My lord ordained that there be two [nuns] receivers, to receive and

to pay out [the money to be kept in a chest] under three locks, and

that all live in common, leaving off their separate households, and

that these things do begin at Michaelmas next. And all were warned to

remove all secular folk from the dorter on this side the morrow of the

Assumption. And all were warned under pain of excommunication that none

do reproach another by reason of her disclosures. And the prioress was

warned to [shut] and open the doors of the church and cloister at the

due times, and to keep the keys with her by night in the dorter.

* * * * *

Dames Isabel Benet and Agnes Halesley, nuns of Catesby, will not obey

or hearken to the injunctions of the lord bishop, and especially that

concerning giving up their [private] chambers, asserting that they are

not subject to the same.

Also the said dame Isabel on Monday last past did pass the night with

the Austin friars at Northampton, and did dance and play the lute with

them on the same place until midnight, and on the night following she

passed the night with the friars preachers at Northampton, luting and

dancing in like manner.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY ENCLOSURES, A.D. 1549

(Holinshed, _Chronicle of England_, III, p. 156)

So it was, that the King’s Majesty, by the advice of his uncle, the

Lord Protector, and other of the Council, thought good to set forth a

proclamation against enclosures, and taking in of fields and commons

that were accustomed to lie open, for the behoof of the inhabitants

dwelling near to the same, who had grievously complained of gentlemen

and others for taking from them the use of those fields and commons,

and had enclosed them into parks and several pasture for their private

commodities and pleasures, to the great hindrance and undoing many a

poor man.

This proclamation tending to the benefit and relief of the poor,

appointed that such as had enclosed those commons, should upon a

pain by a day assigned lay them open again. But how well soever the

setters forth of this proclamation meant, thinking hereby peradventure

to appease the grudge of the people that found themselves grieved

with such enclosures; yet verily it turned not to the wished effect,

but rather ministered occasion of a foul and dangerous disorder. For

whereas there were few that obeyed the commandment, the unadvised

people presuming upon their proclamation, thinking they should be borne

out by them that had set it forth, rashly without order took upon them

to redress the matter: and assembling themselves in unlawful wise,

chose to them captains and leaders, brake open the enclosures, cast

down ditches, killed up the deer which they found in parks, spoiled and

made havoc after the manner of an open rebellion. First they began to

play these parts in Somersetshire, Buckinghamshire, Northamptonshire,

Kent, Essex, and Lincolnshire.

In Somersetshire they brake up certain parks of Sir William Herbert,

and the Lord Sturton: but Sir William Herbert assembling a power

together by the King’s commission, slew and executed many of these

rebellious people. In other places also by the good diligence and

police used by the council, the rebels were appeased and quieted.

But shortly after, the commons of Devonshire and Cornwall rose by way

of rebellion, demanding not only to have enclosures laid open, and

parks disparked, but also through the instigations and pricking forward

of certain popish priests, ceased not by all sinister and subtle

means, first under God’s Name and the King’s, and under the colour

of religion, to persuade the people to assemble in routs to choose

captains to guide them and finally to burst out into open rebellion.

GRIEVANCES OF CAMBRIDGE MEN. (EXAMPLES)

(Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, Vol. II, p. 38)

Inprimis, we find that there be IV Almshouses decayed in Jesus Lane,

which ought to be upholden and maintained by Mr. Thomas Hutton.

Item: we find that a piece of noisome ground is taken in out of the

common and enclosed with a muddle wall at the end of Jesus Lane, for

the which the incorporation of the town is recompensed, but not the

whole inhabitants of the town which find themselves injured.

Item: we find that Andrew Lambes close is croft land and ought to lie

open with the field at Lammas as common.

Item: we find that Mr. Hynde unlawfully doth bring into Cambridge field

a flock of sheep to the number of VI or VII hundred, to the undoing of

the farmers and great hindrance of all the inhabitants of Cambridge.

Item: we find that Trinity College hath enclosed a common lane which

was a common course both for cart, horse and man, leading to the river,

unto a common green, and no recompense made therefore.

Item: we find that Mr. Muryell hath plowed up certain balks and cart

ways in the field.

Item: we find that Mr. Bykardyck hath plowed up the more part of a balk

behind the Black Friars of VII feet broad ... and he hath ditched it at

both ends.

Item: we find that Queen’s College have taken a piece of common ground

commonly called Gosling Green without recompense.

Item: we find that Mr. Fanne hath in his hands a piece of marsh ground

now severalled, which was common within these XVI years, the rent is

VIId.

Item: we find that beyond Styrbrydge Chapel, Dytton men have pulled

down a bridge, stopped the water, drowned the commons and so enter upon

Cambridge common.

Item: we find that Mr. Kymbalde hath walled and ditched upon the

highway in Barnwell, whereby the said way is much straitened.

Mem.: of a common balk through a pasture ground adjoining next to

Rutland’s house in Little St. Mary’s now inhabited by R. Tomlynson,

which balk should be a way to go to Thomas leys and so forth on balks

to Jesus Green, etc., which pasture is now purchased by the town, etc.

RIOTERS’ BALLAD

JAKE OF THE NORTH

(Cooper, II, p. 40)

JAKE OF THE NORTH:

... Company by night I take

And with all that I may make

Cast hedge and ditch in the lake

Fixed with many a stake.

Though it were never so fast

Asunder it is wraste.

Thus I Jake do recompense

Their naughty slanderous offence[26].

* * * * *

As I am a true speaker,

I am but a Hedge breaker.

* * * * *

How sayest thou Robin Clout?

Is this night well wrought?

ROBIN CLOUT:

Yea, sir without doubt ...

It is as ye do say ...

Methought it but a play

To see the stakes fast stray

Down into the ray

Swimming evermore away,

Sailing toward the castle

Like as they would wrastle

For superiority

Or else for the Mayoralty.

JAKE:

Truth now thou dost say

It was even worth a play

To see the stakes jombling

And in the water tumbling.

And fast away they hied

Lest they should have been spied

And with a boat been followed

And with a serjeant arrested

For to come to the Mayor

In all gudly affair ...

How sayst Tom of Trumpington?

TOM OF TRUMPINGTON:

Forsooth sir down to Chesterton[27]

Great store of stakes be gone

Swimming thither one by one.

Glad they have escaped

And not of the baillies attached.

Wherefore they hied them hence

Paying yet no toll pence

Witness Robin with the red nose

And Benet with the blue hose

And Francis few clothes

Ye affirm the same I suppose?

BUNTYNGE:

Sir I think that this work

Is as good as to build a kirk

For Cambridge Baillies truly

Give ill example to the country

Their commons likewise for to engrose

And from poor men it to enclose.

JAKE:

How sayest thou Peter Potter?

Is here good hunting of the otter?

PETER POTTER:

By Jesus sir the ditch be yuge (?) down,

Is the best hunting in all the town,

The poor say God bless your heart

For if it continued they should smart

The wives of it also be glad

Which for their cattle little meat had.

Some have but one sealy (?) cow

Where is no hay nor straw in mow

Therefore it is good conscience I ween

To make that common that ever hath been!

JAKE:

Thou Pyrse Plowman by name

How say’st thou by this game?

PYRSE:

Sir it is both game and glee

All things well ordered to see

So suddenly altered in a night.

All things yet done is but right.

I wonder at this covetous nation

That scratt and get all out of fashion.

They seem men of no conscience

But only to satisfy covetous pretence

Ever desiring to take money

As greedy of it as bees of honey.

JAKE:

... Hodge I thee commend ...

Because thou art a sturdy knave

Fit to wear anordyn Jacke (?)

And to lift up a wool pack

Wherewith of times my neck doth crack.

And you good friends every chone (_sic_)

I exhort ye all in one

To pass home right shortly

Lest the bailiffs do you spy

Or else serjeants with burbolts bright

Chance at you to have a flight

Therefore eschew before daylight

For till then they have no might....

Thus do I, Jack of the stile

Now subscribe upon a tile.

“This I do and will do with all my might

For slandering of me yet do I but right

For common to the commons again I restore

Wherever it hath been yet common before.

If again they enclose it never so fast

Again asunder it shall be wrast

They may be ware by that is past

To make it again is but waste.”

Fare well gentle reader.

FOOTNOTES:

[26] Offenders were mainly members of the Corporation or the

University, also some local landowners.

[27] Suburbs of Cambridge, Trumpington above, Chesterton below the town.

