The third thing they tell of is the exchange of vessel, as of treen

platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver or tin. For so

common were all sorts of treen stuff in old time that a man should

hardly find four pieces of pewter (of which one was peradventure a

salt) in a good farmer's house, and yet for all this frugality (if it

may so be justly called) they were scarce able to live and pay their

rents at their days without selling of a cow, or a horse or more,[1]

although they paid but four pounds at the uttermost by the year. Such

also was their poverty that, if some one odd farmer or husbandman had

been at the ale-house, a thing greatly used in those days, amongst six

or seven of his neighbours, and there in a bravery, to shew what store

he had, did cast down his purse, and therein a noble or six shillings

in silver, unto them (for few such men then cared for gold, because it

was not so ready payment, and they were oft enforced to give a penny

for the exchange of an angel), it was very likely that all the rest

could not lay down so much against it; whereas in my time, although

peradventure four pounds of old rent be improved to forty, fifty, or a

hundred pounds, yet will the farmer, as another palm of date tree,

think his gains very small toward the end of his term if he have not

six or seven years' rent lying by him, therewith to purchase a new

lease, beside a fair garnish of pewter oft his cupboard, with so much

more in odd vessel going about the house, three or four feather beds,

so many coverlids and carpets of tapestry, a silver salt, a bowl for

wine (if not a whole neast), and a dozen of spoons to furnish up the

suit. This also he takes to be his own clear, for what stock of money

soever he gathereth and layeth up in all his years it is often seen

that the landlord will take such order with him for the same when he

reneweth his lease, which is commonly eight or six years before the

old be expired (sith it is now grown almost to a custom that if he

come not to his lord so long before another shall step in for a

reversion, and so defeat him outright), that it shall never trouble

him more than the hair of his beard when the barber hath washed and

shaved it from his chin.

[1] This was in the time of general idleness.--H.

And as they commend these, so (beside the decay of housekeeping

whereby the poor have been relieved) they speak also of three things

that are grown to be very grevious unto them--to wit, the enhancing

of rents, lately mentioned; the daily oppression of copyholders,

whose lords seek to bring their poor tenants almost into plain

servitude and misery, daily devising new means, and seeking up all

the old, how to cut them shorter and shorter, doubling, trebling, and

now and then seven times increasing their fines, driving them also

for every trifle to lose and forfeit their tenures (by whom the

greatest part of the realm doth stand and is maintained), to the end

they may fleece them yet more, which is a lamentable hearing. The

third thing they talk of is usury, a trade brought in by the Jews,

now perfectly practised almost by every Christian, and so commonly

that he is accompted but for a fool that doth lend his money for

nothing. In time past it was _sors pro sorte_--that is, the principal

only for the principal; but now, beside that which is above the

principal properly called _Usura_, we challenge _Foenus_--that is,

commodity of soil and fruits of the earth, If not the ground itself.

In time past also one of the hundred was much; from thence it rose

unto two, called in Latin _Usura, Ex sextante_; three, to wit _Ex

quadrante_; then to four, to wit, _Ex triente_; then to five, which

is _Ex quincunce_; then to six, called _Ex semisse_, etc. As the

accompt of the _Assis_ ariseth, and coming at the last unto _Usura ex

asse_, it amounteth to twelve in the hundred, and therefore the

Latins call it _Centesima_, for that in the hundred month it doubleth

the principal; but more of this elsewhere. See Cicero against Verres,

Demosthenes against Aphobus, and Athenaeus, lib. 13, in fine; and,

when thou hast read them well, help I pray thee in lawful manner to

hang up such as take _Centum pro cento_, for they are no better

worthy as I do judge in conscience. Forget not also such landlords as

used to value their leases at a secret estimation given of the wealth

and credit of the taker, whereby they seem (as it were) to eat them

up, and deal with bondmen, so that if the lessee be thought to be

worth a hundred pounds he shall pay no less for his new term, or else

another to enter with hard and doubtful covenants. I am sorry to

report it, much more grieved to understand of the practice, but most

sorrowful of all to understand that men of great port and countenance

are so far from suffering their farmers to have any gain at all that

they themselves become graziers, butchers, tanners, sheepmasters,

woodmen, and _denique quid non_, thereby to enrich themselves, and

bring all the wealth of the country into their own hands, leaving the

communalty weak, or as an idol with broken or feeble arms, which may

in a time of peace have a plausible shew, but when necessity shall

enforce have a heavy and bitter sequel.

CHAPTER IX

OF PROVISION MADE FOR THE POOR

[1577, Book III., Chapter 5; 1587, Book II., Chapter 10.]

There is no commonwealth at this day in Europe wherein there is not

great store of poor people, and those necessarily to be relieved by

the wealthier sort, which otherwise would starve and come to utter

confusion. With us the poor is commonly divided into three sorts, so

that some are poor by impotence, as the fatherless child, the aged,

blind, and lame, and the diseased person that is judged to be

incurable; the second are poor by casualty, as the wounded soldier,

the decayed householder, and the sick person visited with grievous

and painful diseases; the third consisteth of thriftless poor, as the

rioter that hath consumed all, the vagabond that will abide nowhere,

but runneth up and down from place to place (as it were seeking work

and finding none), and finally the rogue and the strumpet, which are

not possible to be divided in sunder, but run to and fro over all the

realm, chiefly keeping the champaign soils in summer to avoid the

scorching heat, and the woodland grounds in winter to eschew the

blustering winds.

For the first two sorts (that is to say, the poor by impotence and

poor by casualty, which are the true poor indeed, and for whom the

Word doth bind us to make some daily provision), there is order taken

throughout every parish in the realm that weekly collection shall be

made for their help and sustentation--to the end they shall not

scatter abroad, and, by begging here and there, annoy both town and

country. Authority also is given unto the justices in every county

(and great penalties appointed for such as make default) to see that

the intent of the statute in this behalf be truly executed according

to the purpose and meaning of the same, so that these two sorts are

sufficiently provided for; and such as can live within the limits of

their allowance (as each one will do that is godly and well disposed)

may well forbear to roam and range about. But if they refuse to be

supported by this benefit of the law, and will rather endeavour by

going to and fro to maintain their idle trades, then are they adjudged

to be parcel of the third sort, and so, instead of courteous

refreshing at home, are often corrected with sharp execution and whip

of justice abroad. Many there are which, notwithstanding the rigour of

the laws provided in that behalf, yield rather with this liberty (as

they call it) to be daily under the fear and terror of the whip than,

by abiding where they were born or bred, to be provided for by the

devotion of the parishes. I found not long since a note of these

latter sort, the effect whereof ensueth. Idle beggars are such either

through other men's occasion or through their own default--by other

men's occasion (as one way for example) when some covetous man (such,

I mean, as have the cast or right vein daily to make beggars enough

whereby to pester the land, espying a further commodity in their

commons, holds, and tenures) doth find such means as thereby to wipe

many out of their occupyings and turn the same unto his private

gains.[1] Hereupon it followeth that, although the wise and

better-minded do either forsake the realm for altogether, and seek to

live in other countries, as France, Germany, Barbary, India, Muscovia,

and very Calcutta, complaining of no room to be left for them at home,

do so behave themselves that they are worthily to be accounted among

the second sort, yet the greater part, commonly having nothing to stay

upon, are wilful, and thereupon do either prove idle beggars or else

continue stark thieves till the gallows do eat them up, which is a

lamentable case. Certes in some men's judgment these things are but

trifles, and not worthy the regarding. Some also do grudge at the

great increase of people in these days, thinking a necessary brood of

cattle far better than a superfluous augmentation of mankind. But I

can liken such men best of all unto the pope and the devil, who

practise the hindrance of the furniture of the number of the elect to

their uttermost, to the end the authority of the one upon the earth,

the deferring of the locking up of the other in everlasting chains,

and the great gains of the first, may continue and endure the longer.

But if it should come to pass that any foreign invasion should be

made--which the Lord God forbid for his mercies' sake!--then should

these men find that a wall of men is far better than stacks of corn

and bags of money, and complain of the want when it is too late to

seek remedy. The like occasion caused the Romans to devise their law

_Agraria_: but the rich, not liking of it, and the covetous, utterly

condemning it as rigorous and unprofitable, never ceased to practise

disturbance till it was quite abolished. But to proceed with my

purpose.

[1] At whose hands shall the blood of these men be required?--H.

Such as are idle beggars through their own default are of two sorts,

and continue their estates either by casual or mere voluntary means:

those that are such by casual means are in the beginning justly to be

referred either to the first or second sort of poor aforementioned,

but, degenerating into the thriftless sort, they do what they can to

continue their misery, and, with such impediments as they have, to

stray and wander about, as creatures abhorring all labour and every

honest exercise. Certes I call these casual means, not in the respect

of the original of all poverty, but of the continuance of the same,

from whence they will not be delivered, such is their own ungracious

lewdness and froward disposition. The voluntary means proceed from

outward causes, as by making of corrosives, and applying the same to

the more fleshy parts of their bodies, and also laying of ratsbane,

spearwort, crowfoot, and such like unto their whole members, thereby

to raise pitiful and odious sores, and move the hearts of the

goers-by such places where they lie, to yearn at their misery, and

thereupon bestow large alms upon them. How artificially they beg,

what forcible speech, and how they select and choose out words of

vehemence, whereby they do in manner conjure or adjure the goer-by to

pity their cases, I pass over to remember, as judging the name of God

and Christ to be more conversant in the mouths of none and yet the

presence of the Heavenly Majesty further off from no men than from

this ungracious company. Which maketh me to think that punishment is

far meeter for them than liberality or alms, and sith Christ willeth

us chiefly to have a regard to Himself and his poor members.

