses doth Hector Boethius in his description

of the country very sharply inveigh in the first chapter of that

treatise. Henry Wardlaw also, bishop of St. Andrews, noting their

vehement alteration from competent frugality into excessive gluttony

to be brought out of England with James the First (who had been long

time prisoner there under the fourth and fifth Henries, and at his

return carried divers English gentlemen into his country with him,

whom he very honourably preferred there), doth vehemently exclaim

against the same in open Parliament holden at Perth, 1433, before the

three estates, and so bringeth his purpose to pass in the end, by

force of his learned persuasions, that a law was presently made there

for the restraint of superfluous diet; amongst other things, baked

meats (dishes never before this man's days seen in Scotland) were

generally so provided for by virtue of this Act that it was not lawful

for any to eat of the same under the degree of a gentleman, and those

only but on high and festival days. But, alas, it was soon forgotten!

In old time these north Britons did give themselves universally to

great abstinence, and in time of wars their soldiers would often feed

but once or twice at the most in two or three days (especially if they

held themselves in secret, or could have no issue out of their bogs

and marshes, through the presence of the enemy), and in this distress

they used to eat a certain kind of confection, whereof so much as a

bean would qualify their hunger above common expectation. In woods

moreover they lived with herbs and roots, or, if these shifts served

not through want of such provision at hand, then used they to creep

into the water or said moorish plots up unto the chins, and there

remain a long time, only to qualify the heats of their stomachs by

violence, which otherwise would have wrought and been ready to oppress

them for hunger and want of sustenance. In those days likewise it was

taken for a great offence over all to eat either goose, hare, or hen,

because of a certain superstitious opinion which they had conceived of

those three creatures; howbeit after that the Romans, I say, had once

found an entrance into this island it was not long ere open shipwreck

was made of this religious observation, so that in process of time so

well the north and south Britons as the Romans gave over to make such

difference in meats as they had done before.

From thenceforth also unto our days, and even in this season wherein

we live, there is no restraint of any meat either for religious sake

or public order in England, but it is lawful for every man to feed

upon whatsoever he is able to purchase, except it be upon those days

whereon eating of flesh is especially forbidden by the laws of the

realm, which order is taken only to the end our numbers of cattle may

be the better increased and that abundance of fish which the sea

yieldeth more generally received. Besides this, there is great

consideration had in making this law for the preservation of the navy

and maintenance of convenient numbers of seafaring men, both which

would otherwise greatly decay if some means were not found whereby

they might be increased. But, howsoever this case standeth, white

meats, milk, butter, and cheese (which were never so dear as in my

time, and wont to be accounted of as one of the chief stays throughout

the island) are now reputed as food appertinent only to the inferior

sort, whilst such as are more wealthy do feed upon the flesh of all

kinds of cattle accustomed to be eaten, all sorts of fish taken upon

our coasts and in our fresh rivers, and such diversity of wild and

tame fowls as are either bred in our island or brought over unto us

from other countries of the main.

In number of dishes and change of meat the nobility of England (whose

cooks are for the most part musical-headed Frenchmen and strangers) do

most exceed, sith there is no day in manner that passeth over their

heads wherein they have not only beef, mutton, veal, lamb, kid, pork,

cony, capon, pig, or so many of these as the season yieldeth, but also

some portion of the red or fallow deer, beside great variety of fish

and wild fowl, and thereto sundry other delicates wherein the sweet

hand of the seafaring Portugal is not wanting: so that for a man to

dine with one of them, and to taste of every dish that standeth before

him (which few used to do, but each one feedeth upon that meat him

best liketh for the time, the beginning of every dish notwithstanding

being reserved unto the greatest personage that sitteth at the table,

to whom it is drawn up still by the waiters as order requireth, and

from whom it descendeth again even to the lower end, whereby each one

may taste thereof), is rather to yield unto a conspiracy with a great

deal of meat for the speedy suppression of natural health than the use

of a necessary mean to satisfy himself with a competent repast to

sustain his body withal. But, as this large feeding is not seen in

their guests, no more is it in their own persons; for, sith they have

daily much resort unto their tables (and many times unlooked for), and

thereto retain great numbers of servants, it is very requisite and

expedient for them to be somewhat plentiful in this behalf.

The chief part likewise of their daily provision is brought in before

them (commonly in silver vessels, if they be of the degree of barons,

bishops, and upwards) and placed on their tables, whereof, when they

have taken what it pleaseth them, the rest is reserved, and afterwards

sent down to their serving men and waiters, who feed thereon in like

sort with convenient moderation, their reversion also being bestowed

upon the poor which lie ready at their gates in great numbers to

receive the same. This is spoken of the principal tables whereat the

nobleman, his lady, and guests are accustomed to sit; besides which

they have a certain ordinary allowance daily appointed for their

halls, where the chief officers and household servants (for all are

not permitted by custom to wait upon their master), and with them such

inferior guests do feed as are not of calling to associate the

nobleman himself; so that, besides those afore-mentioned, which are

called to the principal table, there are commonly forty or three score

persons fed in those halls, to the great relief of such poor suitors

and strangers also as oft be partakers thereof and otherwise like to

dine hardly. As for drink, it is usually filled in pots, goblets,

jugs, bowls of silver, in noblemen's houses; also in fine Venice

glasses of all forms; and, for want of these elsewhere, in pots of

earth of sundry colours and moulds, whereof many are garnished with

silver, or at the leastwise in pewter, all which notwithstanding are

seldom set on the table, but each one, as necessity urgeth, calleth

for a cup of such drink as him listeth to have, so that, when he has

tasted of it, he delivered the cup again to some one of the standers

by, who, making it clean by pouring out the drink that remaineth,

restoreth it to the cupboard from whence he fetched the same. By this

device (a thing brought up at the first by Mnesitheus of Athens, in

conservation of the honour of Orestes, who had not yet made expiation

for the death of his adulterous parents, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra)

much idle tippling is furthermore cut off; for, if the full pots

should continually stand at the elbow or near the trencher, divers

would always be dealing with them, whereas now they drink seldom, and

only when necessity urgeth, and so avoid the note of great drinking,

or often troubling of the servitors with filling of their bowls.