CHAPTER VI

EXPLORATION

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Voyages of Columbus

These accounts were written by Columbus himself, and may be amplified

very much by reference to the originals in the Hakluyt Society’s

volume. Another account of the fourth voyage written by one of

Columbus’ men, Diago Mendez, is of special value. The accounts are here

placed in their chronological order, but the passage on voyage three

really relates to the whole series, and might with advantage be used as

introductory. The Memorial on the second voyage is a very long official

document, from which only a few fragments have been given in order to

show the relations between Columbus and the sovereigns, and how from

the first the Spanish Indies were under their direct personal control.

Isabella had forewarded the discovery, and the new regions remained the

property of the House of Castille rather than national provinces.

New Light on Drake

The Spanish reports have especial value in creating an impartial view

of Drake’s feats; the detailed personal character of the reports makes

them exactly suitable for children. Zarate’s evidence that Drake

carried the Queen’s commission conflicts with the usually accepted

statements, but appears irrefutable evidence.

Letter to Sanchez, Treasurer.

The entire absence of resistance should be remarked, and the merely

formal nature of the acquisition of rights.

It was, of course, the treasures of Cathay (see _Mediæval Voyages_, p.

37), inaccessible by the old Eastern routes since the Ottoman Turks

seized the Levant and Constantinople, which formed the original motive

of exploration of a west or north-west route.

The inhabitants are still in the Stone Age, but have elements of

religion and live peacefully and in comfort until attacked. The closing

paragraph gives the main motives of the voyage as treasure, luxuries,

and naval supply, but also indicates the genuinely religious zeal which

must be reckoned with in all Portuguese and Spanish exploration (see

also voyages three, four).

Memorial of Second Voyage.

The strongly-worded approval of the rulers was not carried into

practical effect (see voyage four). Fonseca was constituted the royal

agent for the whole intercourse with the New World.

Third Voyage.

Columbus’s reference to “trustworthy and wise historians” seems to

indicate that more was known of the New World than has been supposed,

unless he is referring to records of the East. The progressive temper

of the friars carries on the traditions of Rubruquis and Carpini, and

may be used to balance the idea that the church was always reactionary

and conservative.

Fourth Voyage.

Chiefly valuable for detail of the hardships and dangers encountered,

and to illustrate the character and human relations of Columbus, and

corroborate points made above.

COLUMBUS

(_Select Letters of Christopher Columbus_, Ed., R. H. Major; Hakluyt

Society, 1847)

LETTER TO LORD RAPHAEL SANCHEZ, TREASURER TO THEIR MOST INVINCIBLE

MAJESTIES, FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, KING AND QUEEN OF SPAIN (p. I).

... Thirty-three days after my departure from Cadiz I reached the

Indian Sea, where I discovered many islands, thickly peopled, of

which I took possession without resistance in the name of our most

illustrious Monarch, by public proclamation and with unfurled banners.

To the first of these islands I gave the name of Our Blessed Saviour

[San Salvador].... As soon as we arrived at ... Juana [Nth. Caico] I

proceeded along its coast a short distance westwards, and found it

to be so large and apparently without termination, that I could not

suppose it to be an island, but the continental province of Cathay....

At length after proceeding a great way and finding that nothing new

presented itself, and that the line of coast was leading us northwards

(which I wished to avoid because it was winter) and it was my intention

to move southwards and because the winds were contrary, I resolved not

to attempt any further progress but rather to turn back.

... All these islands are very beautiful and distinguished by a

diversity of scenery; they are filled with a great variety of trees

of immense height, and which I believe to retain their foliage in all

seasons; for when I saw them they were as verdant and luxuriant as they

usually are in Spain in the month of May--some of them were blossoming,

some bearing fruit--yet the islands are not so thickly wooded as to

be impassable.... The nightingale and various birds were singing in

countless numbers, and that in November, the month in which I arrived

there.... There are besides, seven or eight kinds of palm-trees ... the

pines also are very handsome, and there are very extensive fields and

meadows, a variety of birds, different kinds of honey, and many sorts

of metals, but no iron....

The inhabitants of both sexes ... go always as they were born, with

the exception of some of the women, who use the coverings of a leaf or

small bough, or an apron of cotton which they prepare for that purpose.

None of them are possessed of any iron, neither have they weapons

... because they are timid and full of fear. They carry, however, in

lieu of arms, canes dried in the sun, on the ends of which they fix

heads of dried wood, sharpened to a point, and even these they dare

not use habitually ... and have fled in such haste at the approach

of our men, that the fathers forsook their children and the children

their fathers.... I gave to all I approached whatever articles I had

about me, such as cloth and many other things, but they are naturally

timid and fearful ... they are very simple and honest and exceedingly

liberal with all they have ... they also give objects of great value

for trifles ... a sailor received for a leather strap, gold worth three

golden nobles ... thus they bartered like idiots, cotton and gold for

fragments of bows, glasses, bottles and jars; which I forbade as being

unjust....

They practise no kind of idolatry, but have a firm belief that all

strength and power, and indeed all good things, are in Heaven, and that

I had descended from thence with these ships and sailors, and under

this impression was I received after they had thrown aside their fears.

Nor are they slow or stupid but of very clear understanding....

On my arrival I had taken some Indians by force from the first island

that I came to, in order that they might learn our language and

communicate to us what they knew respecting the country; which plan

succeeded excellently, and was a great advantage to us, for in a short

time, either by gestures and signs or by words, we were enabled to

understand each other. These men are still travelling with me. At any

new place ... crying out ... to the other Indians, “Come, come and

look upon beings of a celestial race,” upon which both men and women,

children and adults, young men and old, when they got rid of the fear

they at first entertained, would come out in throngs, crowding the

roads to see us, some bringing food, others drink, with astonishing

affection and kindness. Each of these islands has a great number of

canoes, built of solid wood, narrow and not unlike our double banked

boats in length and shape, but swifter in their motion: they steer them

only by the oar.... (pp. 9, 10).

I ordered a fortress to be built there [Espanola] which must by this

time be completed, in which I left as many men as I thought necessary,

with all sorts of arms and enough provisions for more than a year.

... I did not find, as some of us had expected, any cannibals amongst

them, but on the contrary, men of great deference and kindness.

Neither are they black like the Ethiopians: their hair is smooth and

straight.... I saw no cannibals, nor did I hear of any, except in a

certain island called Chari (? Carib).

Finally ... I promise, that with a little assistance afforded me by our

most invincible sovereigns, I will procure them as much gold as they

need, as great a quantity of spices, of cotton and of mastic, and as

many men for the service of the navy as their Majesties may require. I

promise also rhubarb and other sorts of drugs.... (p. 15).

But these great and marvellous results are not to be attributed to

any merit of mine, but to the Holy Christian faith, and to the piety

and religion of our sovereigns.... Let processions be made and sacred

feasts be held, and the temples be adorned with festive boughs....

Farewell.

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS,

Admiral of the Fleet of the Ocean.

Lisbon, 14th March.

MEMORIAL OF THE SECOND VOYAGE WITH COMMENTS THEREUPON OF FERDINAND AND

ISABELLA

... We have found upon the sea-shore ... so many indications of various

spices, as naturally to suggest the hope of the best results for the

future. The same holds good with respect to the gold mines; for two

parties ... found ... a great number of rivers whose sands contained

this precious metal in such quantities that each man took up a sample

of it in his hand....

_Their Highnesses return thanks to God for all that is here recorded,

and regard as a very signal service all that the Admiral has already

done, and is yet doing ..._ (_pp. 70, 71_).

We are very certain, as the fact has shown, that wheat and grapes will

grow very well in this country. We must however, wait for the fruit....

There are also sugar-canes, of which the small quantity that we have

planted has succeeded very well.

Since the land is so fertile, it is desirable to sow as much as

possible: and Don Juan de Fonseca has been desired to send over

immediately everything requisite for that purpose.... (pp. 77, 78).

LETTER ABOUT THE THIRD VOYAGE

This enterprise to the Indies [i.e., the original discovery] ... those

who heard of it looked upon it as impossible, for they fixed all their

hopes on the favours of fortune, and pinned their faith solely upon

chance. I gave to the subject six or seven years of great anxiety,

explaining ... how great service might be done to Our Lord, by this

undertaking, in promulgating his Sacred Name and most holy faith among

so many nations.... It was also requisite to refer to the temporal

prosperity which was foretold in the writings of so many trustworthy

and wise historians, who related that great riches were to be found in

these parts.... (p. 104).

In this your Highnesses exhibited the noble spirit which has always

been manifested by you on every subject; for all others who had

thought of the matter or heard it spoken of, unanimously treated it

with contempt, with the exception of two friars [a Franciscan and

a Dominican, afterwards Archbishop of Seville] who always remained

constant in their belief of its practicability.