Unto this nest is another sort to be referred, more sturdy than the

rest, which, having sound and perfect limbs, do yet notwithstanding

sometime counterfeit the possession of all sorts of diseases. Divers

times in their apparel also they will be like serving men or

labourers: oftentimes they can play the mariners, and seek for ships

which they never lost. But in fine they are all thieves and

caterpillars in the commonwealth, and by the Word of God not

permitted to eat, sith they do but lick the sweat from the true

labourers' brows, and bereave the godly poor of that which is due

unto them, to maintain their excess, consuming the charity of

well-disposed people bestowed upon them, after a most wicked and

detestable manner.

It is not yet full threescore years since this trade began: but how

it hath prospered since that time it is easy to judge, for they are

now supposed, of one sex and another, to amount unto above 10,000

persons, as I have heard reported. Moreover, in counterfeiting the

Egyptian rogues, they have devised a language among themselves, which

they name "Canting," but others, "pedler's French," a speech compact

thirty years since, of English and a great number of odd words of

their own devising, without all order or reason, and yet such is it

as none but themselves are able to understand. The first deviser

thereof was hanged by the neck--a just reward, no doubt, for his

deserts, and a common end to all of that profession.

A gentleman also of late hath taken great pains to search out the

secret practices of this ungracious rabble. And among other things he

setteth down and describeth three and twenty sorts of them, whose

names it shall not be amiss to remember whereby each one may take

occasion to read and know as also by his industry what wicked people

they are, and what villainy remaineth in them.

_The several disorders and degrees amongst our idle vagabonds_.

1. Rufflers.

2. Uprightmen.

3. Hookers or anglers.

4. Rogues.

5. Wild rogues.

6. Priggers or pransers.

7. Palliards.

8. Fraters.

9. Abrams.

10. Freshwater mariners or whipjacks.

11. Drummerers.

12. Drunken tinkers.

13. Swadders or pedlers.

14. Jarkemen or patricoes.

_Of the women kind_.

1. Demanders for glimmar or fire.

2. Bawdy-baskets.

3. Mortes.

4. Autem mortem.

5. Walking mortes.

6. Doxies.

7. Dells.

8. Kinching mortes.

9. Kinching cooes.

The punishment that is ordained for this kind of people is very sharp,

and yet it cannot restrain them from their gadding: wherefore the end

must needs be martial law,[2] to be exercised upon them, as upon

thieves, robbers, despisers of all laws, and enemies to the

commonwealth and welfare of the land. What notable robberies,

pilferies, murders, rapes, and stealings of young children, burning,

breaking, and disfiguring their limbs to make them pitiful in the

sight of the people, I need not to rehearse; but for their idle

rogueing about the country, the law ordaineth this manner of

correction. The rogue being apprehended, committed to prison, and

tried in the next assizes (whether they be of gaol delivery or

sessions of the peace), if he happen to be convicted for a vagabond,

either by inquest of office or the testimony of two honest and

credible witnesses upon their oaths, he is then immediately adjudged

to be grievously whipped and burned through the gristle of the right

ear with a hot iron of the compass of an inch about, as a

manifestation of his wicked life, and due punishment received for the

same. And this judgment is to be executed upon him except some honest

person worth five pounds in the queen's books in goods, or twenty

shillings in land, or some rich householder to be allowed by the

justices, will be bound in recognisance to retain him in his service

for one whole year. If he be taken the second time, and proved to have

forsaken his said service, he shall then be whipped again, bored

likewise through the other ear, and set to service: from whence if he

depart before a year be expired, and happen afterwards to be attached

again, he is condemned to suffer pains of death as a felon (except

before excepted) without benefit of clergy or sanctuary, as by the

statute doth appear. Among rogues and idle persons, finally, we find

to be comprised all proctors that go up and down with counterfeit

licences, cozeners, and such as gad about the country, using unlawful

games, practisers of physiogonomy and palmestry, tellers of fortunes,

fencers, players, minstrels, jugglers, pedlers, tinkers, pretended

scholars, shipmen, prisoners gathering for fees, and others so oft as

they be taken without sufficient licence. From among which company our

bearwards are not excepted, and just cause: for I have read that they

have, either voluntarily or for want of power to master their savage

beasts, been occasion of the death and devouration of many children in

sundry countries by which they have passed, whose parents never knew

what was become of them. And for that cause there is and have been

many sharp laws made for bearwards in Germany, whereof you may read in

other. But to our rogues. Each one also that harboureth or aideth them

with meat or money is taxed and compelled to fine with the queen's

majesty for every time that he doth succour them as it shall please

the justices of peace to assign, so that the taxation exceed not

twenty, as I have been informed. And thus much of the poor and such

provision as is appointed for them within the realm of England.

[2] Law of the Marshal.--Furnivall.

CHAPTER X

OF THE AIR AND SOIL AND COMMODITIES OF THIS ISLAND

[1577, Book I., Chapter 13; 1587, Book I., Chapter 18.]

The air (for the most part) throughout the island is such as by

reason in manner of continual clouds is reputed to be gross, and

nothing so pleasant as that of the main. Howbeit, as they which

affirm these things have only respect to the impediment or hindrance

of the sunbeams by the interposition of the clouds and of ingrossed

air, so experience teacheth us that it is no less pure, wholesome,

and commodious than is that of other countries, and (as Caesar

himself hereto addeth) much more temperate in summer than that of the

Gauls, from whom he adventured hither. Neither is there any thing

found in the air of our region that is not usually seen amongst other

nations lying beyond the seas. Wherefore we must needs confess that

the situation of our island (for benefit of the heavens) is nothing

inferior to that of any country of the main, wheresoever it lie under

the open firmament. And this Plutarch knew full well, who affirmeth a

part of the Elysian Fields to be found in Britain, and the isles that

are situated about it in the ocean.

The soil of Britain is such as by the testimonies and reports both of

the old and new writers, and experience also of such as now inhabit

the same, is very fruitful, and such indeed as bringeth forth many

commodities, whereof other countries have need, and yet itself (if

fond niceness were abolished) needless of those that are daily

brought from other places. Nevertheless it is more inclined to

feeding and grazing than profitable for tillage and bearing of corn,

by reason whereof the country is wonderfully replenished with neat

and all kind of cattle; and such store is there also of the same in

every place that the fourth part of the land is scarcely manured for

the provision and maintenance of grain. Certes this fruitfulness was

not unknown unto the Britons long before Caesar's time, which was the

cause wherefore our predecessors living in those days in manner

neglected tillage and lived by feeding and grazing only. The graziers

themselves also then dwelled in movable villages by companies, whose

custom was to divide the ground amongst them, and each one not to

depart from the place where his lot lay (a thing much like the Irish

Criacht) till, by eating up of the country about him, he was enforced

to remove further and seek for better pasture. And this was the

British custom, as I learn, at first. It hath been commonly reported

that the ground of Wales is neither so fruitful as that of England,

neither the soil of Scotland so bountiful as that of Wales, which is

true for corn and for the most part; otherwise there is so good

ground in some parts of Wales as is in England, albeit the best of

Scotland be scarcely comparable to the mean of either of both.

Howbeit, as the bounty of the Scotch doth fail in some respect, so

doth it surmount in other, God and nature having not appointed all

countries to yield forth like commodities.

But where our ground is not so good as we would wish, we have--if

need be--sufficient help to cherish our ground withal, and to make it

more fruitful. For, beside the compest that is carried out of the

husbandmen's yards, ditches, ponds, dung-houses, or cities and great

towns, we have with us a kind of white marl which is of so great

force that if it be cast over a piece of land but once in threescore

years it shall not need of any further compesting. Hereof also doth

Pliny speak (lib. 17, cap. 6, 7, 8), where he affirmeth that our marl

endureth upon the earth by the space of fourscore years: insomuch

that it is laid upon the same but once in a man's life, whereby the

owner shall not need to travel twice in procuring to commend and

better his soil. He calleth it _marga_, and, making divers kinds

thereof, he finally commendeth ours, and that of France, above all

other, which lieth sometime a hundred foot deep, and far better than

the scattering of chalk upon the same, as the Hedui and Pictones did

in his time, or as some of our days also do practise: albeit divers

do like better to cast on lime, but it will not so long endure, as I

have heard reported.

There are also in this island great plenty of fresh rivers and

streams, as you have heard already, and these thoroughly fraught with

all kinds of delicate fish accustomed to be found in rivers. The

whole isle likewise is very full of hills, of which some (though not

very many) are of exceeding height, and divers extending themselves

very far from the beginning; as we may see by Shooter's Hill, which,

rising east of London and not far from the Thames, runneth along the

south side of the island westward until it come to Cornwall. Like

unto these also are the Crowdon Hills, which, though under divers

names (as also the other from the Peak), do run into the borders of

Scotland. What should I speak of the Cheviot Hills, which reach

twenty miles in length? of the Black Mountains in Wales, which go

from ([1]) to ([1]) miles at the least in length? of the Clee Hills

in Shropshire, which come within four miles of Ludlow, and are

divided from some part of Worcester by the Leme? of the Crames in

Scotland, and of our Chiltern, which are eighteen miles at the least

from one end of them, which reach from Henley in Oxfordshire to

Dunstable in Bedfordshire, and are very well replenished with wood

and corn, notwithstanding that the most part yield a sweet short

grass, profitable for sheep? Wherein albeit they of Scotland do

somewhat come behind us, yet their outward defect is inwardly

recompensed, not only with plenty of quarries (and those of sundry

kinds of marble, hard stone, and fine alabaster), but also rich mines

of metal, as shall be shewed hereafter.

[1] Here lacks.--H.

In this island the winds are commonly more strong and fierce than in

any other places of the main (which Cardane also espied): and that is

often seen upon the naked hills not guarded with trees to bear and

keep it off. That grievous inconvenience also enforceth our nobility,

gentry, and communality to build their houses in the valleys, leaving

the high grounds unto their corn and cattle, lest the cold and stormy

blasts of winter should breed them greater annoyance; whereas in other

regions each one desireth to set his house aloft on the hill, not only

to be seen afar off, and cast forth his beams of stately and curious

workmanship into every quarter of the country, but also (in hot

habitations) for coldness sake of the air, sith the heat is never so

vehement on the hill-top as in the valley, because the reverberation

of the sun's beams either reacheth not so far as the highest, or else

becometh not so strong as when it is reflected upon the lower soil.