Nevertheless in the noblemen's halls this order is not used, neither

is any man's house commonly under the degree of a knight or esquire of

great revenues. It is a world to see in these our days, wherein gold

and silver most aboundeth, how that our gentility, as loathing those

metals (because of the plenty) do now generally choose rather the

Venice glasses, both for our wine and beer, than any of those metals

or stone wherein before time we have been accustomed to drink; but

such is the nature of man generally that it most coveteth things

difficult to be attained; and such is the estimation of this stuff

that many become rich only with their new trade unto Murana (a town

near to Venice, situate on the Adriatic Sea), from whence the very

best are daily to be had, and such as for beauty do well near match

the crystal or the ancient _murrhina vasa_ whereof now no man hath

knowledge. And as this is seen in the gentility, so in the wealthy

communalty the like desire of glass is not neglected, whereby the gain

gotten by their purchase is yet much more increased to the benefit of

the merchant. The poorest also will have glass if they may; but, sith

the Venetian is somewhat too dear for them, they content themselves

with such as are made at home of fern and burned stone; but in fine

all go one way--that is, to shards at the last, so that our great

expenses in glasses (beside that they breed much strife toward such as

have the charge of them) are worst of all bestowed in mine opinion,

because their pieces do turn unto no profit. If the philosopher's

stone were once found, and one part hereof mixed with forty of molten

glass, it would induce such a metallical toughness thereunto that a

fall should nothing hurt it in such manner; yet it might peradventure

bunch or batter it; nevertheless that inconvenience were quickly to be

redressed by the hammer. But whither am I slipped?

The gentlemen and merchants keep much about one rate, and each of them

contenteth himself with four, five, or six dishes, when they have but

small resort, or peradventure with one, or two, or three at the most,

when they have no strangers to accompany them at their tables. And yet

their servants have their ordinary diet assigned, beside such as is

left at their master's boards, and not appointed to be brought thither

the second time, which nevertheless is often seen, generally in

venison, lamb, or some especial dish, whereon the merchantman himself

liketh to feed when it is cold, or peradventure for sundry causes

incident to the feeder is better so than if it were warm or hot. To be

short, at such times as the merchants do make their ordinary or

voluntary feasts, it is a world to see what great provision is made of

all manner of delicate meats, from every quarter of the country,

wherein, beside that they are often comparable herein to the nobility

of the land, they will seldom regard anything that the butcher usually

killeth, but reject the same as not worthy to come in place. In such

cases also jellies of all colours, mixed with a variety in the

representation of sundry flowers, herbs, trees, forms of beasts, fish,

fowls, and fruits, and thereunto marchpane wrought with no small

curiosity, tarts of divers hues, and sundry denominations, conserves

of old fruits, foreign and home-bred, suckets, codinacs, marmalades,

marchpane, sugar-bread, gingerbread, florentines, wild fowls, venison

of all sorts, and sundry outlandish confections, altogether seasoned

with sugar (which Pliny calleth _mel ex arundinibus_, a device not

common nor greatly used in old time at the table, but only in

medicine, although it grew in Arabia, India, and Sicilia), do

generally bear the sway, besides infinite devices of our own not

possible for me to remember. Of the potato, and such venerous roots as

are brought out of Spain, Portugal, and the Indies to furnish up our

banquets, I speak not, wherein our mures[1] of no less force, and to

be had about Crosby-Ravenswath, do now begin to have place.

[1] Sweet cicely, sometimes miscalled myrrh. Mure is the Saxon

word. At one time the plant was not uncommon as a salad.--W.

But among all these, the kind of meat which is obtained with most

difficulty and costs, is commonly taken for the most delicate, and

thereupon each guest will soonest desire to feed. And as all estates

do exceed herein, I mean for strangeness and number of costly dishes,

so these forget not to use the like excess in wine, insomuch as there

is no kind to be had, neither anywhere more store of all sorts than in

England, although we have none growing with us but yearly to the

proportion of 20,000 of 30,000 tun and upwards, notwithstanding the

daily restraints of the same brought over unto us, whereof at great

meetings there is not some store to be had. Neither do I mean this of

small wines only, as claret, white, red, French, etc., which amount to

about fifty-six sorts, according to the number of regions from whence

they came, but also of the thirty kinds of Italian, Grecian, Spanish,

Canarian, etc., whereof vernage, catepument, raspis, muscadell,

romnie, bastard lire, osy caprie, clary, and malmesey, are not least

of all accompted of, because of their strength and valour. For, as I

have said in meat, so, the stronger the wine is, the more it is

desired, by means whereof, in old time, the best was called

_theologicum_, because it was had from the clergy and religious men,

unto whose houses many of the laity would often send for bottles

filled with the same, being sure they would neither drink nor be

served of the worst, or such as was any ways mingled or brewed by the

vinterer: nay, the merchant would have thought that his soul should

have gone straightway to the devil if he should have served them with

other than the best. Furthermore, when these have had their course

which nature yieldeth, sundry sorts of artificial stuff as ypocras and

wormwood wine must in like manner succeed in their turns, beside stale

ale and strong beer, which nevertheless bear the greatest brunt in

drinking, and are of so many sorts and ages as it pleaseth the brewer

to make them.

The beer that is used at noblemen's tables in their fixed and standing

houses is commonly a year old, or peradventure of two years' tunning

or more; but this is not general. It is also brewed in March, and

therefore called March beer; but, for the household, it is usually not

under a month's age, each one coveting to have the same stale as he

may, so that it be not sour, and his bread new as is possible, so that

it be not hot.

The artificer and husbandman makes greatest account of such meat as

they may soonest come by, and have it quickliest ready, except it be

in London when the companies of every trade do meet on their quarter

days, at which time they be nothing inferior to the nobility. Their

food also consisteth principally in beef, and such meat as the butcher

selleth--that is to say, mutton, veal, lamb, pork, etc., whereof he

findeth great store in the markets adjoining, beside sows, brawn,

bacon, fruit, pies of fruit, fowls of sundry sorts, cheese, butter,

eggs, etc., as the other wanteth it not at home, by his own provision

which is at the best hand, and commonly least charge. In feasting

also, this latter sort, I mean the husbandmen, do exceed after their

manner, especially at bridals, purifications of women, and such odd

meetings, where it is incredible to tell what meat is consumed and

spent, each one bringing such a dish, or so many with him, as his wife

and he do consult upon, but always with this consideration, that the

lesser friend shall have the better provision. This also is commonly

seen at these banquets, that the good man of the house is not charged

with anything saving bread, drink, sauce, house-room, and fire. But

the artificers in cities and good towns do deal far otherwise; for,

albeit that some of them do suffer their jaws to go oft before their

claws, and divers of them, by making good cheer, do hinder themselves

and other men, yet the wiser sort can handle the matter well enough in

these junketings, and therefore their frugality deserveth

commendation. To conclude, both the artificer and the husbandman are

sufficiently liberal, and very friendly at their tables; and, when

they meet, they are so merry without malice, and plain without inward

Italian or French craft and subtlety, that it would do a man good to

be in company among them. Herein only are the inferior sort somewhat

to be blamed, that, being thus assembled, their talk is now and then

such as savoureth of scurrility and ribaldry, a thing naturally

incident to carters and clowns, who think themselves not to be merry

and welcome if their foolish veins in this behalf be never so little

restrained. This is moreover to be added in these meetings, that if

they happen to stumble upon a piece of venison and a cup of wine or

very strong beer or ale (which latter they commonly provide against

their appointed days), they think their cheer so great, and themselves

to have fared so well, as the Lord Mayor of London, with whom, when

their bellies be full, they will not often stick to make comparison,

because that of a subject there is no public officer of any city in

Europe that may compare in port and countenance with him during the

time of his office.