LETTER RELATING TO FOURTH VOYAGE

... I pushed on for Terra Firma, in spite of the wind and a fearful

contrary current, against which I contended for sixty days, and during

that time made only seventy leagues (p. 171) ... other tempests have

been experienced but never of so long a duration or so fearful as this:

many whom we looked upon as brave men, on several occasions showed

considerable trepidation, but the distress of my son who was with me

grieved me to the soul and the more when I considered his tender age

for he was but thirteen years old, and he enduring so much toil for so

long a time. The Lord however gave him strength even to enable him to

encourage the rest, and he worked as if he had been eighty years at

sea, and all this was a consolation to me.

I myself had fallen sick and was many times at the point of death,

but from a little cabin that I had caused to be constructed on deck I

directed our course. My brother was in the ship that was in the worst

condition and the most exposed to danger; and my grief on this account

was the greater that I brought him with me against his will (p. 172).

Such is my fate, that the twenty years of service through which I have

passed with so much toil and danger, have profited me nothing, and at

this very day I do not possess a roof in Castille that I can call my

own; if I wish to eat or sleep, I have nowhere to go but to the inn or

tavern, and most times lack wherewith to pay the bill. Another anxiety

wrung my very heartstrings, which was the thought of my son Diege, whom

I had left an orphan in Spain, and stripped of the honour and property

which were due to him on my account.... (p. 173).

I stopped to repair my vessels and take in provisions, as well as

to afford relaxation to the men, who had become very weak ... two

Indians conducted me to Carambaru, where the people (who go naked)

wear golden mirrors round their necks.... They named to me many places

on the sea-coast where there were both gold and mines. The last that

they mentioned was Veragua, nine days’ journey across the country

westward: they tell me there is a great quantity of gold, and that the

inhabitants wear coral ornaments on their heads, and very large coral

bracelets and anklets, with which article also they adorn and inlay

their seats, boxes and tables. They also said that the women there wore

necklaces hanging down to their shoulders (p. 175).... I had taken

possession of land belonging to Quibian [a native chief]. When he saw

what we did and found the traffic [in gold] increasing, he resolved

upon burning the houses, and putting us all to death; but his project

did not succeed for we took him prisoner, together with his wives, his

children and his servants ... the Indians collected themselves together

and made an attack upon the boats, and at length massacred the men. My

brother and all the rest of our people were in a ship which remained

inside [the river mouth, which had silted up]. I was alone outside

upon that dangerous coast, suffering from a severe fever and worn with

fatigue. All hope of escape was gone and I toiled up to the highest

part of the ship, and with a quivering voice and fast-falling tears,

I called upon your Highnesses’ war-captains from each point of the

compass to come to my succour, but there was no reply. [Columbus sleeps

and sees a vision in which he is upbraided for want of faith] (p. 184).

I collected the men who were on land.... I departed in the name of the

Holy Trinity, on Easter night, with the ships rotten, worn out and

eaten into holes [by the teredo].... I then had only two left.... I

was without boats or provisions, and in this condition I had to cross

seven thousand miles of sea; or as an alternative to die on the passage

with my son, my brother and so many of my people.... I send this letter

by means of and by the hands of Indians; it will be a miracle if it

reaches its destination (pp. 186, 189).

NEW LIGHT ON DRAKE

DEPOSITION BY NUNO DA SILVA AS TO HOW HE WAS MADE PRISONER BY ENGLISH

PIRATES ON HIS VOYAGE FROM OPORTO TO BRAZIL (p. 301).

(_Conquest of New Spain_, Hakluyt Society Publications, Series II, Vol.

24.)

“This Englishman calls himself Francis Drake and is a man aged 38. He

may be two years more or less. He is low in stature, thickset and very

robust. He has a fine countenance, is ruddy of complexion and has a

fair beard. He has the mark of an arrow wound in his right cheek which

is not apparent if one does not look with especial care. In one leg he

has the ball of an arquebuse that was shot at him in the Indies. He is

[a great mariner] the son and relative of seamen, and particularly of

John Hawkins in whose company he was for a long time.”

AN ABRIDGEMENT OF THE RELATION AND PROOFS MADE AGAINST SIR FRANCIS

DRAKE, KNIGHT, TOUCHING HIS DOINGS IN THE SOUTH SEA BEYOND THE

STRAIT OF MAGALANUS (p. 414).

It is informed the said Francis Drake went forth with 5 ships well

appointed and in them 400 men of war, having for pilot a Portingall

named Amador de Silva.

The said Drake came by Cape Verde and coasting the straits of Brazil

arrived at the mouth of the Strait of Magalanus where there is a very

good port named St. Julian, in the which they tarried wintering 2

months because of the great north winds which were contrary.

At the end of which time the 5 ships went out of the said port and

sailing in the Strait they had a tempest so vehement that 2 of the said

ships perished and they received the men into 3 remaining ships which

with 3 pinaces which they towed at their poops issued out of the Strait

into the South Sea in 44 degrees of altitude and sailing towards the

Sea, with a storm were 40 days in the Sea at dryte [? drift] and so the

two ships did separate themselves and the said Drake remained alone

which could never afterward see them.

It was understood that they went to the Malluccos and it was agreed

between them that they should meet in 30½ degrees, which is the Cape

St. Francis.

From thence Drake came to the port of St. Iago from Chile and entered

into the ship of lycentiat Torres called “Capitana” which was surging

there from the which he took 14m Pezos of gold and 1800 botazes of wine

and some other things.

From thence he entered into the town and robbed the ornaments and bells

of the church and broke down the doors of the cellars and brake the

vessels of wine, and carrying with him the ship which he had spoiled,

arrived in the port of Arica where a ship of Philippe Dorse [Corco] was

out of which he took 34 wedges of silver and burned one other ship that

was there of one Mr. Benito.

From the port they went forth in a pinnace with the two ships that

they had robbed and they arrived in the sight of the port of Chile in

Arequipa where there were laden in a ship of Bernal Bueno 500 wedges

of His Majesty which the said Drake would have robbed, had not the men

that were aboard by advice they had before, unladen and hided the same

a-land.

From thence they went forth following their voyage and being in the

high sea, took out of the two ships which they carried with them the

apparel and other things they had need of and so left them.

And the 13th of February they arrived in the port of Callao of the City

of Los Reys and entered into it and 3 hours after evening the said

Drake and company went out in a pinnace to a ship of Michell Angell

wherein he found nothing.

At the same time, there arrived a ship of Alonzo Rodriguez Baptista

which came from the firm land laden with marchandizes which presently

they took and robbed, hurting the said Alonzo and others that would

have defended themselves.

There were other ships in that port to the which the said Drake and

company went and cut their cables, because they should not follow and

then departed carrying with them the said merchant’s ship.

The news being known to the Viceroy he commanded to arm two ships with

a number of men that should go to pursue the ship of the said Drake

which was within sight, which two ships went forth the very same day

and came again the next day following, being not able to overtake him,

bringing with them the merchant’s ship of the said Alonzo which the

said Drake left behind him.

This Francis Drake went forth of the port of Callao and sailing alongst

the coast arrived at the port of Paita where he took a boat arrived

there with marchandizes, of the which he took those he thought best,

and carried with him the pilot with whom he came along the coast

enquiring of the ship of St. John de Anton, which was coming from

Panama, the which he overtook 150 leagues from the said place, the

first of March, and robbed all the treasure being therein. The day

before it was understood that he had robbed another small ship which

was coming from Guayaquill with eighteen thousand Pezos of gold and

silver, and great quantity of tackling and other things of provision

for the journey to the Phillypinas and Valiano, the which the royal

audience had caused to be bought for the said effect.

All these things were done until the 24th of April in the year 1580.

LETTER FROM DON FRANCISCO DE ZARATE TO DON MARTIN ENRIQUEZ, VICEROY OF

NEW SPAIN (p. 201)

Realejo, Nicaragua,

16th of April, 1579.

I sailed out of the port of Acapulce on 23rd of March, and navigated

until Saturday, 4th of April, on which date, half an hour before dawn,

we saw, by moonlight, a ship very close to ours. Our steersman shouted

that she was to get out of the way and not come alongside of us. To

this they made no answer pretending to be asleep. The steersman then

shouted louder, asking them where their ship hailed from. They answered

“from Peru” and that she was “of Miguel Angel,” which is the name of a

well-known captain of that route.

The spokesman on the ship was a Spaniard, whose name I will tell Your

Excellency further on.

The ship of the adversary carried her bark at her prow as though she

were being towed. Suddenly, in a moment, she crossed our poop, ordering

us “to strike sail” and shooting seven or eight arquebuse shots at us.

We thought this as much of a joke as it afterwards turned out to be

serious.