But to leave our buildings unto the purposed place (which

notwithstanding have very much increased, I mean for curiosity and

cost, in England, Wales, and Scotland, within these few years) and to

return to the soil again. Certainly it is even now in these our days

grown to be much more fruitful than it hath been in times past. The

cause is for that our countrymen are grown to be more painful,

skilful, and careful through recompense of gain, than heretofore they

have been: insomuch that my _synchroni_ or time fellows can reap at

this present great commodity in a little room; whereas of late years

a great compass hath yielded but small profit, and this only through

the idle and negligent occupation of such as daily manured and had

the same in occupying. I might set down examples of these things out

of all the parts of this island--that is to say, many of England,

more out of Scotland, but most of all out of Wales; in which two last

rehearsed, very other little food and livelihood was wont to be

looked for (beside flesh) more than the soil of itself and the cow

gave, the people in the meantime living idly, dissolutely, and by

picking and stealing one from another. All which vices are now (for

the most part) relinquished, so that each nation manureth her own

with triple commodity to that it was before time.

The pasture of this island is according to the nature and bounty of

the soil, whereby in most places it is plentiful, very fine, batable,

and such as either fatteth our cattle with speed or yieldeth great

abundance of milk and cream whereof the yellowest butter and finest

cheese are made. But where the blue clay aboundeth (which hardly

drinketh up the winter's water in long season) there the grass is

speary, rough, and very apt for bushes: by which occasion it becometh

nothing so profitable unto the owner as the other. The best pasture

ground of all England is in Wales, and of all the pasture in Wales

that of Cardigan is the chief. I speak of the same which is to be

found in the mountains there, where the hundredth part of the grass

growing is not eaten, but suffered to rot on the ground, whereby the

soil becometh matted and divers bogs and quickmoors made withal in

long continuance: because all the cattle in the country are not able

to eat it down. If it be accounted good soil on which a man may lay a

wand over night and on the morrow find it hidden and overgrown with

grass, it is not hard to find plenty thereof in many places of this

land. Nevertheless such is the fruitfulness of the aforesaid county

that it far surmounteth this proportion, whereby it may be compared

for batableness with Italy, which in my time is called the paradise

of the world, although by reason of the wickedness of such as dwell

therein it may be called the sink and drain of hell; so that whereas

they were wont to say of us that our land is good but our people

evil, they did but only speak it; whereas we know by experience that

the soil of Italy is a noble soil, but the dwellers therein far off

any virtue or goodness.

Our meadows are either bottoms (whereof we have great store, and

those very large, because our soil is hilly) or else such as we call

land meads, and borrowed from the best and fattest pasturages. The

first of them are yearly and often overflown by the rising of such

streams as pass through the same, or violent falls of land-waters,

that descend from the hills about them. The other are seldom or never

overflown, and that is the cause wherefore their grass is shorter

than that of the bottoms, and yet is it far more fine, wholesome, and

batable, sith the hay of our low meadows is not only full of sandy

cinder, which breedeth sundry diseases in our cattle, but also more

rowty, foggy, and full of flags, and therefore not so profitable for

store and forrage as the higher meads be. The difference furthermore

in their commodities is great; for, whereas in our land meadows we

have not often above one good load of hay, or peradventure a little

more in an acre of ground (I use the word _carrucata_, or _carruca_,

which is a wain load, and, as I remember, used by Pliny, lib. 33,

cap. 2), in low meadows we have sometimes three, but commonly two or

upwards, as experience hath oft confirmed.

Of such as are twice mowed I speak not, sith their later math is not

so wholesome for cattle as the first; although in the mouth more

pleasant for the time: for thereby they become oftentimes to be

rotten, or to increase so fast in blood, that the garget and other

diseases do consume many of them before the owners can seek out any

remedy, by phlebotomy or otherwise. Some superstitious fools suppose

that they which die of the garget are ridden with the nightmare, and

therefore they hang up stones which naturally have holes in them, and

must be found unlooked for; as if such a stone were an apt cockshot

for the devil to run through and solace himself withal, while the

cattle go scot-free and are not molested by him! But if I should set

down but half the toys that superstition hath brought into our

husbandmen's heads in this and other behalf, it would ask a greater

volume than is convenient for such a purpose, wherefore it shall

suffice to have said thus much of these things.

The yield of our corn-ground is also much after this rate following.

Throughout the land (if you please to make an estimate thereof by the

acre) in mean and indifferent years, wherein each acre of rye or

wheat, well tilled and dressed, will yield commonly sixteen or twenty

bushels, an acre of barley six-and-thirty bushels, of oats and such

like four or five quarters, which proportion is notwithstanding oft

abated toward the north, as it is oftentimes surmounted in the south.

Of mixed corn, as peas and beans, sown together, tares and oats

(which they call bulmong), rye and wheat (named miscelin), here is no

place to speak, yet their yield is nevertheless much after this

proportion, as I have often marked. And yet is not this our great

foison comparable to that of hotter countries of the main. But, of

all that I ever read, the increase which Eldred Danus writeth of in

his _De imperie Judaeorum in Aethiopia_ surmounteth, where he saith

that in the field near to the Sabbatike river, called in old time

Gosan, the ground is so fertile that every grain of barley growing

doth yield an hundred kernels at the least unto the owner.

Of late years also we have found and taken up a great trade in

planting of hops, whereof our moory hitherto and unprofitable grounds

do yield such plenty and increase that there are few farmers or

occupiers in the country which have not gardens and hops growing of

their own, and those far better than do come from Flanders unto us.

Certes the corruptions used by the Flemings, and forgery daily

practised in this kind of ware, gave us occasion to plant them here

at home; so that now we may spare and send many over unto them. And

this I know by experience, that some one man by conversion of his

moory grounds into hopyards, whereof before he had no commodity, doth

raise yearly by so little as twelve acres in compass two hundred

marks--all charges borne towards the maintenance of his family. Which

industry God continue! though some secret friends of Flemings let not

to exclaim against this commodity, as a spoil of wood, by reason of

the poles, which nevertheless after three years do also come to the

fire, and spare their other fuel.

The cattle which we breed are commonly such as for greatness of bone,

sweetness of flesh, and other benefits to be reaped by the same, give

place unto none other; as may appear first by our oxen, whose

largeness, height, weight, tallow, hides, and horns are such as none

of any other nation do commonly or may easily exceed them. Our sheep

likewise, for good taste of flesh, quantity of limbs, fineness of

fleece, caused by their hardness of pasturage and abundance of

increase (for in many places they bring forth two or three at an

caning), give no place unto any, more than do our goats, who in like

sort do follow the same order, and our deer come not behind. As for

our conies, I have seen them so fat in some soils, especially about

Meall and Disnege, that the grease of one being weighed hath peised

very near six or seven ounces. All which benefits we first refer to

the grace and goodness of God, and next of all unto the bounty of our

soil, which he hath endued with so notable and commodious

fruitfulness.

But, as I mean to intreat of these things more largely hereafter, so

will I touch in this place one benefit which our nation wanteth, and

that is wine, the fault whereof is not in our soil, but the

negligence of our countrymen (especially of the south parts), who do

not inure the same to this commodity, and which by reason of long

discontinuance is now become inapt to bear any grapes almost for

pleasure and shadow, much less then the plain fields or several

vineyards for advantage and commodity. Yet of late time some have

essayed to deal for wine (as to your lordship also is right well

known). But sith that liquor, when it cometh to the drinking, hath

been found more hard than that which is brought from beyond the sea,

and the cost of planting and keeping thereof so chargeable that they

may buy it far better cheap from other countries, they have given

over their enterprises without any consideration that, as in all

other things, so neither the ground itself in the beginning, nor

success of their travel, can answer their expectation at the first,

until such time as the soil be brought as it were into acquaintance

with this commodity, and that provision may be made for the more

easiness of charge to be employed upon the same.

If it be true that where wine doth last and endure well there it will

grow no worse, I muse not a little wherefore the planting of vines

should be neglected in England. That this liquor might have grown in

this island heretofore, first the charter that Probus the Emperor

gave equally to us, the Gauls, and Spaniards, is one sufficient

testimony. And that it did grow here (beside the testimony of Beda,

lib. 1., cap. 1) the old notes of tithes for wine that yet remain in

the accounts of some parsons and vicars in Kent, elsewhere, besides

the records of sundry suits, commenced in divers ecclesiastical

courts, both in Kent, Surrey, etc., also the enclosed parcels almost

in every abbey yet called the vineyards, may be a notable witness, as

also the plot which we now call East Smithfield in London, given by

Canutus, sometime king of this land, with other soil thereabout, unto

certain of his knights, with the liberty of a Guild which thereof was

called Knighton Guild. The truth is (saith John Stow, our countryman

and diligent traveller in the old estate of this my native city) that

it is now named Portsoken Ward, and given in time past to the

religious house within Aldgate. Howbeit first Otwell, the archovel,

Otto, and finally Geffrey Earl of Essex, constables of the of London,

withheld that portion from the said house until the reign of King

Stephen, and thereof made a vineyard to their great commodity and

lucre. The Isle of Ely also was in the first times of the Normans

called Le Ile des Vignes. And good record appeareth that the bishop

there had yearly three or four tun at the least given him _nomine

decimæ_, beside whatsoever over-sum of the liquor did accrue to him

by leases and other excheats whereof also I have seen mention.

Wherefore our soil is not to be blamed, as though our nights were so

exceeding short that in August and September the moon, which is lady

of moisture and chief ripener of this liquor, cannot in any wise

shine long enough upon the same: a very mere toy and fable, right

worthy to be suppressed, because experience convinceth the upholders

thereof even in the Rhenish wines.