I might here talk somewhat of the great silence that is used at the

tables of the honourable and wiser sort generally over all the realm

(albeit that too much deserveth no commendation, for it belongeth to

guests neither to be _muti_ nor _loquaces_[2]), likewise of the

moderate eating and drinking that is daily seen, and finally of the

regard that each one hath to keep himself from the note of surfeiting

and drunkenness (for which cause salt meat, except beef, bacon, and

pork, are not any whit esteemed, and yet these three may not be much

powdered); but, as in rehearsal thereof I should commend the nobleman,

merchant, and frugal artificer, so I could not clear the meaner sort

of husbandmen and country inhabitants of very much babbling (except it

be here and there some odd yeoman), with whom he is thought to be the

merriest that talketh of most ribaldry or the wisest man that speaketh

fastest among them, and now and then surfeiting and drunkenness which

they rather fall into for want of heed taking than wilfully following

or delighting in those errors of set mind and purpose. It may be that

divers of them living at home, with hard and pinching diet, small

drink, and some of them having scarce enough of that, are soonest

overtaken when they come into such banquets, howbeit they take it

generally as no small disgrace if they happen to be cupshotten, so

that it is a grief unto them, though now sans remedy, sith the thing

is done and past. If the friends also of the wealthier sort come to

their houses from far, they are commonly so welcome till they depart

as upon the first day of their coming; whereas in good towns and

cities, as London, etc., men oftentimes complain of little room, and,

in reward of a fat capon or plenty of beef and mutton largely bestowed

upon them in the country, a cup of wine or beer with a napkin to wipe

their lips and an "You are heartily welcome!" is thought to be a great

entertainment; and therefore the old country clerks have framed this

saying in that behalf, I mean upon the entertainment of townsmen and

Londoners after the days of their abode, in this manner:

"Primus jucundus, tollerabilis estque secundus,

Tertius est vanus, sed fetet quatriduanus."

[2] Neither "silent" nor "garrulous."

The bread throughout the land is made of such grain as the soil

yieldeth; nevertheless the gentility commonly provide themselves

sufficiently of wheat for their own tables, whilst their household and

poor neighbours in some shires are forced to content themselves with

rye, or barley, yea, and in time of dearth, many with bread made

either of beans, peas, of oats, or of altogether and some acorns

among, of which scourge the poorest do soonest taste, sith they are

least able to provide themselves of better. I will not say that this

extremity is oft so well to be seen in time of plenty as of dearth,

but, if I should, I could easily bring my trial. For, albeit that

there be much more ground eared now almost in every place than hath

been of late years, yet such a price of corn continueth in each town

and market without any just cause (except it be that landlords do get

licences to carry corn out of the land only to keep up the prices for

their own private gains and ruin of the commonwealth), that the

artificer and poor labouring man is not able to reach unto it, but is

driven to content himself with horse corn--I mean beans, peas, oats,

tares, and lentils: and therefore it is a true proverb, and never so

well verified as now, that "Hunger setteth his first foot into the

horse-manger."[3] If the world last awhile after this rate, wheat and

rye will be no grain for poor men to feed on; and some caterpillars

there are that can say so much already.

[3] A famine at hand is first seen in the horse-manger, when

the poor do fall to horse corn.--H.

Of bread made of wheat we have sundry sorts daily brought to the

table, whereof the first and most excellent is the manchet, which we

commonly call white bread, in Latin _primarius panis_, whereof Budeus

also speaketh, in his first book _De asse_; and our good workmen

deliver commonly such proportion that of the flour of one bushel with

another they make forty cast of manchet, of which every loaf weigheth

eight ounces into the oven, and six ounces out, as I have been

informed. The second is the cheat or wheaten bread, so named because

the colour thereof resembleth the grey or yellowish wheat, being clean

and well dressed, and out of this is the coarsest of the bran (usually

called gurgeons or pollard) taken. The ravelled is a kind of cheat

bread also, but it retaineth more of the gross, and less of the pure

substance of the wheat; and this, being more slightly wrought up, is

used in the halls of the nobility and gentry only, whereas the other

either is or should be baked in cities and good towns of an appointed

size (according to such price as the corn doth bear), and by a statute

provided by King John in that behalf.[4] The ravelled cheat therefore

is generally so made that out of one bushel of meal, after two and

twenty pounds of bran be sifted and taken from it (whereunto they add

the gurgeons that rise from the manchet), they make thirty cast, every

loaf weighing eighteen ounces into the oven, and sixteen ounces out;

and, beside this, they so handle the matter that to every bushel of

meal they add only two and twenty, or three and twenty, pound of

water, washing also (in some houses) their corn before it go to the

mill, whereby their manchet bread is more excellent in colour, and

pleasing to the eye, than otherwise it would be. The next sort is

named brown bread, of the colour of which we have two sorts one baked

up as it cometh from the mill, so that neither the bran nor the flour

are any whit diminished; this, Celsus called _autopirus panis_, lib.

2, and putteth it in the second place of nourishment. The other hath

little or no flour left therein at all, howbeit he calleth it _Panem

Cibarium_, and it is not only the worst and weakest of all the other

sorts, but also appointed in old time for servants, slaves, and the

inferior kind of people to feed upon. Hereunto likewise, because it is

dry and brickle in the working (for it will hardly be made up

handsomely into loaves), some add a portion of rye meal in our time,

whereby the rough dryness or dry roughness thereof is somewhat

qualified, and then it is named _miscelin_, that is, bread made of

mingled corn, albeit that divers do sow or mingle wheat and rye of set

purpose at the mill, or before it come there, and sell the same at the

markets under the aforesaid name.

[4] The size of bread is very ill kept or not at all looked

unto in the country towns or markets.--H.