On our part there was no resistance, nor had we more than six of

our men awake on the whole boat, so they entered our ship with as

little risk to themselves as though they were our friends. They did

no personal harm to anyone, beyond seizing the swords and keys of the

passengers. Having informed themselves who were on board ship, they

ordered me to go in their boat to where their general was--a fact that

I was glad of, as it appeared to me that it gave me more time in which

to recommend myself to God. But in a very short time we arrived where

he was, on a very good galleon, as well mounted with artillery as any I

have seen in my life.

I found him promenading on deck, and, on approaching him, I kissed his

hands. He received me with a show of kindness, and took me to his cabin

where he bade me be seated and said: “I am a friend of those who tell

me the truth, but with those who do not I get out of humour. Therefore

you must tell me (for this is the best road to my favour): How much

silver and gold does your ship carry?” I said to him, “None.” He

repeated his question, I answered, “None, only some small plates that

I use and some cups--that is all that is in her.” ... We talked for a

good while before it was time to dine. He ordered me to sit next to him

and began to give me food from his own plate, telling me not to grieve,

that my life and property were safe. I kissed his hands for this.

He asked me if I knew where there was water to be had about here,

adding that he needed nothing else, and that as soon as he found some

he would give me leave to continue my journey....

On the following day, which was Sunday, he dressed and decked himself

very finely, and had his galleon decorated with all its flags and

banners.... He had entered the port of Callao de Lima and cut the

cables of all the ships that were in port. As the wind was from the

land they all went out to sea, where he had time to sack them at his

will. Before he proceeded to do the same to ours he said to me: “Let

one of your pages come with me to show me your apparel.” He went from

his galleon at about nine in the morning and remained until towards

dusk, examining everything contained in the bales and chests. Of that

which belonged to me he took but little. Indeed he was quite courteous

about it. Certain trifles of mine having taken his fancy, he had them

brought to his ship and gave me, in exchange for them, a falcheon

and a small brazier of silver, and I can assure Your Excellency that

he lost nothing by the bargain. On his return to his vessel he asked

me to pardon him for taking the trifles, but that they were for his

wife. He said that I could depart the next morning when the breeze

would rise, for which I gave him thanks.... He left Colchero [a

Spanish pilot] with me, and after this set sail. I understand that he

carries three thousand bars of silver, and twelve or fifteen chests

of pieces of eight, and a great quantity of gold. He is going straight

to his country, and I believe that no vessel that went after him could

possibly overtake him. He has an intense desire to return to his own

country.

This general of the Englishmen is a nephew of John Hawkins, and is the

same who, about five years ago, took the port of Nombre de Dios. He

is called Francisco Drac, and is a man about 35 years of age, low of

stature, with a fair beard, and is one of the greatest mariners that

sails the seas, both as a navigator and as a commander. His vessel is

a galleon of nearly 400 tons and is a perfect sailor. She is manned

with a hundred men, all of service, and of an age for warfare, and all

are as practised therein as old soldiers from Italy could be. Each one

takes particular pains to keep his arquebuse clean. He treats them

with affection, and they treat him with respect. He carries with him

nine or ten cavaliers, cadets of English noblemen. These form part of

his council which he calls together for even the most trivial matter,

although he takes advice from no one. But he enjoys hearing what they

say and afterwards issues his orders. He has no favourite.

The aforesaid gentlemen sit at his table, as well as a Portuguese

pilot, ... who spoke not a word all the time I was on board. He is

served on silver dishes with gold borders and gilded garlands in which

are his arms. He carries all possible dainties and perfumed waters. He

said that many of these had been given him by the Queen.

None of these gentlemen took a seat or covered his head before him,

until he repeatedly urged him to do so. This galleon of his carries

about thirty heavy pieces of artillery and a great quantity of firearms

with the requisite ammunition and lead. He dines and sups to the music

of viols. He carries trained carpenters and artisans, so as to be

able to careen the ship at any time. Besides being new, the ship has

a double lining. I understood that all the men he carries with him

receive wages, because, when our ship was sacked, no man dared take

anything without his orders. He shows them great favour, but punishes

the least fault. He also carries painters who paint for him pictures

of the coast in its exact colours. This I was most grieved to see,

for each thing is so naturally depicted that no one who guides himself

according to these paintings can possibly go astray. I understood from

him that he had sailed from his country with five vessels, four sloops

(of the long kind) and that half of the armada belonged to the Queen. I

believe this to be so for the reason that I am about to relate to Your

Excellency.

This Corsair, like a pioneer, arrived two months before he intended

to pass through [the strait] and during that time for many days there

were great storms. So it was that one of the gentlemen, whom he had

with him, said to him: “We have been a long while in this strait and

you have placed all of us, who follow or serve you, in danger of death.

It would therefore be prudent for you to give order that we return to

the North Sea, where we have the certainty of capturing prizes, and

that we give up seeking to make new discoveries. You see how fraught

with difficulties these are.” This gentleman must have sustained this

opinion with more vigour than appeared proper to the General. His

answer was that he had the gentleman carried below deck and put in

irons. On another day, at the same hour, he ordered him to be taken

out, and to be beheaded in the presence of all.

The term of his imprisonment was no more than was necessary to

substantiate the lawsuit that was conducted against him. All this he

told me, speaking much good about the dead man, but adding that he

had not been able to act otherwise, because this was what the Queen’s

service demanded. He showed me the commissions he had received from her

and carried....

I managed to ascertain whether the General was well liked, and all said

that they adored him.

This is what I was able to find out during the time I spent with him.

I beseech Your Excellency to consider what encouragement it will be to

those of his country if he returns thither. If up to the present they

have sent cadets, henceforth they themselves will come, after seeing

how the plans which this Corsair had made in the dark, and all his

promises have come true. He will give them, as proofs of [the success

of] his venture, great sums of gold and silver.

CHAPTER VII

ILLUSTRATIONS OF LIFE IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Hansards in London

Stow’s account of the Steelyard and the work of the Easterlings, is

valuable for the history of trade. It exhibits the alien as the great

importer, practically monopolizing the foreign trade with England

up to the reign of Henry IV, and continuing to dominate it till

Elizabeth ended their privileges. It also shows their relations with

self-governing London, and in the whole story can be traced the working

out of conditions which the English later applied to their own overseas

enterprises. The status of Merchant Adventurers, East India Company,

etc., as self-governing communities privileged to exist in a foreign

country seems the precise reproduction of the Hansard in England,

and often reproduced the same injustice for the native merchant. The

report of R. Wynyngton’s capture of the Hansard fleet should be read in

conjunction with this, and the position of the Hansards also compared

to that of gilds of English merchants.

London Extracts

The enumeration of places, recently open country, serves to make vivid

the part London was playing in the great increase of population and

wealth due to the cloth industry, and the foreign adventures in trade

of the Tudor period. The vivid Rembrandt picture of the night-watch

suggests the utter darkness of the narrow mediæval lanes and alleys;

while the regulations for rebuilding London give further suggestive

details, e.g. shop-windows are still temporary, houses hitherto neither

flush with one line of pavement nor of one height or style, and wood

and thatch still prevail. The account of Skinner’s Well also emphasizes

this period of transition from an age of intimate feudal relations

between great and small, with its accompanying inequalities, to the

more individualistic and mercantile relations of the modern world.

East Indies

Sir T. Roe’s embassy from James I to the Great Mogul (Jehanghir), gives

the best account of that Indian court and government, and of the trade

and position of the East India Co., still in its teens. The Portuguese,

under Albuquerque, had created an empire in the Persian Gulf and Indian

shores a century earlier. This had been challenged by Dutch traders,

especially in the islands of the Indian Ocean and Malay Straits, who,

in 1604, formed the Dutch East India Co. Persia had always traded

with the Mogul Empire. Roe gives in this passage a valuable sketch of

the relations of all five races, and lays down firmly the policy on

which the English Company always hereafter insisted in theory, though

constantly forced to abandon it in practice, namely that trade, and not

territory, was their aim.

He also sets up the standard of honesty and honour in face of Oriental

despotism, which British officials have always been expected to

maintain. His statement, too, of the need of carefully selected

presents, shows that the old practice seen in the Old Testament

scriptures still existed in Asiatic negotiations. The Company’s

servants found themselves from the first obliged both to give and

to receive them, even despite the Company’s orders, and in 1773 “a

talent of silver and two changes of raiment,” i.e. a Kelaat, was the

recognized gift of the Mogul’s messenger.

The account of a “Court” meeting of the East India Company’s Committees

in London gives a glimpse of the regular course of their work in

dividing gains, etc., and has an especially interesting note of the way

they conducted their relations with the King, their debtor, through the

mediation of a famous courtier.