The time hath been also that woad, wherewith our countrymen dyed

their faces (as Cæsar saith), that they might seem terrible to their

enemies in the field (and also women and their daughters-in-law did

stain their bodies and go naked, in that pickle, to the sacrifices of

their gods, coveting to resemble therein the Ethiopians, as Pliny

saith, [lib. 22, cap. 1]), and also madder have been (next unto our

tin and wools) the chief commodities and merchandise of this realm, I

find also that rape oil hath been made within this land. But now our

soil either will not, or at the leastwise may not, bear either woad

or madder. I say not that the ground is not able so to do, but that

we are negligent, afraid of the pilling of our grounds, and careless

of our own profits, as men rather willing to buy the same of others

than take any pain to plant them here at home. The like I may say of

flax, which by law ought to be sown in every country town in England,

more or less; but I see no success of that good and wholesome law;

sith it is rather contemptuously rejected than otherwise dutifully

kept in any place in England.

Some say that our great number of laws do breed a general negligence

and contempt of all good order, because we have so many that no

subject can live without the transgression of some of them, and that

the often alteration of our ordinances doth much harm in this

respect, which (after Aristotle) doth seem to carry some reason

withal, for (as Cornelius Gallus hath)--

_"Eventus varios res nova semper habet."_[1]

[1] "An innovation, has always mixed effects."

But very many let not to affirm that the greedy corruption of the

promoters on the one side, facility in dispensing with good laws and

first breach of the same in the lawmakers and superiors and private

respects of their establishment on the other, are the greatest causes

why the inferiors regard no good order, being always so ready to

offend without any faculty one way as they are otherwise to presume

upon the examples of their betters when any hold is to be taken. But

as in these things I have no skill, so I wish that fewer licences for

the private commodity but of a few were granted (not that thereby I

deny the maintenance of the prerogative royal, but rather would with

all my heart that it might be yet more honourably increased), and

that every one which by fee'd friendship (or otherwise) doth attempt

to procure ought from the prince that may profit but few and prove

hurtful to many might be at open assizes and sessions denounced enemy

to his country and commonwealth of the land.

Glass also hath been made here in great plenty before, and in the

time of the Romans; and the said stuff also, beside fine scissors,

shears, collars of gold and silver for women's necks, cruises and

cups of amber, were a parcel of the tribute which Augustus in his

days laid upon this island. In like sort he charged the Britons with

certain implements and vessels of ivory (as Strabo saith); whereby it

appeareth that in old time our countrymen were far more industrious

and painful in the use and application of the benefits of their

country than either after the coming of the Saxons or Normans, in

which they gave themselves more to idleness and following of the

wars.

If it were requisite that I should speak of the sundry kinds of mould,

as the cledgy, or clay, whereof are divers sorts (red, blue, black,

and white), also the red or white sandy, the loamy, roselly, gravelly,

chalky, or black, I could say that there are so many divers veins in

Britain as elsewhere in any quarter of like quantity in the world.

Howbeit this I must need confess, that the sand and clay do bear great

sway: but clay most of all, as hath been and yet is always seen and

felt through plenty and dearth of corn. For if this latter (I mean the

clay) do yield her full increase (which it doth commonly in dry years

for wheat), then is there general plenty: whereas if it fail, then

have we scarcity, according to the old rude verse set down of England,

but to be understood of the whole island, as experience doth confirm--

"_When the sand doth serve the clay,

Then may we sing well-away;

But when the clay doth serve the sand,

Then is it merry with England_."

I might here intreat of the famous valleys in England, of which one

is called the Vale of White Horse, another of Evesham (commonly taken

for the granary of Worcestershire), the third of Aylesbury, that

goeth by Thame, the roots of Chiltern Hills, to Dunstable, Newport

Pagnel, Stony Stratford, Buckingham, Birstane Park, etc. Likewise of

the fourth, of Whitehart or Blackmoor in Dorsetshire. The fifth, of

Ringdale or Renidale, corruptly called Kingtaile, that lieth (as mine

author saith) upon the edge of Essex and Cambridgeshire, and also the

Marshwood Vale: but, forsomuch as I know not well their several

limits, I give over to go any further in their description. In like

sort it should not be amiss to speak of our fens, although our

country be not so full of this kind of soil as the parts beyond the

seas (to wit, Narbonne, etc.), and thereto of other pleasant bottoms,

the which are not only endued with excellent rivers and great store

of corn and fine fodder for neat and horses in time of the year

(whereby they are exceeding beneficial unto their owners), but also

of no small compass and quantity in ground. For some of our fens are

well known to be either of ten, twelve, sixteen, twenty, or thirty

miles in length, that of the Girwies yet passing all the rest, which

is full sixty (as I have often read). Wherein also Ely, the famous

isle, standeth, which is seven miles every way, and whereunto there

is no access but by three causies, whose inhabitants in like sort by

an old privilege may take wood, sedge turf, etc., to burn, likewise

hay for their cattle and thatch for their houses of custom, and each

occupier in his appointed quantity throughout the isle; albeit that

covetousness hath now begun somewhat to abridge this large

benevolence and commodity, as well in the said isle as most other

places of this land.

Finally, I might discourse in like order of the large commons, laid

out heretofore by the lords of the soil for the benefit of such poor

as inhabit within the compass of their manors. But, as the true

intent of the givers is now in most places defrauded, insomuch that

not the poor tenants inhabitating upon the same, but their landlords,

have all the commodity and gain. Wherefore I mean not at this present

to deal withal, but reserve the same wholly unto the due place,

whilst I go forward with the rest, setting down nevertheless by the

way a general commendation of the whole island, which I find in an

ancient monument, much unto this effect--

"Illa quidem longè celebris splendore, beata,

Glebis, lacte, favis, supereminet insula cunctis,

Quas regit ille Deus, spumanti cujus ab oro

Proffuit oceanus," etc.

And a little after--

"Testis Lundoniurntibus, Wintonia Baccho,

Herefordia grege, Worcestria frugeredundans,

Batha lacu, Salabyra feris, Cantuarin pisce,

Eboraca sylvis, Excestria clara metallis,

Norwicum Dacis hybernis, Cestria Gallis,

Cicestrum Norwagenis, Dunelmia præpinguia,

Testis Lincolnia gens infinita decore,

Testis Ell formosa situ, Doncastria visu," etc.

CHAPTER XI

OF SUNDRY MINERALS AND METALS

[1577, Book III., Chapters 16 and 18; 1587, Book III., Chapters

10 and 11.]

With how great benefits this island of ours hath been endued from the

beginning I hope there is no godly man but will readily confess, and

yield unto the Lord God his due honour for the same. For we are

blessed every way, and there is no temporal commodity necessary to be

had or craved by any nation at God's hand that he hath not in most

abundant manner bestowed upon us Englishmen, if we could see to use

it, and be thankful for the same. But alas! (as said in the chapter

precedent) we love to enrich them that care not for us, but for our

great commodities: and one trifling toy not worth the carriage,

coming (as the proverb saith) in three ships from beyond the sea, is

more worth with us than a right good jewel easy to be had at home.

They have also the cast to teach us to neglect our own things; for,

if they see that we begin to make any account of our commodities (if

it be so that they have also the like in their own countries) they

will suddenly abase the same to so low a price that our gain not

being worthy our travel, and the same commodity with less cost ready

to be had at home from other countries (though but for a while), it

causeth us to give over our endeavours and as it were by-and-by to

forget the matter whereabout we went before, to obtain them at their

hands. And this is the only cause wherefore our commodities are oft

so little esteemed of. Some of them can say, without any teacher,

that they will buy the case of a fox of an Englishman for a groat,

and make him afterwards give twelve pence for the tail. Would to God

we might once wax wiser, and each one endeavour that the commonwealth

of England may nourish again in her old rate, and that our

commodities may be fully wrought at home (as cloth if you will for an

example) and not carried out to be shorn and dressed abroad, while

our clothworkers here do starve and beg their bread, and for lack of

daily practice utterly neglect to be skilful in this science! But to

my purpose.

We have in England great plenty of quicksilver, antimony, sulphur,

black lead, and orpiment red and yellow. We have also the finest alum

(wherein the diligence of one of the greatest favourers of the

commonwealth of England of a subject[1] hath been of late egregriously

abused, and even almost with barbarous incivility) and of no less

force against fire, if it were used in our parietings, than that of

Lipari, which only was in use sometime amongst the Asians and Romans

and whereof Sylla had such trial that when he meant to have burned a

tower of wood erected by Archelaus, the lieutenant of Mithridates, he

could by no means set it on fire in a long time, because it was washed

over with alum, as were also the gates of the temple of Jerusalem with

like effect, and perceived when Titus commanded fire to be put unto

the same. Besides this, we have also the natural cinnabarum or

vermillion, the sulphurous glebe called bitumen in old time, for

mortar, and yet burned in lamps where oil is scant and geson; the

chrysocolla, copperas, and mineral stone, whereof petriolum is made,

and that which is most strange, the mineral pearl, which as they are

for greatness and colour most excellent of all other, so are they

digged out of the main land and in sundry places far distant from the

shore. Certes the western part of the land hath in times past greatly

abounded with these and many other rare and excellent commodities, but

now they are washed away by the violence of the sea, which hath

devoured the greatest part of Cornwall and Devonshire on either side;

and it doth appear yet by good record that, whereas now there is a

great distance between the Scilly Isles and the point of the Land's

End, there was of late years to speak of scarcely a brook or drain of

one fathom water between them, if so much, as by those evidences

appeareth, and are yet to be seen in the hands of the lord and chief

owner of those isles. But to proceed.

[1] The Lord Mountjoy.--H.

Of coal-mines we have such plenty in the north and western parts of

our island as may suffice for all the realm of England; and so must

they do hereafter indeed, if wood be not better cherished than it is

at this present. And so say the truth, notwithstanding that very many

of them are carried into other countries of the main, yet their

greatest trade beginneth now to grow from the forge into the kitchen

and hall, as may appear already in most cities and towns that lie

about the coast, where they have but little other fuel except it be

turf and hassock. I marvel not a little that there is no trade of

these into Sussex and Southamptonshire, for want thereof the smiths

do work their iron with charcoal. I think that far carriage be the

only cause, which is but a slender excuse to enforce us to carry them

into the main from hence.