In champaign countries much rye and barley bread is eaten, but

especially where wheat is scant and geson. As for the difference that

it is between the summer and winter wheat, most husbandmen know it

not, sith they are neither acquainted with summer wheat nor winter

barley; yet here and there I find of both sorts, specially in the

north and about Kendal, where they call it March wheat, and also of

summer rye, but in so small quantities as that I dare not pronounce

them to be greatly common among us.

Our drink, whose force and continuance is partly touched already, is

made of barley, water, and hops, sodden and mingled together, by the

industry of our brewers in a certain exact proportion. But, before our

barley do come into their hands, it sustaineth great alteration, and

is converted into malt, the making whereof I will here set down in

such order as my skill therein may extend unto (for I am scarce a good

maltster), chiefly for that foreign writers have attempted to describe

the same, and the making of our beer, wherein they have shot so far

wide, as the quantity of ground was between themselves and their mark.

In the meantime bear with me, gentle reader (I beseech thee), that

lead thee from the description of the plentiful diet of our country

unto the fond report of a servile trade, or rather from a table

delicately furnished into a musty malt-house; but such is now thy hap,

wherefore I pray thee be contented.

Our malt is made all the year long in some great towns; but in

gentlemen's and yeomen's houses, who commonly make sufficient for

their own expenses only, the winter half is thought most meet for that

commodity: howbeit the malt that is made when the willow doth bud is

commonly worst of all. Nevertheless each one endeavoureth to make it

of the best barley, which is steeped in a cistern, in greater or less

quantity, by the space of three days and three nights, until it be

thoroughly soaked. This being done, the water is drained from it by

little and little, till it be quite gone. Afterward they take it out,

and, laying it upon the clean floor on a round heap, it resteth so

until it be ready to shoot at the root end, which maltsters call

_combing_. When it beginneth therefore to shoot in this manner, they

say it is come, and then forthwith they spread it abroad, first thick,

and afterwards thinner and thinner upon the said floor (as it

_combeth_), and there it lieth (with turning every day four or five

times) by the space of one and twenty days at the least, the workmen

not suffering it in any wise to take any heat, whereby the bud end

should spire, that bringeth forth the blade, and by which oversight or

hurt of the stuff itself the malt would be spoiled and turn small

commodity to the brewer. When it hath gone, or been turned, so long

upon the floor, they carry it to a kiln covered with hair cloth, where

they give it gentle heats (after they have spread it there very thin

abroad) till it be dry, and in the meanwhile they turn it often, that

it may be uniformly dried. For the more it be dried (yet must it be

done with soft fire) the sweeter and better the malt is, and the

longer it will continue, whereas, if it be not dried down (as they

call it), but slackly handled, it will breed a kind of worm called a

weevil, which groweth in the flour of the corn, and in process of time

will so eat out itself that nothing shall remain of the grain but even

the very rind or husk.

The best malt is tried by the hardness and colour; for, if it look

fresh with a yellow hue, and thereto will write like a piece of chalk,

after you have bitten a kernel in sunder in the midst, then you may

assure yourself that it is dried down. In some places it is dried at

leisure with wood alone or straw alone, in others with wood and straw

together; but, of all, the straw dried is the most excellent. For the

wood-dried malt when it is brewed, beside that the drink is higher of

colour, it doth hurt and annoy the head of him that is not used

thereto, because of the smoke. Such also as use both indifferently do

bark, cleave, and dry their wood in an oven, thereby to remove all

moisture that should procure the fume; and this malt is in the second

place, and, with the same likewise, that which is made with dried

furze, broom, etc.: whereas, if they also be occupied green, they are

in manner so prejudicial to the corn as is the moist wood. And thus

much of our malts, in brewing whereof some grind the same somewhat

grossly, and, in seething well the liquor that shall be put into it,

they add to every nine quarters of malt one of headcorn (which

consisteth of sundry grain, as wheat and oats ground). But what have I

to do with this matter, or rather so great a quantity, wherewith I am

not acquainted? Nevertheless, sith I have taken occasion to speak of

brewing, I will exemplify in such a proportion as I am best skilled

in, because it is the usual rate for mine own family, and once in a

month practised by my wife and her maid-servants, who proceed withal

after this manner, as she hath oft informed me.