Captain Rannie’s evidence, as a Company’s military officer on the spot,

is striking as showing how the struggle between Dupleix and Clive in

the Carnatic had reacted by alarming the Nawabs of Bengal; and, again,

in tracing their hostility further to the interference with trade

and its dues, on which, perhaps as much as on land-dues, the ruler’s

treasury depended. These were the grievances which caused our later

troubles with Mir Jaffier and Mir Cossim, our own nominees, and they

were not ended till Warren Hastings, with twenty years’ experience as a

trader, came to govern and to reform them in 1773.

Life of T. Raymond

The chief value of these extracts lies in the insight they give into

the domestic life of courtiers, of an ambassadors’ suite, of common

soldiers and officers on campaign, of the utter ruin of the population

at the seat of war. This is an interesting commentary on the condition

to which most of the German states must have been reduced during the

incessant campaigning of the Thirty Years’ War.

A Court Leet

Both the origin and name of courts leet is obscure; they were possibly

survivals of the Anglo-Saxon hundred courts, seem to have a popular

origin, and were certainly the courts in which review of Frankpledge

was held, and other petty police work done.

Dugdale’s “History of Draining”

This is valuable for a picture of the gradual process by which England

changed from the fen and forest condition in which the Romans found

it, to the corn-producing country of to-day. The passages quoted deal

with the draining of the area about the Wash, from which the sea had

gradually receded, and which is known as the Great Level, or the

Bedford Level. Dugdale wrote at the close of the Commonwealth period,

and his review brings out the value of the monastic care of the

drainage works up to the dissolution of the abbeys; also the fact that

such undertakings as this requiring capital were managed by companies

of Adventurers, exactly similar to those who took up colonization.

The grants of land by which Bedford and his associates were repaid,

are an instance of the way the members of such Companies grew to be

the plutocrats who, in the eighteenth century, were able to control

politics by the purchase of seats or of votes in Parliament. Bedford

was the recognized head of a great party under George II and George III.

LONDON

THE HANSA LEAGUE’S HOUSE IN LONDON

(Stow, Book II, p. 202)

Next to [Cofin Lane] is the Stelehouse, or Steleyard (as they term it)

a Place for Merchants of Almaine [German States] that used to bring

hither, as well Wheat, Rye, and other Grain, as Cables, Ropes, Masts,

Pitch, Tarr, Flax, Hemp, Linen Cloth, Wainscots, Wax, Steel and other

profitable Merchandises. Unto these Merchants, in the Year 1239, Henry

III at the request of his brother, Richard Earl of Cornwall, King of

Almaine, granted that all and singular the Merchants have a House

in the City of London, commonly called Guilda Aula Theutonicorum,

should be maintained and upholden through the whole Realm, by all such

Freedoms, and free Usages or Liberties, as by the King and in his noble

Progenitors Time, they had enjoyed....

And in the 10th Year of the same Edward II Henry Wales being Maior, a

great Controversie did arise between the said Maior and the Merchants

of the Haunce of Almaine, about the Reparations of Bishopsgate, then

likely to fall; for the said Merchants enjoyed divers Privileges, in

respect of maintaining the said Gate, which they now denied to repair

... a Precept was sent to the Maior and Sheriffs, to destrain the said

Merchants to make the Reparations.... And so they granted 210 Marks

sterling to the Maior and Citizens and undertook that they and their

Successors should (from Time to Time), repair the said Gate, and bear

the third Part of the Charges in Money and Men to defend it when need

were.

And for this Agreement, the said Maior and Citizens granted to the said

Merchants their Liberties, which, till of late they have enjoyed; as,

namely, amongst other, that they might lay up their Grain, which they

brought into this Realm, in Inns, and sell it in their Garners, by the

Space of forty Days after they had laid it up, except by the Maior and

Citizens they were expressly forbidden because of Dearth, or other

reasonable Occasions. Also they might have their Alderman, as they

had been accustomed, foreseen always, that he were of the City, and

presented to the Maior and Aldermen of the City, so oft as any should

be chosen, and should take an Oath before them to maintain Justice in

their Courts, and to behave themselves in their Office according to

Law, and as it stood with the Customs of the City....

Their Hall is large, builded of Stone, with three arched Gates towards

the Street, the middlemost whereof is far bigger than the other, and is

seldom opened, and the other two be mured up: The same is now called

the Old Hall. Of later time, to wit ... Richard II they hired one

House next adjoining.... This also was a great House, with a large

Wharf on the Thames. And the way thereunto was called ... Windgoose

Alley, for that the same Alley is (for the most part) builded on by the

Stilyard Merchants (p. 204).

* * * * *

About the time of King Henry IV the English began to trade themselves

into the East Parts. At which the Easterlings, or Merchants of the

Dutch Hauns, were so offended that they took several of their Ships and

Goods.... The result of which in short was this, that the said King

Henry IV did revoke Parts of the Privileges of the aforesaid Dutch

Company as were inconsistent with the carrying on of a Trade by the

Natives of this Realm: And ... grant his first Charter to the [English

Merchants trading into the East Land].

In the first and second of Philip and Mary, was granted the Charter to

the Russia Company afterwards confirmed by ... Queen Elizabeth. Until

whose time, though the Trade of this Nation was driven much more by

the Natives thereof, than had been formerly, yet had the Society of

the Dutch Hans at the Steel Yard much the advantage of them by means

of their well-regulated Societies and the Privileges they enjoyed.

Insomuch that almost the whole Trade was driven by them, to that degree

that Queen Elizabeth herself, when she came to have a War, was forced

to buy the Hemp, Pitch, Tar, Powder, and other naval Provisions; which

she wanted, of Foreigners: and that too at their Rates. Nor was there

any Stores of either in the Land, to supply her Occasions on a sudden,

but what at great Rates she prevailed with them to fetch for her, even

in time of War: Her own subjects then being but very little Traders. To

remedy which she fell upon the Consideration [of] encouraging her own

subjects to be Merchants ... and cancelling many of the Privileges of

the afore-mentioned Dutch Hans Society, the Trade in general by degrees

came to be managed by the Natives of this Realm. And consequently the

Profit of all these Trades accrued to the English Nation. Trade in

general and English Shipping was encreased; her own Customs vastly

augmented and, what was at first the great End of all, obtained,

viz., that she had constantly lying at home, in the Hands of her own

Subjects, all sorts of naval Provisions and Stores; which she could

make use of, as her Occasions required them without any dependence

on her Neighbours for the same. And thus by means of encouraging the

... Merchant Adventurers ... was the Trade at first gained from the

Foreigners.... Then is one other great House ... which in the fifteenth

of Edward IV was confirmed unto the said Merchants (p. 205).

In the year 1551 ... through Complaint of the English Merchants, the

Liberty of the Steelyard Merchants was seized into the King’s Hands,

and so it resteth.

CHANGES IN LONDON

(Stow, Book II, p. 1)

This great and populous City contains in the whole six or seven hundred

Streets, Lanes, Alleys, Courts and Yards of Name, and generally very

full of Inhabitants. Before the late dreadful Fire of London, the

Houses within the Walls were computed to be about 13000; and that is

accounted not a sixthe Part ... and in these late Years whole Fields

have been converted into Builded Streets, ... as the great Buildings

about the Abbey of Westminster, Tuthill Fields, and those Parts; Then

the greatest part of St. James’ Parish, ... all the Streets in the Soho

Fields,. .. also all Bloomsbury ... all Hatton Garden ... the Great and

Little Lincoln’s Inn Fields, all Covent Garden ... etc., etc., and in

the East and North Parts, the Spittle Fields, etc. All which were only

Fields and Waste Grounds.

1598. (Ibid. p. 242)

In our Time ... other [Enormities] are come in place ... meet to be

reformed. And first ... Encroachments on the High Ways, Lanes, and

common Grounds, in and about this City....

Then the number of Cars, Drays, Carts, and Coaches, more than hath

been accustomed (the Streets and Lanes being straightened), must needs

be dangerous, as daily Experience proveth.

The Coachman rides behind the Horse Tails, lasheth them and looketh not

behind him. The drayman sitteth and sleepeth on his Dray and letteth

his Horse lead him home.

I know, that by the good Laws and Customs of this City, shod[28] Carts

are forbidden to enter the same, except upon reasonable Causes (as the

Service of the Prince, or such like) they be tolerated. Also that the

Fore Horse of every Carriage, should be led by Hand. But these good

orders are not observed.