Besides our coal-mines, we have pits in like sort of white plaster,

and of fat and white and other coloured marble, wherewith in many

places the inhabitors do compest their soil, and which doth benefit

their land in ample manner for many years to come. We have saltpetre

for our ordinance and salt soda for our glass, and thereto in one

place a kind of earth (in Southery; as I ween, hard by Codington, and

sometime in the tenure of one Croxton of London) which is so fine to

make moulds for goldsmiths and casters of metal, that a load of it

was worth five shillings thirty years ago; none such again they say

in England. But whether there be or not, let us not be unthankful to

God, for these and other his benefits bestowed upon us, whereby he

sheweth himself a loving and merciful father unto us, which

contrariwise return unto him in lieu of humility and obedience

nothing but wickedness, avarice, mere contempt of his will, pride,

excess, atheism, and no less than Jewish ingratitude.[2]

[2] Here ends the chapter entitled "Minerals," and the one

on "Metals" begins.--W.

All metals receive their beginning of quicksilver and sulphur, which

are as mother and father to them. And such is the purpose of nature in

their generations that she tendeth always to the procreation of gold;

nevertheless she seldom reacheth unto that her end, because of the

unequal mixture and proportion of these two in the substance

engendered, whereby impediment and corruption is induced, which as it

is more or less doth shew itself in the metal that is produced....

And albeit that we have no such abundance of these (as some other

countries do yield), yet have my rich countrymen store enough of both

in their purses, where in time past they were wont to have least,

because the garnishing of our churches, tabernacles, images, shrines,

and apparel of the priests consumed the greatest part, as experience

hath confirmed.

Of late my countrymen have found out I wot not what voyage into the

West Indies, from whence they have brought some gold, whereby our

country is enriched; but of all that ever adventured into those

parts, none have sped better than Sir Francis Drake, whose success

(1582) hath far passed even his own expectation. One John Frobisher

in like manner, attempting to seek out a shorter cut by the northerly

regions into the peaceable sea and kingdom of Cathay, happened (1577)

upon certain islands by the way, wherein great plenty of much gold

appeared, and so much that some letted not to give out for certainty

that Solomon had his gold from thence, wherewith he builded the

temple. This golden shew made him so desirous also of like success

that he left off his former voyage and returned home to bring news of

such things as he had seen. But, when after another voyage it was

found to be but dross, he gave over both the enterprises, and now

keepeth home without any desire at all to seek into far countries. In

truth, such was the plenty of ore there seen and to be had that, if

it had holden perfect, might have furnished all the world with

abundance of that metal; the journey also was short and performed in

four or five months, which was a notable encouragement. But to

proceed.

Tin and lead, metals which Strabo noteth in his time to be carried

unto Marsilis from hence, as Diodorus also confirmeth, are very

plentiful with us, the one in Cornwall, Devonshire, and elsewhere in

the north, the other in Derbyshire, Weredale, and sundry places of

this island; whereby my countrymen do reap no small commodity, but

especially our pewterers, who in times past employed the use of

pewter only upon dishes, pots, and a few other trifles for service

here at home, whereas now they are grown unto such exquisite cunning

that they can in manner imitate by infusion any form or fashion of

cup, dish, salt bowl, or goblet, which is made by goldsmiths' craft,

though they be never so curious, exquisite, and artificially forged.

Such furniture of household of this metal as we commonly call by the

name of _vessel_ is sold usually by the garnish, which doth contain

twelve platters, twelve dishes, twelve saucers, and those are either

of silver fashion or else with broad or narrow brims, and bought by

the pound, which is now valued at six or seven pence, or peradventure

at eight pence. Of porringers, pots, and other like, I speak not,

albeit that in the making of all these things there is such exquisite

diligence used, I mean for the mixture of the metal and true making

of this commodity (by reason of sharp laws provided in that behalf),

as the like is not to be found in any other trade. I have been also

informed that it consisteth of a composition which hath thirty pounds

of kettle brass to a thousand pounds of tin, whereunto they add three

or four pounds of tin-glass; but as too much of this doth make the

stuff brickle, so the more the brass be, the better is the pewter,

and more profitable unto him that doth buy and purchase the same. But

to proceed.

In some places beyond the sea a garnish of good flat English pewter

of an ordinary making (I say flat, because dishes and platters in my

time begin to be made deep like basins, and are indeed more

convenient both for sauce, broth, and keeping the meat warm) is

esteemed almost so precious as the like number of vessels that are

made of fine silver, and in manner no less desired amongst the great

estates, whose workmen are nothing so skilful in that trade as ours,

neither their metal so good, nor plenty so great, as we have here in

England. The Romans made excellent looking-glasses of our English

tin, howbeit our workmen were not then so exquisite in that feat as

the Brundusians, wherefore the wrought metal was carried over unto

them by way of merchandise, and very highly were those glasses

esteemed of till silver came generally in place, which in the end

brought the tin into such contempt that in manner every dishwasher

refused to look in other than silver glasses for the attiring of her

head. Howbeit the making of silver glasses had been in use before

Britain was known unto the Romans, for I read that one Praxiteles

devised them in the young time of Pompey, which was before the coming

of Caesar into this island.

There were mines of lead sometimes also in Wales, which endured so

long till the people had consumed all their wood by melting of the

same (as they did also at Comeriswith, six miles from Stradfleur),

and I suppose that in Pliny's time the abundance of lead (whereof he

speaketh) was to be found in those parts, in the seventeenth of his

thirty-fourth book; also he affirmeth that it lay in the very sward

of the earth, and daily gotten in such plenty that the Romans made a

restraint of the carriage thereof to Rome, limiting how much should

yearly be wrought and transported over the sea.[3]

[3] Here follow two stories about crows and miners.--W.

Iron is found in many places, as in Sussex, Kent, Weredale, Mendip,

Walshall, as also in Shropshire, but chiefly in the woods betwixt

Belvos and Willock (or Wicberry) near Manchester, and elsewhere in

Wales. Of which mines divers do bring forth so fine and good stuff as

any that cometh from beyond the sea, beside the infinite gains to the

owners, if we would so accept it, or bestow a little more cost in the

refining of it. It is also of such toughness, that it yieldeth to the

making of claricord wire in some places of the realm. Nevertheless, it

was better cheap with us when strangers only brought it hither; for it

is our quality when we get any commodity to use it with extremity

towards our own nation, after we have once found the means to shut out

foreigners from the bringing in of the like. It breedeth in like

manner great expense and waste of wood, as doth the making of our pots

and table vessels of glass, wherein is much loss, sith it is so

quickly broken; and yet (as I think) easy to be made tougher, if our

alchemists could once find the true birth or production of the red

man, whose mixture would induce a metallic toughness unto it, whereby

it should abide the hammer.

Copper is lately not found, but rather restored again to light. For I

have read of copper to have been heretofore gotten in our island;

howbeit as strangers have most commonly the governance of our mines,

so they hitherto make small gains of this in hand in the north parts;

for (as I am informed) the profit doth very hardly countervail the

charges, whereat wise men do not a little marvel, considering the

abundance which that mine doth seem to offer, and, as it were, at

hand. Leland, our countryman, noteth sundry great likelihoods of

natural copper mines to be eastwards, as between Dudman and Trewardth,

in the sea cliffs, beside other places, whereof divers are noted here

and there in sundry places of this book already, and therefore it

shall be but in vain to repeat them here again. As for that which is

gotten out of the marchasite, I speak not of it, sith it is not

incident to my purpose. In Dorsetshire also a copper mine lately found

is brought to good perfection.

As for our steel, it is not so good for edge-tools as that of Cologne,

and yet the one is often sold for the other, and like talc used in

both, that is to say, thirty gads to the sheaf, and twelve sheaves to

the burden.

Our alchemy is artificial, and thereof our spoons and some salts are

commonly made and preferred before our pewter with some,[4] albeit in

truth it be much subject to corruption, putrefaction, more heavy and

foul to handle than our pewter; yet some ignorant persons affirm it to

be a metal more natural, and the very same which Encelius calleth

_plumbum cincreum_, the Germans _wisemute, mithan_, and _counterfeie_,

adding that where it groweth silver cannot be far off. Nevertheless it

is known to be a mixture of brass, lead, and tin (of which this latter

occupieth the one-half), but after another proportion than is used in

pewter. But alas, I am persuaded that neither the old Arabians nor new

alchemists of our time did ever hear of it, albeit that the name

thereof do seem to come out of their forge. For the common sort indeed

do call it alchemy, an unwholesome metal (God wot) and worthy to be

banished and driven out of the land. And thus I conclude with this

discourse, as having no more to say of the metals of my country,

except I should talk of brass, bell metal, and such as are brought

over for merchandise from other countries; and yet I cannot but say

that there is some brass found also in England, but so small is the

quantity that it is not greatly to be esteemed or accounted for.

[4] Some tell me that it is a mixture of brass, lead, and

tin.--H.

CHAPTER XII

OF CATTLE KEPT FOR PROFIT

[1577, Book III., Chapter 8; 1587, Book III., Chapter 1.]

There is no kind of tame cattle usually to be seen in these parts of

the world whereof we have not some, and that great store, in England,

as horses, oxen, sheep, goats, swine, and far surmounting the like in

other countries, as may be proved with ease. For where are oxen

commonly made more large of bone, horses more decent and pleasant in

pace, kine more commodious for the pail, sheep more profitable for

wool, swine more wholesome of flesh, and goats more gainful to their

keepers than here with us in England? But, to speak of them

peculiarly, I suppose that our kine are so abundant in yield of milk,

whereof we make our butter and cheese, as the like any where else, and

so apt for the plough in divers places as either our horses or oxen.