Having therefore ground eight bushels of good malt upon our quern,

where the toll is saved, she addeth unto it half a bushel of wheat

meal, and so much of oats small ground, and so tempereth or mixeth

them with the malt that you cannot easily discern the one from the

other; otherwise these latter would clunter, fall into lumps, and

thereby become unprofitable. The first liquor (which is full eighty

gallons, according to the proportion of our furnace) she maketh

boiling hot, and then poureth it softly into the malt, where it

resteth (but without stirring) until her second liquor be almost ready

to boil. This done, she letteth her mash run till the malt be left

without liquor, or at the leastwise the greatest part of the moisture,

which she perceiveth by the stay and soft issue thereof; and by this

time her second liquor in the furnace is ready to seethe, which is put

also to the malt, as the first woort also again into the furnace,

whereunto she addeth two pounds of the best English hops, and so

letteth them seethe together by the space of two hours in summer or an

hour and a half in winter, whereby it getteth an excellent colour, and

continuance without impeachment or any superfluous tartness. But,

before she putteth her first woort into the furnace, or mingleth it

with the hops, she taketh out a vessel full, of eight or nine gallons,

which she shutteth up close, and suffereth no air to come into it till

it become yellow, and this she reserveth by itself unto further use,

as shall appear hereafter, calling it _brackwoort_ or _charwoort_,

and, as she saith, it addeth also to the colour of the drink, whereby

it yieldeth not unto amber or fine gold in hue unto the eye. By this

time also her second woort is let run; and, the first being taken out

of the furnace, and placed to cool, she returneth the middle woort

unto the furnace, where it is stricken over, or from whence it is

taken again, when it beginneth to boil, and mashed the second time,

whilst the third liquor is heat (for there are three liquors), and

this last put into the furnace, when the second is mashed again. When

she hath mashed also the last liquor (and set the second to cool by

the first), she letteth it run, and then seetheth it again with a

pound and a half of new hops, or peradventure two pounds, as she seeth

cause by the goodness or baseness of the hops, and, when it hath

sodden, in summer two hours, and in winter an hour and a half, she

striketh it also, and reserveth it unto mixture with the rest when

time doth serve therefore. Finally, when she setteth her drink

together, she addeth to her brackwoort or charwoort half an ounce of

arras, and half a quarter of an ounce of bayberries, finely powdered,

and then, putting the same into her woort, with a handful of wheat

flour, she proceedeth in such usual order as common brewing requireth,

Some, instead of arras and bays, add so much long pepper only, but, in

her opinion and my liking, it is not so good as the first, and hereof

we make three hogsheads of good beer, such (I mean) as is meet for

poor men as I am to live withal, whoso small maintenance (for what

great thing is forty pounds a year, _computatis computandis_, able to

perform?) may endure no deeper cut, the charges whereof groweth in

this manner. I value my malt at ten shillings, my wood at four

shillings (which I buy), my hops at twenty pence, the spice at

twopence, servants' wages two shillings sixpence, with meat and drink,

and the wearing of my vessel at twenty pence, so that for my twenty

shillings I have ten score gallons of beer or more, notwithstanding

the loss in seething, which some, being loth to forego, do not observe

the time, and therefore speed thereafter in their success, and

worthily. The continuance of the drink is always determined after the

quantity of the hops, so that being well _hopt_ it lasteth longer. For

it feedeth upon the hop, and holdeth out so long as the force of the

same continueth, which being extinguished, the drink must be spent, or

else it dieth and becometh of no value.

In this trade also our brewers observe very diligently the nature of

the water, which they daily occupy, and soil through which it passeth,

for all waters are not of like goodness, sith the fattest standing

water is always the best; for, although the waters that run by chalk

or cledgy soils be good, and next unto the Thames water, which is the

most excellent, yet the water that standeth in either of these is the

best for us that dwell in the country, as whereon the sun lieth

longest, and fattest fish is bred. But, of all other, the fenny and

marsh is the worst, and the clearest spring water next unto it. In

this business therefore the skilful workman doth redeem the iniquity

of that element, by changing of his proportions, which trouble in ale

(sometime our only, but now taken with many for old and sick men's

drink) is never seen nor heard of. Howbeit, as the beer well sodden in

the brewing, and stale, is clear and well coloured as muscadel or

malvesey, or rather yellow as the gold noble, as our pot-knights call

it, so our ale, which is not at all or very little sodden, and without

hops, is more thick, fulsome, and of no such continuance, which are

three notable things to be considered in that liquor. But what for

that? Certes I know some ale-knights so much addicted thereunto that

they will not cease from morrow until even to visit the same,

cleansing house after house, till they defile themselves, and either

fall quite under the board, or else, not daring to stir from their

stools, sit still pinking with their narrow eyes, as half sleeping,

till the fume of their adversary be digested that he may go to it

afresh. Such slights also have the ale-wives for the utterance of this

drink that they will mix it with rosen and salt; but if you heat a

knife red-hot, and quench it in the ale so near the bottom of the pot

as you can put it, you shall see the rosen come forth hanging on the

knife. As for the force of salt, it is well known by the effect, for

the more the drinker tippleth, the more he may, and so doth he carry

off a dry drunken noll to bed with him, except his luck be the better.

But to my purpose.

In some places of England there is a kind of drink made of apples

which they call cider or pomage, but that of pears is called perry,

and both are ground and pressed in presses made for the nonce. Certes

these two are very common in Sussex, Kent, Worcester, and other steeds

where these sorts of fruit do abound, howbeit they are not their only

drink at all times, but referred unto the delicate sorts of drink, as

metheglin is in Wales, whereof the Welshmen make no less account (and

not without cause, if it be well handled) than the Greeks did of their

ambrosia or nectar, which for the pleasantness thereof was supposed to

be such as the gods themselves did delight in. There is a kind of

swish-swash made also in Essex, and divers other places, with

honeycombs and water, which the homely country wives, putting some

pepper and a little other spice among, call mead, very good in mine

opinion for such as love to be loose bodied at large, or a little

eased of the cough. Otherwise it differeth so much from the true

metheglin as chalk from cheese. Truly it is nothing else but the

washing of the combs, when the honey is wrung out, and one of the best

things that I know belonging thereto is that they spend but little

labour, and less cost, in making of the same, and therefore no great

loss if it were never occupied. Hitherto of the diet of my countrymen,

and somewhat more at large peradventure than many men will like of,

wherefore I think good now to finish this tractation, and so will I

when I have added a few other things incident unto that which goeth

before, whereby the whole process of the same shall fully be

delivered, and my promise to my friend[5] in this behalf performed.

[5] Holinshed. This occurs in the last of Harrison's prefatory

matter.--W.

Heretofore there hath been much more time spent in eating and

drinking than commonly is in these days; for whereas of old we had

breakfast in the forenoon, beverages or nunchions[6] after dinner,

and thereto rear suppers generally when it was time to go to rest (a

toy brought into England by hardy Canutus, and a custom whereof

Athenaeus also speaketh, lib. 1, albeit Hippocrates speaks but of

twice at the most, lib. 2, _De rat vict. in feb ac_). Now, these odd

repasts--thanked be God!--are very well left, and each one in manner

(except here and there some young, hungry stomach that cannot fast

till dinner-time) contenteth himself with dinner and supper only. The

Normans, misliking the gormandise of Canutus, ordained after their

arrival that no table should be covered above once in the day, which

Huntingdon imputeth to their avarice; but in the end, either waxing

weary of their own frugality, or suffering the cockle of old custom

to overgrow the good corn of their new constitution, they fell to

such liberty that in often-feeding they surmounted Canutus surnamed

the Hardy. For, whereas he covered his table but three or four times

in the day, these spread their cloths five or six times, and in such

wise as I before rehearsed. They brought in also the custom of long

and stately sitting at meat, whereby their feasts resembled those

ancient pontifical banquets whereof Macrobius speaketh (lib. 3, cap.

13), and Pliny (lib. 10, cap. 10), and which for sumptuousness of

fare, long sitting, and curiosity shewed in the same, exceeded all

other men's feasting; which fondness is not yet left with us,

notwithstanding that it proveth very beneficial for the physicians,

who most abound where most excess and misgovernment of our bodies do

appear, although it be a great expense of time, and worthy of

reprehension. For the nobility, gentlemen, and merchantmen,

especially at great meetings, do sit commonly till two or three of

the clock at afternoon, so that with many it is a hard matter to rise

from the table to go to evening prayer, and return from thence to

come time enough to supper.[7]...

[6] This word is not obsolete. South coast countrymen still

eat _nuntions_ and not _luncheons_.--W.

[7] Here follows a disquisition upon the table practices of

the ancients.--W.