[In the time of King Richard II] Anne, Daughter to the King of Bohemia

... first brought hither the riding upon side-saddles; and so was the

riding in ... Whirlicotes and Chariots forsaken ... but now of late

Years, the Use of Coaches brought out of Germany, is taken up and made

so common, as there is neither Distinction of Time, nor Difference of

Persons observed; for the World runs on Wheels with many, whose Parents

were glad to go on foot.

CAUSES OF THE FIRE OF LONDON

(Stow, I, p. 227)

“Natural causes which might occasion such a general ruin.”

1. The Time of the Night when it first began, viz., between One and Two

of the Clock after Midnight, when all were in a dead Sleep.

2. It was Saturday Night, when many of the most eminent Citizens,

Merchants and others, were retired into the Country, and none but

servants left to look to their City Houses.

3. It was in the Long Vacation ... when many wealthy Citizens and

Tradesmen are wont to be in the Country at Fairs, and getting in of

Debts, and making up Accounts with their Chapmen.

4. The closeness of the Building and Narrowness of the Streets, in the

Places where it began [i.e., Pudding Lane] did much to facilitate the

Progress of the Fire; by hindring of the Engines to be brought to play

upon the Houses on Fire.

5. The Matter of which the Houses, all thereabouts, were; viz. Timber,

and those very old.

6. The Dryness of the preceding Season; there having been a great

Drought even to that very Day, and all the Time that the Fire

continued, which had so dried the Timber, that it was never more apt to

take Fire.

7. The Nature of the Wares and Commodities stowed and vended in those

Parts, were the most Combustible of any other sold in the whole City:

as Oyl, Pitch, Tar, Cordage, Hemp, Flax, Rosin, Wax, Butter, Cheese,

Wine, Brandy, Sugar, etc.

8. An Easterly Wind (which is the dryest of all others)--had blown for

several Days together before; and at that Time very strongly.

9. The unexpected failing of the Water thereabouts at that Time; For

the Engine at the North End of Tower Bridge, called the Thames Water

Tower (which supplied all that part of the City with Thames Water) was

out of Order, and in a few Hours was itself burnt down, so that the

Water Pipes, which conveyed the Water from thence through the Streets

were soon empty.

10. Lastly: An unusual Negligence at first, and a confidence of

easily quenching it, and of its stopping at several probable places

afterwards; turned at length to a Confusion, Consternation and Despair;

People choosing rather by Flight to save their Goods, than by a

vigorous Opposition to save their own Houses and the whole City.

To all which Reasons must not be passed over the general Suspicion that

most then had of Incendiaries, laying combustible Stuff in many Places,

having observed divers distant Houses to be on Fire together. And many

were then taken up on Suspicion.

THE REBUILDING OF THE CITY

(Ibid., p. 231)

Notwithstanding the extraordinary Losses by the forementioned Fire,

the devouring Pestilence in this City the Year preceding, and the

chargeable War with the Dutch at that Time depending yet by ... the

Diligence and Activity of the Lord Maior, Aldermen, and Commoners of

the said City (who were almost the only Losers by that fatal Accident)

was in the Space of Four or Five Years well nigh rebuilded.

RULES AND DIRECTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE REBUILDING

2. That there shall be only four Sorts of Buildings and no more; and

that all manner of Houses so to be Erected shall be of one of those

four Sorts of Building and no other.

The first and least sort of Houses, fronting By-streets or Lanes.

The second Sort of Houses, fronting Streets or Lanes of Note.

The third Sort of Houses, fronting high and principal Streets.

The fourth and last of Mansion Houses for Merchants, Citizens or other

Persons of extraordinary Quality; not fronting either of those former

Ways. And the Roofs of each of the first three Sorts of Houses shall be

uniform.

3. That all the Outsides of all Buildings in and about the said City be

henceforth made of Brick or Stone, or of Brick and Stone together.

5. That the Houses of the least sort of Building, fronting By-streets

or Lanes, shall be of two Stories high.... The first Storey Nine Foot

high from the Floor to the Ceiling; and the second Storey Nine Foot.

That all Walls in Front and Rear (so high as the first Storey) be of

the full Thickness of two Bricks at length; and upwards to the Garrets

of the thickness of one Brick and a half; and the Walls at the Eves of

the Garrets not to be less than one Brick.

9. And for the greater Grace and Uniformity of the Buildings in the

high and principal Streets, it is Enacted, That all Houses hereafter

to be erected in any of them shall have Balconies Four Foot broad with

Rails and Bars of Iron, equally distant from the Ground....

10. That no Builder ... be permitted to lay his first Floor over the

Cellar, more than 13 inches above the Street, or less than Six, with

one circular Step to lead up thereto to be placed without the Building.

And that no Trap Doors or Open Grates be in any wise suffered to be

made into any such Cellar or Warehouse without the Foundations of the

Front; but that all Lights to be made into any of them be henceforth

made upright, and not otherwise. And that no Bulks, Jetties, Windows,

Ports, Seats or anything of like Sort, shall be made or erected, in any

Streets, Lanes, or By-lanes, to extend beyond the ancient Foundation

of Houses ... it shall be lawful for the Inhabitants, to suffer their

Stall-boards when their Shop Windows are set open to turn over Eleven

Inches, and no more from the Foundation of their Houses into the

Streets, for the better conveniency of their Shop Windows.

LONDON NIGHT-WATCHES

(Stow, ibid., p. 256)

Besides the standing Watches, all in bright Harness, in every Ward and

Street in this City and Suburbs, there was also a marching Watch, that

passed through the principal Streets thereof, to wit, from the Little

Conduit by Paul’s Gate through West Cheap, by the Stocks, through

Cornhill (etc., etc.), to Aldgate and up Grasse Church Street into

Cornhill, and through into West Cheap again, and so broke up. The whole

Way (measured) ... 3200 Taylors Yards of Assize. For the Furniture

whereof with Lights, there were appointed 700 Cressets, 500 of them

being formed by the Companies, the other 200 by the Chamber of London.

Besides the which Lights, every Constable in London, in number more

than 240 had his Cresset ... and every Cresset had two Men, one to bear

or hold it, another to bear a Bag with Light, and to serve it: so that

the Poor Men pertaining to the Cressets taking Wages, besides that

everyone had a Strawen Hat, with a Badge painted, and his Breakfast,

amounted in number to almost 2000. The Marching Watch contained in

number about 2000 Men; part of them being old Soldiers, of skill

to be Captains, etc., ... Drummers, Demi-launces on great Horses,

Gunners with hand Guns, ... Archers in Coats of white Fustian, signed

on the Breast and Back with the Arms of the City, their Bows bent in

their Hands, with Sheafs of Arrows by their Sides, Pikemen in bright

Corselets, ... Bellmen in Almain Rivets, and Aprons of Mail in great

Number.

There were also divers Pageants, Morris Dancers, Constables, the one

half of which was 120, on St. John’s Eve, the other half on St. Peter’s

Eve, in bright Harness, some over Gilt, and every one a Jornet of

Scarlet thereupon, and a Chain of Gold, his Hench Men following him,

his Minstrels before him, and his Cornet Light passing by him: the

Waits of the City, the Maior’s Officers, for his Guard before him,

all in a Livery of Worsted or Sea Jackets, party-coloured; the Maior

himself, well mounted on Horseback, the Sword Bearer before him in

fair Armour, well mounted also; the Maior’s Foot Men, and the like

Torch Bearers about him; Hench Men twain, upon great Stirring Horses

following him.

WRESTLING AT SKINNER’S WELL

(Ibid., p. 257)

In the Month of August, about the Feast of S. Bartholomew the Apostle,

before the Lord Maior, Aldermen and Sheriffs of London, placed in a

large Tent near unto Clerkenwell, of old time were divers Days spent

in the Pastime of Wrestling; where the Officers of the City, namely

the Sheriffs, Sergeants and Yeomen, the Porters of the King’s Beam, or

Weigh House (now no such Men) and other of the City, were challengers

of all Men in the Suburbs, to wrestle for Games appointed. And on other

Days, before the said Maior, Aldermen and Sheriffs, in Finsbury Field

to shoot the Standard, broad Arrow and flight, for Games. But now of

late Years, the wrestling is only practised on Bartholomew Day in the

Afternoon, and the Shooting some three or four Days after, in one

Afternoon and no more.

What should I speak of the ancient, daily Exercises in the long bow

by Citizens of this City, now almost cleanly left off and forsaken?

I overpass it. For by the Means of closing in of Common Grounds, our

Archers for want of room to shoot Abroad, creep into Bowling Alleys,

and ordinary Dicing Houses, near Home; where they have room enough to

hazard their Money at unlawful Games, where I leave them to take their

pleasures.