And, albeit they now and then twin, yet herein they seem to come short

of that commodity which is looked for in other countries, to wit, in

that they bring forth most commonly but one calf at once. The gains

also gotten by a cow (all charges borne) hath been valued at twenty

shillings yearly; but now, as land is enhanced, this proportion of

gain is much abated, and likely to decay more and more, if ground

arise to be yet dearer--which God forbid, if it be His will and

pleasure. I heard of late of a cow in Warwickshire, belonging to

Thomas Breuer of Studley, which in six years had sixteen calves, that

is four at once in three calvings and twice twins, which unto many may

seem a thing incredible. In like manner our oxen are such as the like

are not to be found in any country of Europe, both for greatness of

body and sweetness of flesh or else would not the Roman writers have

preferred them before those of Liguria. In most places our graziers

are now grown to be so cunning that if they do but see an ox or

bullock, and come to the feeling of him, they will give a guess at his

weight, and how many score or stone of flesh and tallow he beareth,

how the butcher may live by the sale, and what he may have for the

skin and tallow, which is a point of skill not commonly practised

heretofore. Some such graziers also are reported to ride with velvet

coats and chains of gold about them and in their absence their wives

will not let to supply those turns with no less skill than their

husbands: which is a hard work for the poor butcher, sith he through

this means can seldom be rich or wealthy by his trade. In like sort

the flesh of our oxen and kine is sold both by hand and by weight as

the buyer will; but in young ware rather by weight especially for the

steer and heifer, sith the finer beef is the lightest, whereas the

flesh of bulls and old kine, etc., is of sadder substance, and

therefore much heavier as it lieth in the scale. Their horns also are

known to be more fair and large in England than in any other places,

except those which are to be seen among the Paeones, which quality,

albeit that it be given to our breed generally by nature, yet it is

now and then helped also by art. For, when they be very young, many

graziers will oftentimes anoint their budding horns or tender tips

with honey, which mollifieth the natural hardness of that substance,

and thereby maketh them to grow unto a notable greatness. Certes it is

not strange in England to see oxen whose horns have the length of a

yard or three feet between the tips, and they themselves thereto so

tall as the height of a man of mean and indifferent stature is scarce

equal unto them. Nevertheless it is much to be lamented that our

general breed of cattle is not better looked unto; for the greatest

occupiers wean least store, because they can buy them (as they say)

far better cheap than to raise and bring them up. In my time a cow

hath risen from four nobles to four marks by this means, which

notwithstanding were no great price if they did yearly bring forth

more than one calf a piece, as I hear they do in other countries.

Our horses, moreover, are high, and, although not commonly of such

huge greatness as in other places of the main, yet, if you respect the

easiness of their pace, it is hard to say where their like are to be

had. Our land doth yield no asses, and therefore we want the

generation also of mules and somers, and therefore the most part of

our carriages is made by these, which, remaining stoned, are either

reserved for the cart or appointed to bear such burdens as are

convenient for them. Our cart or plough horses (for we use them

indifferently) are commonly so strong that five or six of them (at the

most) will draw three thousand weight of the greatest tale with ease

for a long journey, although it be not a load of common usage, which

consisteth only of two thousand, or fifty foot of timber, forty

bushels of white salt, or six-and-thirty of bay, of five quarters of

wheat, experience daily teacheth, and I have elsewhere remembered.

Such as are kept also for burden will carry four hundredweight

commonly without any hurt or hindrance. This furthermore is to be

noted, that our princes and the nobility have their carriage commonly

made by carts, whereby it cometh to pass that when the queen's majesty

doth remove from any one place to another, there are usually 400

carewares, which amount to the sum of 2400 horses, appointed out of

the countries adjoining, whereby her carriage is conveyed safely unto

the appointed place. Hereby also the ancient use of somers and sumpter

horses is in manner utterly relinquished, which causeth the trains of

our princes in their progresses to shew far less than those of the

kings of other nations.

Such as serve for the saddle are commonly gelded, and now grew to be

very dear among us, especially if they be well coloured, justly

limbed, and have thereto an easy ambling pace. For our countrymen,

seeking their ease in every corner where it is to be had, delight very

much in those qualities, but chiefly in their excellent paces, which,

besides that it is in manner peculiar unto horses of our soil, and not

hurtful to the rider or owner sitting on their backs, it is moreover

very pleasant and delectable in his ears, in that the noise of their

well-proportioned pace doth yield comfortable sound as he travelleth

by the way. Yet is there no greater deceit used anywhere than among

our horsekeepers, horsecoursers, and hostlers; for such is the subtle

knavery of a great sort of them (without exception of any of them be

it spoken which deal for private gain) that an honest-meaning man

shall have very good luck among them if he be not deceived by some

false trick or other.

There are certain notable markets wherein great plenty of horses and

colts is bought and sold, and whereunto such as have need resort

yearly to buy and make their necessary provision of them, as Ripon,

Newport Pond, Wolfpit, Harboro', and divers others. But, as most

drovers are very diligent to bring great store of these unto those

places, so many of them are too too lewd in abusing such as buy them.

For they have a custom, to make them look fair to the eye, when they

come within two days' journey of the market to drive them till they

sweat, and for the space of eight or twelve hours, which, being done,

they turn them all over the backs into some water, where they stand

for a season, and then go forward with them to the place appointed,

where they make sale of their infected ware, and such as by this means

do fall into many diseases and maladies. Of such outlandish horses as

are daily brought over unto us I speak not, as the jennet of Spain,

the courser of Naples, the hobby of Ireland, the Flemish roile and the

Scottish nag, because that further speech of them cometh not within

the compass of this treatise, and for whose breed and maintenance

(especially of the greatest sort) King Henry the Eighth erected a

noble studdery, and for a time had very good success with them, till

the officers, waxing weary, procured a mixed brood of bastard races,

whereby his good purpose came to little effect. Sir Nicholas Arnold of

late hath bred the best horses in England, and written of the manner

of their production: would to God his compass of ground were like to

that of Pella in Syria, wherein the king of that nation had usually a

studdery of 30,000 mares and 300 stallions, as Strabo doth remember,

lib. 16. But to leave this, let us see what may be said of sheep.

Our sheep are very excellent, sith for sweetness of flesh they pass

all other. And so much are our wools to be preferred before those of

Milesia and other places that if Jason had known the value of them

that are bred and to be had in Britain he would never have gone to

Colchis to look for any there. For, as Dionysius Alexandrinus saith in

his _De situ Orbis_, it may by spinning be made comparable to the

spider's web. What fools then are our countrymen, in that they seek to

bereave themselves of this commodity by practising daily how to

transfer the same to other nations, in carrying over their rams and

ewes to breed and increase among them! The first example hereof was

given under Edward the Fourth, who, not understanding the bottom of

the suit of sundry traítorous merchants that sought a present gain

with the perpetual hindrance of their country licensed them to carry

over certain numbers of them into Spain, who, having licence but for a

few, shipped very many: a thing practised in other commodities also,

whereby the prince and his land are not seldom times defrauded. But

such is our nature, and so blind are we indeed, that we see no

inconvenience before we feel it; and for a present gain we regard not

what damage may ensue to our posterity. Hereto some other man would

add also the desire that we have to benefit other countries and to

impeach our own. And it is, so sure as God liveth, that every trifle

which cometh from beyond the sea, though it be not worth threepence,

is more esteemed than a continual commodity at home with us, which far

exceedeth that value. In time past the use of this commodity

consisteth (for the most part) in cloth and woolsteds; but now, by

means of strangers succoured here from domestic persecution, the same

hath been employed unto sundry other uses, as mockados, bays,

vellures, grograines, etc., whereby the makers have reaped no small

commodity. It is furthermore to be noted, for the low countries of

Belgie know it, and daily experience (notwithstanding the sharpness of

our laws to the contrary) doth yet confirm it, that, although our rams

and wethers do go thither from us never so well headed according to

their kind, yet after they have remained there a while they cast there

their heads, and from thenceforth they remain polled without any horns

at all. Certes this kind of cattle is more cherished in England than

standeth well with the commodity of the commons or prosperity of

divers towns, whereof some are wholly converted to their feeding; yet

such a profitable sweetness is their fleece, such necessity in their

flesh, and so great a benefit in the manuring of barren soil with

their dung and piss, that their superfluous members are the better

born withal. And there is never a husbandman (for now I speak not of

our great sheepmasters, of whom some one man hath 20,000) but hath

more or less of this cattle feeding on his fallows and short grounds,

which yield the finer fleece.

Nevertheless the sheep of our country are often troubled with the rot

(as are our swine with the measles, though never so generally), and

many men are now and then great losers by the same; but, after the

calamity is over, if they can recover and keep their new stock sound

for seven years together, the former loss will easily be recompensed

with double commodity. Cardan writeth that our waters are hurtful to

our sheep; howbeit this is but his conjecture, for we know that our

sheep are infected by going to the water, and take the same as a sure

and certain token that a rot hath gotten hold of them, their livers

and lights being already distempered through excessive heat, which

enforceth them the rather to seek unto the water. Certes there is no

parcel of the main wherein a man shall generally find more fine and

wholesome water than in England; and therefore it is impossible that

our sheep should decay by tasting of the same. Wherefore the hindrance

by rot is rather to be ascribed to the unseasonableness and moisture

of the weather in summer, also their licking in of mildews, gossamire,

rowtie fogs, and rank grass, full of superfluous juice, but especially

(I say) to over moist weather, whereby the continual rain piercing

into their hollow fells soaketh forthwith into their flesh, which

bringeth them to their baines. Being also infected, their first shew

of sickness is their desire to drink, so that our waters are not unto

them _causa aegritudinis_, but _signum morbi_, whatsoever Cardan do

maintain to the contrary. There are (and peradventure no small babes)

which are grown to be such good husbands that they can make account of

every ten kine to be clearly worth twenty pounds in common and

indifferent years, if the milk of five sheep be daily added to the

same. But, as I wot not how true this surmise is, because it is no

part of my trade, so I am sure hereof that some housewives can and do

add daily a less portion of ewe's milk unto the cheese of so many

kine, whereby their cheese doth the longer abide moist and eateth more

brickle and mellow than otherwise it would.