With us the nobility, gentry, and students do ordinarily go to dinner

at eleven before noon, and to supper at five, or between five and six

at afternoon. The merchants dine and sup seldom before twelve at noon,

and six at night, especially in London. The husbandmen dine also at

high noon as they call it, and sup at seven or eight; but out of the

term in our universities the scholars dine at ten. As for the poorest

sort they generally dine and sup when they may, so that to talk of

their order of repast it were but a needless matter. I might here take

occasion also to set down the variety used by antiquity in their

beginnings of their diets, wherein almost every nation had a several

fashion, some beginning of custom (as we do in summer time) with

salads at supper, and some ending with lettuce, some making their

entry with eggs, and shutting up their tables with mulberries, as we

do with fruit and conceits of all sorts. Divers (as the old Romans)

began with a few crops of rue, as the Venetians did with the fish

called gobius; the Belgres with butter, or (as we do yet also) with

butter and eggs upon fish days. But whereas we commonly begin with the

most gross food, and end with the most delicate, the Scot, thinking

much to leave the best for his menial servants, maketh his entrance at

the best, so that he is sure thereby to leave the worst. We use also

our wines by degrees, so that the hostess cometh last to the table:

but to stand upon such toys would spend much time, and turn to small

profit. Wherefore I will deal with other things more necessary for

this turn.

CHAPTER VII

OF OUR APPAREL AND ATTIRE

[1577, Book III., Chapter 2; 1587, Book II., Chapter 7.]

An Englishman, endeavouring sometime to write of our attire, made

sundry platforms for his purpose, supposing by some of them to find

out one steadfast ground whereon to build the sum of his discourse.

But in the end (like an orator long without exercise), when he saw

what a difficult piece of work he had taken in hand, he gave over his

travel, and only drew the picture of a naked man[1], unto whom he

gave a pair of shears in the one hand and a piece of cloth in the

other, to the end he should shape his apparel after such fashion as

himself liked, sith he could find no kind of garment that could

please him any while together; and this he called an Englishman.

Certes this writer (otherwise being a lewd popish hypocrite and

ungracious priest) shewed himself herein not to be altogether void of

judgment, sith the phantastical folly of our nation (even from the

courtier to the carter) is such that no form of apparel liketh us

longer than the first garment is in the wearing, if it continue so

long, and be not laid aside to receive some other trinket newly

devised by the fickle-headed tailors, who covet to have several

tricks in cutting, thereby to draw fond customers to more expense of

money. For my part, I can tell better how to inveigh against this

enormity than describe any certainty of our attire; sithence such is

our mutability that to-day there is none to the Spanish guise,

to-morrow the French toys are most fine and delectable, ere long no

such apparel as that which is after the high Almaine fashion,

by-and-by the Turkish manner is generally best liked of, otherwise

the Morisco gowns, the Barbarian fleeces, the mandilion worn to

Colley-Weston ward, and the short French breeches make such a comely

vesture that, except it were a dog in a doublet, you shall not see

any so disguised as are my countrymen of England. And as these

fashions are diverse, so likewise it is a world to see the costliness

and the curiosity, the excess and the vanity, the pomp and the

bravery, the change and the variety, and finally the fickleness and

the folly, that is in all degrees, insomuch that nothing is more

constant in England than inconstancy of attire. Oh, how much cost is

bestowed nowadays upon our bodies, and how little upon our souls! How

many suits of apparel hath the one, and how little furniture hath the

other! How long time is asked in decking up of the first, and how

little space left wherein to feed the latter! How curious, how nice

also, are a number of men and women, and how hardly can the tailor

please them in making it fit for their bodies! How many times must it

be sent back again to him that made it! What chafing, what fretting,

what reproachful language, doth the poor workman bear away! And many

times when he doth nothing to it at all, yet when it is brought home

again it is very fit and handsome; then must we put it on, then must

the long seams of our hose be set by a plumb-line, then we puff, then

we blow, and finally sweat till we drop, that our clothes may stand

well upon us. I will say nothing of our heads, which sometimes are

polled, sometimes curled, or suffered to grow at length like woman's

locks, many times cut off, above or under the ears, round as by a

wooden dish. Neither will I meddle with our variety of beards, of

which some are shaven from the chin like those of Turks, not a few

cut short like to the beard of Marquess Otto, some made round like a

rubbing brush, others with a _pique de vant_ (O! fine fashion!), or

now and then suffered to grow long, the barbers being grown to be so

cunning in this behalf as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a

lean and straight face, a Marquess Otton's cut will make it broad and

large; if it be platter-like, a long, slender beard will make it seem

the narrower; if he be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the

cheeks will make the owner look big like a bowdled hen, and as grim

as a goose, if Cornells of Chelmersford say true. Many old men do

wear no beards at all. Some lusty courtiers also and gentlemen of

courage do wear either rings of gold, stones, or pearl, in their ears,

whereby they imagine the workmanship of God not to be a little

amended. But herein they rather disgrace than adorn their persons, as

by their niceness in apparel, for which I say most nations do not

unjustly deride us, as also for that we do seem to imitate all nations

round about us, wherein we be like to the polypus or chameleon; and

thereunto bestow most cost upon our arses, and much more than upon all

the rest of our bodies, as women do likewise upon their heads and

shoulders. In women also, it is most to be lamented, that they do now

far exceed the lightness of our men (who nevertheless are transformed

from the cap even to the very shoe), and such staring attire as in

time past was supposed meet for none but light housewives only is now

become a habit for chaste and sober matrons. What should I say of

their doublets with pendant codpieces on the breast full of jags and

cuts, and sleeves of sundry colours? Their galligascons to bear out

their bums and make their attire to fit plum round (as they term it)

about them. Their fardingals, and diversely coloured nether stocks of

silk, jerdsey, and such like, whereby their bodies are rather deformed

than commended? I have met with some of these trulls in London so

disguised that it hath passed my skill to discern whether they were

men or women.

[1] (COS.)

"I am an English man and naked I stand here,

Musying in my mynde what rayment I shall were;

For now I will were thys, and now I will were that;

Now I will were I cannot tell what.

All new fashyons be plesaunt in me;

I wyl haue them, whether I thryve or thee."

From Andrew Boorde's _Introduction_ (1541), and _Dyetary_ (1542),

edited by F.J.F. for Early English Text Society, 1870, p. 116. (A

most quaint and interesting volume, though I say so.)--Furnivall.