This was one of the great Uses of Publick Houses in former Time, namely

for Game and Exercise rather than for drinking excessively....

Now a Days the Recreations of the Citizens, besides Drinking, are

Cockfighting, Bowling greens, Tables, Cards, Dice, Billiard Tables,

Musick Entertainments, Dancing, Masks, Balls, Stage Plays, Club

Meetings in Evenings, Riding out on Horseback, Hunting with My Lord

Maior’s Pack of Dogs, when the Common Hunt goes out; the Citizens

having Privilege by their Charter to hunt in Middlesex, Hertfordshire,

in the Chilterns, and in Kent as far as Gray Water.

The more common sort divert themselves at Football; Wrestling, Cudgels,

Ninepins, Shovelboard, Cricket, Stowball, Ringing of Bells, Quoits,

pitching the Bar, Bull and Bear baiting, throwing at Cocks.

THE USE OF ARMS. C. 1588

(Holinshed, II, 16)

“In times past, the chief force of England consisted in their long

bows. But now we have in manner generally given over that kind of

artillery.... But as our shooting is thus, in manner, utterly decayed

among us one way: so our countrymen wax skilful in sundry other points

as in shooting in small pieces, the caliver, and handling of the pike

in the several uses whereof they are become very expert.

Our armour differeth not from that of other nations; and therefore

consisteth of corselets, almain rivets, shirts of mail, jacks quilted

and covered with leather, fustian, or canvas over thick plates of iron

that are sewed in the same ... of which there is no town or village

that hath not her convenient furniture. The said armour and munition is

kept in one, several place of every town, appointed by the consent of

the whole parish; where it is always ready to be had and worn within

an hour’s warning.... Certes, there is almost no village so poor in

England, be it never so small, that hath not sufficient furniture in

a readiness to set forth three or four soldiers (as, one archer, one

gunner, one pike, and a billman,) at the least. No, there is not so

much wanting as their very liveries and caps; which are least to be

accounted of, if any haste required....

Seldom shall you see any of my countrymen, above eighteen or twenty

years old, to go without a dagger at the least, at his back or by his

side; although they be aged burgesses or magistrates of any city, who,

in appearances are most exempt from brabbling and contention.

Our Nobility commonly wear swords or rapiers, with their daggers as

doth every common serving man also that followeth his lord and master.

Finally no man travelleth by the way, without his sword or some such

weapon, with us; except the Minister who commonly weareth none at all,

unless it be a dagger or hanger at his side.”

Rev. W. Harrison, B.D.

THE EMBASSY OF SIR THOMAS ROE

(_The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the Court of the Great Mogul_,

1615-19. Ed., W. Foster. Vol. II; Hakluyt Society, pp. 342-5).

LETTER TO THE EAST INDIA CO., 24 NOV., 1616

... Your residence you need not doubt as long as you tame the Portugall

... he only can prejudice you. For a Fort, at my first arrival I

received it as very necessary; but experience teaches me we are refused

it to our advantage. If he [Jahangir] would offer me ten, I would

not accept one. First, where the river is commodious, the country is

barren and untraded.... Secondly the charge is greater than the trade

can bear; for to maintain a garrison will eat the profit.... A war

and traffic are incompatible. By my consent, you shall no way engage

yourselves but at sea, where you are like to gain as often as to lose.

It is the beggaring of the Portugall, notwithstanding his many rich

residencies and territories, that he keeps soldiers that spend it;

yet his garrisons are mean. He never profited by the Indies since he

defended them. Observe this well. It hath been also the error of the

Dutch, who seek plantation here by the sword. They turn a wonderful

stock, they prowl in all places, they possess some of the best; yet

their dead payes consume all the gain. Let this be received as a rule

that if you will profit, seek it at sea, and in quiet trade; for

without controversy it is an error to affect garrisons and land wars

in India. If you made it only against the naturals [natives] I would

agree....

... The road of Swally or the Port of Surat are fittest for you in all

the Mogul’s territory.... You need no more; it is not number of ports,

factories and residences that will profit you; they will increase

charge but not recompense it.... The commodities you sell pass best in

that quarter. The goods you seek being principally indigo and cloth

(calicoes).

For the settling your trafique here, I doubt not to effect any

reasonable desire. My credit is sufficient with the King [great Mogul],

and your force will alway bind him to constancy.... But you must alter

your stock. Let not your servants deceive you; cloth, lead, teeth

[ivory], quicksilver are dead commodities and will never drive this

trade. You must succour it by change....

Articles of treaty on equal terms I cannot effect: want of presents

disgraced me. But yet by pieces I have gotten as much as I desired at

once. I have recovered all bribes, extortions, debts made and taken

before my time till this day; or at least an honourable composition.

But when I deliver the next gifts to the Mogul.... I will set on anew

for a formal contract.... Concerning private trade, [of the Company’s

servants] my opinion is you absolutely prohibit it and execute

forfeiture, for your business will be the better done. All your loss is

not in the goods brought home. I see here the inconveniences you think

not of. I know this is harsh to all men and seems hard; men profess

they come not out for bare wages. You shall take away the plea if you

resolve to give very good to men’s content; then you know what you

part from. But you must make good choice of your servants and use fewer.

Note of Goods for Presents

Table knives, swords, gilt armour, precious stones, cloth of gold,

looking glasses, arras, pictures, wines (strong waters are unrequested

now), dogs, ostrich plumes, silk stuffs (“but no blue, it is the colour

of mourners”) and generally any rare knack to please the eye.... (p.

356).

LETTER TO MASTER SECRETARY WYNWODE, NOV. 30, 1616

“The trade is profitable and fit for England, but no way understood by

the Company how to effect it at best advantage.... I assure your Honour

it is not fit to keep an Ambassador in this Court. I have shuffled

better out and escaped and avoided affronts and slavish customs

clearer than ever any did. I am allowed rank above the Persian, but

he outstrips me in rewards; his Master lies near us. But His Majesty

commanded me to do nothing unworthy the honour of a Christian King, and

no reward can humble me to any baseness” (p. 358).

EAST INDIA COMPANY COURT MINUTES

(_Court Minutes of the East India Company_, 1635-1659. Ed. E. B.

Sainsbury: Oxford University Press, p. 183)

A COURT OF COMMITTEES, AUGUST 4, 1641

Nathaniel Hawes transfers to Robert Freeman 942l. 10s. adventure and

profits in the Third Joint Stock, (subscribed in 1631) ‘the principal

being divided.’

The Court, understanding that 438 bales of Legee silk, 50 bales of

Ardas, and 39 of Mazandran were returned in the (E.I.C.s’ ship)

_Crispian_, directs that each adventurer shall receive for his division

five-sixths in Legee, and one-sixth in Ardas or Mazandran and desires

three Committees to oversee the delivery of the said divisions.

Captain Stiles is desired to go aboard the _Hopewell_ and give

directions for all her lumber, guns and ordnance to be put ashore, all

private trade to be sent up to the Custom House, and nothing more to be

unladen until further order.

The Governor opines that as the year is passing, the generality should

be called together about a new subscription for a Particular Voyage

for this year; after some debate it is resolved to await the King’s

recommendation upon the Company’s petition to Parliament for renewal

of its charter. The Court decides to present Sir Harry Vane, who is

and always has been ready to assist the Company on all occasions, with

‘fifty pieces.’

Mr. Ashwell to be paid for the looking glass he sent to Bantam. Mr.

Stiles reports that he has been offered 4l. 10s. per ton for the

defective ordnance, 10s. per ton more than the last was sold for; and

is told to use his own judgement in this matter. John Gearing, his son

John, and Richard Crawly are accepted as securities for cloves. The

estate of the late William Fall, a factor in Persia, to be paid to

his executrix. Certain Committees are desired to hear the difference

between Mrs. Powell and Thomas Clarke who lately returned from India.

YOUNG COURTIER’S LIFE IN LONDON, C. 1630

(_Autobiography of Thomas Raymond._ Ed. G. Davies. Camden Series III,

Vol. 28, p. 26)

I was taken from the Citty, where I expected to be planted, and brought

to Courte, attending my unkle, whoe grew so rigorous that my life

thereby became very unpleasant, and leaving the Citty for the Courte I

was with the proverbe fallen out of the frying pan into the fier. Long

waiting and short meales, sometimes cutt wholly out at my first coming

by the voracity and nimbleness of the courtiers, and if by chance I

was necessitated to make to our lodgings for dynner, I was sure to be

entertayned with a look and words would almost fright the devill. But

after a while by getting courage and acquaintance I made partly shift

abroade, choosing rather to fast then go home and be rated. I remember

my aunt was one day seemingly very importunate with a good neighbour

woman, whoe came to visit her, to stay and dyne with hir. Whereupon my

aunt called to hir mayde, “Nan sett on the whole rash of mutton,” which

the good woman hearing tooke occasion to break away, haveing a farre

better dynner at home.