Goats we have plenty, and of sundry colours, in the west parts of

England, especially in and towards Wales and amongst the rocky hills,

by whom the owners do reap so small advantage: some also are cherished

elsewhere in divers steeds, for the benefit of such as are diseased

with sundry maladies, unto whom (as I hear) their milk, cheese, and

bodies of their young kids are judged very profitable, and therefore

inquired for of many far and near. Certes I find among the writers

that the milk of a goat is next in estimation to that of the woman,

for that it helpeth the stomach, removeth oppilations and stoppings of

the liver, and looseth the belly. Some place also next unto it the

milk of the ewe, and thirdly that of the cow. But hereof I can shew no

reason; only this I know, that ewe's milk is fulsome, sweet, and such

in taste as (except such as are used unto it) no man will gladly yield

to live and feed withal.

As for swine, there is no place that hath greater store, nor more

wholesome in eating, than are these here in England, which

nevertheless do never any good till they come to the table. Of these

some we eat green for pork, and other dried up into bacon to have it

in more continuance. Lard we make some, though very little, because it

is chargeable: neither have we such use thereof as is to be seen in

France and other countries, sith we do either bake our meat with sweet

suet of beef or mutton and baste all our meat with sweet or salt

butter or suffer the fattest to baste itself by leisure. In champaign

countries they are kept by herds, and a hogherd appointed to attend

and wait upon them, who commonly gathereth them together by his noise

and cry, and leadeth them forth to feed abroad in the fields. In some

places also women do scour and wet their clothes with their dung, as

other do with hemlocks and nettles; but such is the savour of the

clothes touched withal that I cannot abide to wear them on my body,

more than such as are scoured with the refuse soap, than the which (in

mine opinion) there is none more unkindly savour.

Of our tame boars we make brawn, which is a kind of meat not usually

known to strangers (as I take it), otherwise would not the swart

Rutters and French cooks, at the loss of Calais (where they found

great store of this provision almost in every house), have attempted

with ridiculous success to roast, bake, broil, and fry the same for

their masters, till they were better informed. I have heard moreover

how a nobleman of England not long since did send over a hogshead of

brawn ready soused to a Catholic gentleman of France, who, supposing

it to be fish, reserved it till Lent, at which time he did eat thereof

with great frugality. Thereto he so well liked the provision itself

that he wrote over very earnestly, and with offer of great recompense,

for more of the same fish against the year ensuing; whereas if he had

known it to have been flesh he would not have touched it (I dare say)

for a thousand crowns without the pope's dispensation. A friend of

mine also dwelling some time in Spain, having certain Jews at his

table, did set brawn before them, whereof they did eat very earnestly,

supposing it to be a kind of fish not common in those parts; but when

the goodman of the house brought in the head in pastime among them, to

shew what they had eaten, they rose from the table, hied them home in

haste, each of them procuring himself to vomit, some by oil and some

by other means, till (as they supposed) they had cleansed their

stomachs of that prohibited food. With us it is accounted a great

piece of service at the table from November until February be ended,

but chiefly in the Christmas time. With the same also we begin our

dinners each day after other; and, because it is somewhat hard of

digestion, a draught of malvesey, bastard, or muscadel, is usually

drank after it, where either of them are conveniently to be had;

otherwise the meaner sort content themselves with their own drink,

which at that season is generally very strong, and stronger indeed

than it is all the year beside. It is made commonly of the fore part

of a tame boar, set up for the purpose by the space of a whole year or

two, especially in gentlemen's houses (for the husbandmen and farmers

never frank them for their own use above three or four months, or half

a year at the most), in which time he is dieted with oats and peason,

and lodged on the bare planks of an uneasy coat, till his fat be

hardened sufficiently for their purpose: afterward he is killed,

scalded, and cut out, and then of his former parts is our brawn made.

The rest is nothing so fat, and therefore it beareth the name of sowse

only, and is commonly reserved for the serving-man and hind, except it

please the owner to have any part thereof baked, which are then

handled of custom after this manner: the hinder parts being cut off,

they are first drawn with lard, and then sodden; being sodden, they

are soused in claret wine and vinegar a certain space, and afterward

baked in pasties, and eaten of many instead of the wild boar, and

truly it is very good meat: the pestles may be hanged up a while to

dry before they be drawn with lard, if you will, and thereby prove the

better. But hereof enough, and therefore to come again unto our brawn.

The neck pieces, being cut off round, are called collars of brawn, the

shoulders are named shilds, only the ribs retain the former

denomination, so that these aforesaid pieces deserve the name of

brawn: the bowels of the beast are commonly cast away because of their

rankness, and so were likewise his stones, till a foolish fantasy got

hold of late amongst some delicate dames, who have now found the means

to dress them also with great cost for a dainty dish, and bring them

to the board as a service among other of like sort, though not without

note of their desire to the provocation of fleshly lust which by this

their fond curiosity is not a little revealed. When the boar is thus

cut out each piece is wrapped up, either with bulrushes, ozier, peels,

tape inkle,[1] or such like, and then sodden in a lead or caldron

together, till they be so tender that a man may thrust a bruised rush

or straw clean through the fat: which being done, they take it up and

lay it abroad to cool. Afterward, putting it into close vessels, they

pour either good small ale or beer mingled with verjuice and salt

thereto till it be covered, and so let it lie (now and then altering

and changing the sousing drink lest it should wax sour) till occasion

serve to spend it out of the way. Some use to make brawn of great

barrow hogs, and seethe them, and souse the whole as they do that of

the boar; and in my judgment it is the better of both, and more easy

of digestion. But of brawn thus much, and so much may seem sufficient.

[1] Tape.

CHAPTER XIII

OF WILD AND TAME FOWLS

[1577, Book III., Chapters 9 and 11; 1587, Book III., Chapters

2 and 5.]

Order requireth that I speak somewhat of the fowls also of England,

which I may easily divide into the wild and tame; but, alas! such is

my small skill in fowls that, to say the truth, I can neither recite

their numbers nor well distinguish one kind of them from another. Yet

this I have by general knowledge, that there is no nation under the

sun which hath already in the time of the year more plenty of wild

fowl than we, for so many kinds as our island doth bring forth, and

much more would have if those of the higher soil might be spared but

one year or two from the greedy engines of covetous fowlers which set

only for the pot and purse. Certes this enormity bred great troubles

in King John's days, insomuch that, going in progress about the tenth

of his reign, he found little or no game wherewith to solace himself

or exercise his falcons. Wherefore, being at Bristow in the Christmas

ensuing, he restrained all manner of hawking or taking of wild fowl

throughout England for a season, whereby the land within few years was

thoroughly replenished again. But what stand I upon this impertinent

discourse? Of such therefore as are bred in our land, we have the

crane, the bitter,[1] the wild and tame swan, the bustard, the heron,

curlew, snite, wildgoose, wind or doterell, brant, lark, plover (of

both sorts), lapwing, teal, widgeon, mallard, sheldrake, shoveller,

peewitt, seamew, barnacle, quail (who, only with man, are subject to

the falling sickness), the knot, the oliet or olive, the dunbird,

woodcock, partridge, and pheasant, besides divers others, whose names

to me are utterly unknown, and much more the taste of their flesh,

wherewith I was never acquainted. But as these serve not at all

seasons, so in their several turns there is no plenty of them wanting

whereby the tables of the nobility and gentry should seem at any time

furnished. But of all these the production of none is more marvellous,

in my mind, than that of the barnacle, whose place of generation we

have sought ofttimes as far as the Orchades, whereas peradventure we

might have found the same nearer home, and not only upon the coasts of

Ireland, but even in our own rivers. If I should say how either these

or some such other fowl not much unlike unto them have bred of late

times (for their place of generation is not perpetual, but as

opportunity serveth and the circumstances do minister occasion) in the

Thames mouth, I do not think that many will believe me; yet such a

thing hath there been seen where a kind of fowl had his beginning upon

a short tender shrub standing near unto the shore, from whence, when

their time came, they fell down, either into the salt water and lived,

or upon the dry land and perished, as Pena the French herbarian hath

also noted in the very end of his herbal. What I, for mine own part,

have seen here by experience, I have already so touched upon in the

chapter of islands, that it should be but time spent in vain to repeat

it here again. Look therefore in the description of Man (or Manaw) for

more of these barnacles, as also in the eleventh chapter of the

description of Scotland, and I do not doubt but you shall in some

respect be satisfied in the generation of these fowls. As for egrets,

pawpers, and such like, they are daily brought unto us from beyond the

sea, as if all the fowl of our country could not suffice to satisfy

our delicate appetites.

[1] The proper English name of the bird which vulgar acceptance

forces us to now call _bittern_.--W.

Our tame fowl are such (for the most part) as are common both to us

and to other countries, as cocks, hens, geese, ducks, peacocks of Ind,

pigeons, now a hurtful fowl by reason of their multitudes, and number

of houses daily erected for their increase (which the boors of the

country call in scorn almshouses, and dens of thieves, and such like),

whereof there is great plenty in every farmer's yard. They are kept

there also to be sold either for ready money in the open markets, or

else to be spent at home in good company amongst their neighbours

without reprehension or fines. Neither are we so miserable in England

(a thing only granted unto us by the especial grace of God and liberty

of our princes) as to dine or sup with a quarter of a hen, or to make

as great a repast with a cock's comb as they do in some other

countries; but, if occasion serve, the whole carcases of many capons,

hens, pigeons, and such like do oft go to wrack, beside beef, mutton,

veal, and lamb, all of which at every feast are taken for necessary

dishes amongst the communalty of England.