Thus it is now come to pass, that women are become men, and men

transformed into monsters; and those good gifts which Almighty God

hath given unto us to relieve our necessities withal (as a nation

turning altogether the grace of God into wantonness, for

"Luxuriant animi rebus plerunque fecundis,")

not otherwise bestowed than in all excess, as if we wist not

otherwise how to consume and waste them. I pray God that in this

behalf our sin be not like unto that of Sodom and Gomorrah, whose

errors were pride, excess of diet, and abuse of God's benefits

abundantly bestowed upon them, beside want of charity towards the

poor, and certain other points which the prophet shutteth up in

silence. Certes the commonwealth cannot be said to nourish where

these abuses reign, but is rather oppressed by unreasonable exactions

made upon rich farmers, and of poor tenants, wherewith to maintain

the same. Neither was it ever merrier with England than when an

Englishman was known abroad by his own cloth, and contented himself

at home with his fine carsey hosen, and a mean slop; his coat, gown,

and cloak of brown, blue, or puke, with some pretty furniture of

velvet or fur, and a doublet of sad tawny, or black velvet, or other

comely silk, without such cuts and garish colours as are worn in

these days, and never brought in but by the consent of the French,

who think themselves the gayest men when they have most diversities

of jags and change of colours about them. Certes of all estates our

merchants do least alter their attire, and therefore are most to be

commended; for albeit that which they wear be very fine and costly,

yet in form and colour it representeth a great piece of the ancient

gravity appertaining to citizens and burgesses, albeit the younger

sort of their wives, both in attire and costly housekeeping, cannot

tell when and how to make an end, as being women indeed in whom all

kind of curiosity is to be found and seen, and in far greater measure

than in women of higher calling. I might here name a sort of hues

devised for the nonce, wherewith to please fantastical heads, as

goose-turd green, peas-porridge tawny, popingay blue, lusty gallant,

the devil-in-the-head (I should say the hedge), and such like; but I

pass them over, thinking it sufficient to have said thus much of

apparel generally, when nothing can particularly be spoken of any

constancy thereof.

CHAPTER VIII

OF THE MANNER OF BUILDING AND FURNITURE OF OUR HOUSES

[1577, Book II., Chapter 10; 1587, Book II., Chapter 12.]

The greatest part of our building in the cities and good towns of

England consisteth only of timber, for as yet few of the houses of

the communalty (except here and there in the West-country towns) are

made of stone, although they may (in my opinion) in divers other

places be builded so good cheap of the one as of the other. In old

time the houses of the Britons were slightly set up with a few posts

and many raddles, with stable and all offices under one roof, the

like whereof almost is to be seen in the fenny countries and northern

parts unto this day, where for lack of wood they are enforced to

continue this ancient manner of building. It is not in vain,

therefore, in speaking of building, to make a distinction between the

plain and woody soils; for as in these, our houses are commonly

strong and well-timbered (so that in many places there are not above

four, six, or nine inches between stud and stud), so in the open

champaign countries they are forced, for want of stuff, to use no

studs at all, but only frankposts, raisins, beams, prickposts,

groundsels, summers (or dormants), transoms, and such principals,

with here and there a girding, whereunto they fasten their splints or

raddles, and then cast it all over with thick clay to keep out the

wind, which otherwise would annoy them. Certes this rude kind of

building made the Spaniards in Queen Mary's days to wonder, but

chiefly when they saw what large diet was used in many of these so

homely cottages; insomuch that one of no small reputation amongst

them said after this manner--"These English (quoth he) have their

houses made of sticks and dirt, but they fare commonly so well as the

king." Whereby it appeareth that he liked better of our good fare in

such coarse cabins than of their own thin diet in their prince-like

habitations and palaces. In like sort as every country house is thus

apparelled on the outside, so is it inwardly divided into sundry

rooms above and beneath; and, where plenty of wood is, they cover

them with tiles, otherwise with straw, sedge, or reed, except some

quarry of slate be near hand, from whence they have for their money

much as may suffice them. The clay wherewith our houses are

impannelled is either white, red, or blue; and of these the first

doth participate very much of the nature of our chalk; the second is

called loam; but the third eftsoons changeth colour as soon as it is

wrought, notwithstanding that it looks blue when it is thrown out of

the pit. Of chalk also we have our excellent asbestos or white lime,

made in most places, wherewith being quenched, we strike over our

clay works and stone walls, in cities, good towns, rich farmers' and

gentlemen's houses: otherwise, instead of chalk (where it wanteth,

for it is so scant that in some places it is sold by the pound), they

are compelled to burn a certain kind of red stone, as in Wales, and

elsewhere other stones and shells of oysters and like fish found upon

the sea coast, which, being converted into lime, doth naturally (as

the other) abhor and eschew water, whereby it is dissolved, and

nevertheless desire oil, wherewith it is easily mixed, as I have seen

by experience. Within their doors also, such as are of ability do oft

make their floors and parget of fine alabaster burned, which they

call plaster of Paris, whereof in some places we have great plenty,

and that very profitable against the rage of fire. In plastering

likewise of our fairest houses over our heads, we use to lay first a

line or two of white mortar, tempered with hair, upon laths, which

are nailed one by another (or sometimes upon reed of wickers more

dangerous for fire, and make fast here and there saplaths for falling

down), and finally cover all with the aforesaid plaster, which,

beside the delectable whiteness of the stuff itself, is laid on so

even and smoothly as nothing in my judgment can be done with more

exactness. The walls of our houses on the inner sides in like sort be

either hanged with tapestry, arras work, or painted cloths, wherein

either divers histories, or herbs, beasts, knots, and such like are

stained, or else they are ceiled with oak of our own, or wainscot

brought hither out of the east countries, whereby the rooms are not a

little commended, made warm, and much more close than otherwise they

would be. As for stoves, we have not hitherto used them greatly, yet

do they now begin to be made in divers houses of the gentry and

wealthy citizens, who build them not to work and feed in, as in

Germany and elsewhere, but now and then to sweat in, as occasion and

need shall require it.

This also hath been common in England, contrary to the customs of all

other nations, and yet to be seen (for example, in most streets of

London), that many of our greatest houses have outwardly been very

simple and plain to sight, which inwardly have been able to receive a

duke with his whole train, and lodge them at their ease. Hereby,

moreover, it is come to pass that the fronts of our streets have not

been so uniform and orderly builded as those of foreign cities, where

(to say truth) the outer side of their mansions and dwellings have

oft more cost bestowed upon them than all the rest of the house,

which are often very simple and uneasy within, as experience doth

confirm. Of old time, our country houses, instead of glass, did use

much lattice, and that made either of wicker or fine rifts of oak in

checkerwise. I read also that some of the better sort, in and before

the times of the Saxons (who notwithstanding used some glass also

since the time of Benedict Biscop, the monk that brought the feat of

glazing first into this land), did make panels of horn instead of

glass, and fix them in wooden calmes. But as horn in windows is now

quite laid down in every place, so our lattices are also grown into

less use, because glass is come to be so plentiful, and within a very

little so good cheap, if not better than the other. I find obscure

mention of the specular stone also to have been found and applied to

this use in England, but in such doubtful sort as I dare not affirm

it for certain. Nevertheless certain it is that antiquity used it

before glass was known, under the name of _selenites_. And how glass

was first found I care not greatly to remember, even at this present,

although it be directly beside my purposed matter. In Syria Phenices,

which bordereth upon Jewry, and near to the foot of Mount Carmel,

there is a moor or marsh whereout riseth a brook called sometime

Belus, and falleth into the sea near to Ptolemais. This river was

fondly ascribed unto Baal, and also honoured under that name by the

infidels long time before there was any king in Israel. It came to

pass also, as a certain merchant sailed that way, loaden with nitrum,

the passengers went to land for to repose themselves, and to take in

some store of fresh water into their vessel. Being also on the shore,

they kindled a fire and made provision for their dinner, but (because

they wanted trevets or stones whereon to set their kettles on) ran by

chance into the ship, and brought great pieces of nitrum with them,

which served their turn for that present. To be short, the said

substance being hot, and beginning to melt, it mixed by chance with

the gravel that lay under it, and so brought forth that shining

substance which now is called glass, and about the time of Semiramis.

When the company saw this, they made no small accompt of their

success, and forthwith began to practise the like in other mixtures,

whereby great variety of the said stuff did also ensue. Certes for

the time this history may well be true, for I read of glass in Job;

but, for the rest, I refer me to the common opinion conceived by

writers. Now, to turn again to our windows. Heretofore also the

houses of our princes and noblemen were often glazed with beryl (an

example whereof is yet to be seen in Sudeley Castle) and in divers

other places with fine crystal, but this especially in the time of

the Romans, whereof also some fragments have been taken up in old

ruins. But now these are not in use, so that only the clearest glass

is most esteemed: for we have divers sorts, some brought out of

Burgundy, some out of Normandy, much out of Flanders, beside that

which is made in England, which would be so good as the best if we

were diligent and careful to bestow more cost upon it, and yet as it

is each one that may will have it for his building. Moreover the

mansion houses of our country towns and villages (which in champaign

ground stand altogether by streets, and joining one to another, but

in woodland soils dispersed here and there, each one upon the several

grounds of their owners) are builded in such sort generally as that

they have neither dairy, stable, nor brew-house annexed unto them

under the same roof (as in many places beyond the sea and some of the

north parts of our country), but all separate from the first, and one

of them from another. And yet, for all this, they are not so far

distant in sunder but that the goodman lying in his bed may lightly

hear what is done in each of them with ease, and call quickly unto

his many if any danger should attack him.

The ancient manors and houses of our gentlemen are yet and for the

most part of strong timber, in framing whereof our carpenters have

been and are worthily preferred before those of like science among

all other nations. Howbeit such as be lately builded are commonly

either of brick or hard stone, or both, their rooms large and comely,

and houses of office further distant from their lodgings. Those of

the nobility are likewise wrought with brick and hard stone, as

provision may best be made, but so magnificent and stately as the

basest house of a baron doth often match in our days with some

honours of a princes in old time. So that, if ever curious building

did flourish in England, it is in these our years wherein our workmen

excel and are in manner comparable in skill with old Vitruvius, Leo

Baptista, and Serlo. Nevertheless their estimation, more than their

greedy and servile covetousness, joined with a lingering humour,

causeth them often to be rejected, and strangers preferred to greater

bargains, who are more reasonable in their takings, and less wasters

of time by a great deal than our own.

The furniture of our houses also exceedeth, and is grown in manner

even to passing delicacy: and herein I do not speak of the nobility

and gentry only, but likewise of the lowest sort in most places of

our south country that have anything at all to take to. Certes in

noblemen's houses it is not rare to see abundance of arras, rich

hangings of tapestry, silver vessels, and so much other plate as may

furnish sundry cupboards to the sum oftentimes of a thousand or two

thousand pounds at the least, whereby the value of this and the rest

of their stuff doth grow to be almost inestimable. Likewise in the

houses of knights, gentlemen, merchantmen, and some other wealthy

citizens, it is not geson to behold generally their great provision

of tapestry, Turkey work, pewter, brass, fine linen, and thereto

costly cupboards of plate, worth five or six hundred or a thousand

pounds to be deemed by estimation. But, as herein all these sorts do

far exceed their elders and predecessors, and in neatness and

curiosity the merchant all other, so in times past the costly

furniture stayed there, whereas now it is descended yet lower even

unto the inferior artificers and many farmers, who, by virtue of

their old and not of their new leases, have, for the most part,

learned also to garnish their cupboards with plate, their joined beds

with tapestry and silk hangings, and their tables with carpets and

fine napery, whereby the wealth of our country (God be praised

therefore, and give us grace to employ it well) doth infinitely

appear. Neither do I speak this in reproach of any man, God is my

judge, but to shew that I do rejoice rather to see how God hath

blessed us with his good gifts; and whilst, I behold how (in a time

wherein all things are grown to most excessive prices, and what

commodity so ever is to be had is daily plucked from the communalty

by such as look into every trade) we do yet find the means to obtain

and achieve such furniture as heretofore hath been unpossible.

There are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain which

have noted three things to be marvellously altered in England within

their sound remembrance, and other three things too too much

increased.

One is the multitude of chimneys lately erected, whereas in their

young days there were not above two or three, if so many, in most

uplandish towns of the realm (the religious houses and manor places

of their lords always excepted, and peradventure some great

personages), but each one made his fire against a reredos in the

hall, where he dined and dressed his meat.

The second is the great (although not general) amendment of lodging;

for, said they, our fathers, yea and we ourselves also, have lain

full oft upon straw pallets, on rough mats covered only with a sheet,

under coverlets made of dagswain or hopharlots (I use their own

terms), and a good round log under their heads instead of a bolster

or pillow. If it were so that our fathers--or the good man of the

house had within seven years after his marriage purchased a mattress

or flock bed, and thereto a stack of chaff to rest his head upon, he

thought himself to be as well lodged as the lord of the town, that

peradventure lay seldom in a bed of down or whole feathers, so well

were they content, and with such base kind of furniture: which also

is not very much amended as yet in some parts of Bedfordshire, and

elsewhere, further off from our southern parts. Pillows (said they)

were thought meet only for women in childbed. As for servants, if

they had any sheet above them, it was well, for seldom had they any

under their bodies to keep them from the pricking straws that ran oft

through the canvas of the pallet and rased their hardened hides.