The gelding of cocks, whereby capons are made, Is an ancient practice

brought in old time by the Romans when they dwelt here in this land;

but the gelding of turkeys or Indian peacocks is a newer device, and

certainly not used amiss, sith the rankness of that bird is very much

abated thereby and the strong taste of the flesh is sundry wise

amended. If I should say that ganders grow also to be gelded, I

suppose that some will laugh me to scorn, neither have I tasted at any

time of such a fowl so served, yet have I heard it more than once to

be used in the country, where their geese are driven to the field like

herds of cattle by a gooseherd, a boy also no less to be marvelled at

than the other. For, as it is rare to hear of a gelded gander, so is

it strange to me to see or hear of geese to be led to the field like

sheep; yet so it is, and their gooseherd carrieth a rattle of paper or

parchment with him when he goeth about in the morning to gather his

goslings together, the noise whereof cometh no sooner to their ears

than they fall to gaggling, and hasten to go with him. If it happen

that the gates be not yet open, or that none of the house be stirring,

it is ridiculous to see how they will peep under the doors, and never

leave creaking and gaggling till they be let out unto him to overtake

their fellows. With us, where I dwell, they are not kept in this sort,

nor in many other places, neither are they kept so much for their

bodies as their feathers. Some hold furthermore an opinion that in

over rank soils their dung doth so qualify the batableness of the soil

that their cattle is thereby kept from the garget, and sundry other

diseases, although some of them come to their ends now and then by

licking up of their feathers. I might here make mention of other fowls

produced by the industry of man, as between the pheasant cock and

dunghill hen, or between the pheasant and the ringdove, the peacock

and the turkey hen, the partridge and the pigeon; but, sith I have no

more knowledge of these than what I have gotten by mine ear, I will

not meddle with them. Yet Cardan, speaking of the second sort, doth

affirm it to be a fowl of excellent beauty. I would likewise intreat

of other fowls which we repute unclean, as ravens, crows, pies,

choughs, rooks, kites, jays, ringtails, starlings, woodspikes,

woodnaws, etc.; but, sith they abound in all countries, though

peradventure most of all in England (by reason of our negligence), I

shall not need to spend any time in the rehearsal of them. Neither are

our crows and choughs cherished of purpose to catch up the worms that

breed in our soils (as Polydor supposeth), sith there are no uplandish

towns but have (or should have) nets of their own in store to catch

them withal. Sundry acts of Parliament are likewise made for their

utter destruction, as also the spoil of other ravenous fowls hurtful

to poultry, conies, lambs, and kids, whose valuation of reward to him

that killeth them is after the head: a device brought from the Goths,

who had the like ordinance for the destruction of their white crows,

and tale made by the beck, which killed both lambs and pigs. The like

order is taken with us for our vermin as with them also for the

rootage out of their wild beasts, saving that they spared their

greatest bears, especially the white, whose skins are by custom and

privilege reserved to cover those planchers whereupon their priests do

stand at mass, lest he should take some unkind cold in such a long

piece of work: and happy is the man that may provide them for him, for

he shall have pardon enough for that so religious an act, to last if he

will till doomsday do approach, and many thousands after. Nothing

therefore can be more unlikely to be true than that these noisome

creatures are nourished amongst us to devour our worms, which do not

abound much more in England than elsewhere in other countries of the

main. It may be that some look for a discourse also of our other fowls

in this place at my hand, as nightingales, thrushes, blackbirds,

mavises, ruddocks, redstarts or dunocks, larks, tivits, kingfishers,

buntings, turtles (white or grey), linnets, bullfinches, goldfinches,

washtails, cherrycrackers, yellowhammers, fieldfares, etc.; but I

should then spend more time upon them than is convenient. Neither will

I speak of our costly and curious aviaries daily made for the better

hearing of their melody, and observation of their natures; but I cease

also to go any further in these things, having (as I think) said

enough already of these that I have named.[2]...

[2] Here ends the first chapter of "fowls," that which follows

being restricted to "hawks and ravenous fowls."--W.

I cannot make as yet any just report how many sorts of hawks are bred

within this realm. Howbeit which of those that are usually had among

us are disclosed within this land, I think it more easy and less

difficult to set down. First of all, therefore, that we have the eagle

common experience doth evidently confirm, and divers of our rocks

whereon they breed, if speech did serve, could well declare the same.

But the most excellent eyrie of all is not much from Chester, at a

castle called Dinas Bren, sometime builded by Brennus, as our writers

do remember. Certes this castle is no great thing, but yet a pile

sometime very strong and inaccessible for enemies, though now all

ruinous as many others are. It standeth upon a hard rock, in the side

whereof an eagle breedeth every year. This also is notable in the

overthrow of her nest (a thing oft attempted), that he which goeth

thither must be sure of two large baskets, and so provide to be let

down thereto, that he may sit in the one and be covered with the

other: for otherwise the eagle would kill him and tear the flesh from

his bones with her sharp talons, though his apparel were never so

good. The common people call this fowl an erne; but, as I am ignorant

whether the word eagle and erne do shew any difference of sex, I mean

between the male and the female, so we have great store of them. And,

near to the places where they breed, the commons complain of great

harm to be done by them in their fields; for they are able to bear a

young lamb or kid unto their nests, therewith to feed their young and

come again for more. I was once of the opinion that there was a

diversity of kind between the eagle and the erne, till I perceived

that our nation used the word erne in most places for the eagle. We

have also the lanner and the lanneret, the tersel and the goshawk, the

musket and the sparhawk, the jack and the hobby, and finally some

(though very few) marleons. And these are all the hawks that I do hear

as yet to be bred within this island. Howbeit, as these are not

wanting with us, so are they not very plentiful: wherefore such as

delight in hawking do make their chief purveyance and provision for

the same out of Danske, Germany, and the eastern countries, from

whence we have them in great abundance and at excellent prices,

whereas at home and where they be bred they are sold for almost right

nought, and usually brought to the markets as chickens, pullets, and

pigeons are with us, and there bought up to be eaten (as we do the

aforesaid fowl) almost of every man. It is said that the sparhawk

pryeth not upon the fowl in the morning, that she taketh over even,

but as loath to have double benefit by one seelie fowl doth let it go

to make some shift for itself. But hereof as I stand in some doubt. So

this I find among the writers worthy the noting: that the sparhawk is

enemy to young children, as is also the ape, but of the peacock she is

marvellously afraid, and so appalled that all courage and stomach for

a time is taken from her upon the sight thereof. But to proceed with

the rest. Of other ravenous birds we have also very great plenty, as

the buzzard, the kite, the ringtail, dunkite, and such as often annoy

our country dames by spoiling of their young breeds of chickens,

ducks, and goslings, whereunto our very ravens and crows have learned

also the way: and so much are ravens given to this kind of spoil that

some idle and curious heads of set purpose have manned, reclaimed, and

used them instead of hawks, when other could not be had. Some do

imagine that the raven should be the vulture, and I was almost

persuaded in times past to believe the same; but, finding of late, a

description of the vulture, which better agreeth with the form of a

second kind of eagle, I freely surcease to be longer of that opinion:

for, as it hath, after a sort, the shape, colour, and quantity of an

eagle, so are the legs and feet more hairy and rough, their sides

under their wings better covered with thick down (wherewith also their

gorge or a part of their breast under their throats is armed, and not

with feathers) than are the like parts of the eagle, and unto which

portraiture there is no member of the raven (who is almost black of

colour) that can have any resemblance: we have none of them in England

to my knowledge; if we have, they go generally under the name of eagle

or erne. Neither have we the pygargus or grip, wherefore I have no

occasion to treat further. I have seen the carrion crows so cunning

also by their own industry of late that they have used to soar over

great rivers (as the Thames for example) and, suddenly coming down,

have caught a small fish in their feet and gone away withal without

wetting of their wings. And even at this present the aforesaid river

is not without some of them, a thing (in my opinion) not a little to

be wondered at. We have also osprays, which breed with us in parks and

woods, whereby the keepers of the same do reap in breeding time no

small commodity; for, so soon almost as the young are hatched, they

tie them to the butt ends or ground ends of sundry trees, where the

old ones, finding them, do never cease to bring fish unto them, which

the keepers take and eat from them, and commonly is such as is well

fed or not of the worst sort. It hath not been my hap hitherto to see

any of these fowl, and partly through mine own negligence; but I hear

that it hath one foot like a hawk, to catch hold withal, and another

resembling a goose, wherewith to swim; but, whether it be so or not

so, I refer the further search and trial thereof unto some other. This

nevertheless is certain, that both alive and dead, yea even her very

oil, is a deadly terror to such fish as come within the wind of it.

There is no cause whereof I should describe the cormorant amongst

hawks, of which some be black and many pied, chiefly about the Isle of

Ely, where they are taken for the night raven, except I should call

him a water hawk. But, sith such dealing is not convenient, let us now

see what may be said of our venomous worms, and how many kinds we have

of them within our realm and country.[3]

[3] This on "venomous beasts" will be found included in the

"savage beasts" of the following.

CHAPTER XIV

OF SAVAGE BEASTS AND VERMIN

[1577, Book III., Chapters 7 and 12; 1587, Book III., Chapters

4 and 6.]

It is none of the least blessings wherewith God hath endued this

island that it is void of noisome beasts, as lions, bears, tigers,

pardes, wolves, and such like, by means whereof our countrymen may

travel in safety, and our herds and flocks remain for the most part

abroad in the field without any herdman or keeper.

This is chiefly spoken of the south and south-west parts of the

island. For, whereas we that dwell on this side of the Tweed may

safely boast of our security in this behalf, yet cannot the Scots do

the like in every point wherein their kingdom, sith they have grievous

wolves and cruel foxes, beside some others of like disposition

continually conversant among them, to the general hindrance of their

husbandmen, and no small damage unto the inhabitants of those

quarters. The happy and fortunate want of these beasts in England is

universally ascribed to the politic government of King Edgar.[1]...

[1] Here follows an account of the extermination of wolves,

and a reference to lions and wild bulls rampant in Scotland of

old.--W.