Another tyme there was boyling on the fier in my unkle’s chamber a

pipkin of pease pottage, and a Lord comeing to him unexpectedly on

the sudden aboute business, with stifling aboute least the pipkin

should be seene it was throwne downe, broke, and all the porridge

aboute the chamber--a woefull disaster to my aunt for the losse of

hir belly tymber, and to my unkle least the Lord should have taken us

in our cookery and misfortune. But the Lord was encountered before he

could perceive the mischeife, a miscarriage that often made me laugh

heartily. Our lodgings were in a little straight howse built in a

corner on the lefte hand as soon as you are out of the East door of

Westminster Abbey, bellonging to one of the vergers of the Church, and

is since demolished. My chanber was just under there, high towards on

pynacle of the Abbey, and in rayney or wyndy nights there would fall

downe upon the leades of the roofe of my chanber such huge pieces of

freestone (those parts of the Church being much decayed and dayly

decaying) that I often tymes thought I should be knocked on the head

before morning. My unkle, being wondered at and sometymes laughed at

for the place of his lodgings ... had a story to defend it....

Our remove from these lodgings was to Whitehall, and there in the third

story of the first greate stone gate passing towards King strete where

are kept the papers of state, whereof my unkle was now one of the

clerkes and keepers. And here my condition was somewhat better ... that

I was saved from the feare of being brayned in my bed, and only my legs

had here the worst ont by mounting soe high soe often in the day.

PRIVILEGES OF AMBASSADORS, C. 1635

(Raymond, p. 57)

VENICE

The persons and howses of ambassadors are by the lawes of all nations

sacred, and in this place as much as anywhere. Not only their howses

are privileged but a considerable distance from them, within which no

officer of justice must presume to come to follow or fetch away any

offender that flies thither. And these priviledges are often abused by

the attendants of ambassadors, whoe are too ready to protect offenders

against the lawe. There stood very nere our Pallace a little howse

into which certayne offenders had fledd, and there not only sheltred

themselves, but contrary to the lawes of the place kept dicing and

carding. Complaint was made thereof to the ambassador, that he would

either cause them to be delivered to the justice or chase them from

thence. But the ambassador, possibly by meanes of some of his servants,

turned the deaf eare to their just requests, whereupon, after some

waiting the ambassador’s answers, in the dead tyme of night came the

bargello with his men, and tooke these fellows out of their beds, and

carried them to prison. And well for us it was that it was done when

we were all asleepe, otherwise wee must have defended our priviledges,

though to the great endangering of our own lives and those officers.

This bred a great difference between the State and my lord ambassador,

who said the howse was his, and that the officers had violated the

laws of nations by this proceeding, craved the persons taken out of

the howse should be returned thither and the bergello and his officers

severely punished for their impudence, etc. This matter proceeded to

that height that the ambassador was ready to quitt the place, and a

rupture between England and the Republick like to follow, but was at

the last with much ado composed to the honour and satisfaction of the

ambassador and the Republick. In the agitation of which business, being

very hott on both sides, the King himselfe, good King Charles, did

write once or twice to my lord ambassador with his owne handd, in which

appeared his greate prudence and noe small affection for the person of

the ambassador. (Basil, Lord Feilding).

EXPERIENCES OF A SOLDIER

(Raymond, p. 73)

FLANDERS, A.D. 1633

I observed how briske and fyne some English gallants were at the

beginning of this campagne, but at the latter end ther briskenes and

gallantry soe faded and clowdy that I could not but be mynded of the

vanity of this world with the uneasiness of this profession. And truly,

by what I have seene and felt, I cannott but thinck that the life of

a private or comon soldier is the most miserable in the world; and

that not soe much because his life is always in danger--that is little

or nothing--but for the terrible miseries he endures in hunger and

nakedness, in hard marches and bad quarters, 30 stivers being his pay

for 8 days, of which they could not possibly subsist, but that they

helpe themselves by forraging, stealing, furnishing wood in the feild

to the officers, straw, some are cobblers, taylers, etc. Straw is ready

money, especially at first comeing to new quarters. I remember at one

place I saw a couple of soldiers that had found a little howse filled

with strawe. One of them kept the dore whilst the other carried out the

strawe by bunches to sell. Other soldiers came and would have part:

these withstood them. At last others fell to chopping of the 4 corner

posts, soe in a short tyme downe fell the howse and soe the strawe

grew comon. It is hardly to be thought the devastation that an army

brings into a countrie, and the hangers on of the army doe most of the

mischeife. They march in no order, carry hookes by which they search

wells and ditches for pewter or brasse that the poore countrie people

have sunck to preserve them from the soldiers. Other places they dig up

where they suspect anything to be hid, torturing the poore people to

make them confesse, etc. Sometymes we came to a goodly feild of corne,

which within a few minutes is trod flatt, to the very ground: faire

howses unthatched, all the plancher and wood work chopped downe if not

fyred, pleasant orchards and walkes of trees in an instant chopped

downe by the ground, etc. It pittyed me at one place where we marched

by a poore little howse, to which joined a little close of about an

acre with bush. The poore woman came out, felled on hir knees, and

holding up hir hands, praying the soldiers for Christ Jesus’ sake to

spare hir cropp. Twas all, she sayd, that she and hir poore children

had to live on all the yere, makeing lamentable outcryes, but all to

noe purpose. For, though there was forrage enough just by, with in a

few minutes all this poore creatures crop was wholly destroyed.

A TREATISE ... CONCERNING ... THE METHOD FOR KEEPING A COURT LEET

(By John Wilkinson, of Bernard’s inne, gent., London, 1638)

(_From Court Rolls of the Honor of Clitheroe._ Ed., W. Farrar, pp.

xiii-xviii)

[Extracts]

Affrays and Bloodsheds

... You shall therefore first inquire if any man within your inquirie

haue broken the peace, or made any affray or bloodshed. If any haue

offended herein, you must present him or them, and the manner of it,

with what weapon, for that it is forfeit to the Lord of this Leet, and

the offender or offenders are to be fined for such offence.

Rogues

These persons by particular are said to bee by the Statute rogues,

viz., Proctors of Spittle houses, Patent gatherers, or Collectors for

Gaoles, prisons or Hospitals, Fencers, Bearwards, common Plaiers of

enterludes, Minstrels wandering abroad, Glassemen, Saylers, Souldiers,

Schollers, and all other idle persons which goe about begging.

Stocks

Also for the punishment of these offenders, you shall inquire if there

bee in euery tything a paire of stockes, according as there ought to

bee by the Statute, or no: if there bee not, then the tything doe lose

V pounds.

Artillery (33 H. 8. ca. 9)

Also you shall inquire whether eueryone haue Bow and Arrowes according

to the Statute, or no: for euery man child from seven yeeres old to

seuenteene ought to haue a Bow and two Arrowes, and euery man from

seuenteene to three score ought to haue a bow and foure arrowes, vpon

paine of vjs viijd for euery default: and parents ought to provide them

for their children and masters for their seruants with their wages, or

else they ought to undergoe the penaltie thereof.

Butts, 33 H. 8

And also that for the exercise of Archers in shooting at times

convenient, there ought to be buts made in euery Tything, Village, and

Hamlet, or else the Tything, Village, or Hamlet ought to lose xxs, for

euery three moneths wanting Butsthere.

Plays or Games, 33 H. 8

Also you shall inquire if any Alehousekeeper or other person do keepe

any unlawfull games in his or their house or houses, or elsewhere, as

cards, dice, tables, loggets, quoits, bowles, or such like: in this

case the house keeper loseth for euery day forty shillings, and every

player vj viij for euery time.

Also Constables ought to search monethly for such unlawfull games and

disorders in alehouses vpon paine of fortie shillings, and they may

arrest such as they find playing at unlawfull games, and commit them to

ward vntill they put in sureties not to play any more at any vnlawfull

game. No man may play at any vnlawfull game insatiably, unless hee can

dispend C pounds per annum in lands, fees, or offices, for life at the

least: and hee may not play neither in any open place where euery one

that will may see him, but in his house, or in his Orchard or Garden,

vpon paine of vj viij for euery time. Except in the Christmas time; for

then all men may play.

Shooting in Guns, 33 H. 8, ca. 6

Next you shall inquire of such as shoot in hand gunnes or cross bowes;

for no man may shoot in them vnlesse hee can dispend C pounds per annum

in lands, tenements, officers, annuities, or fees, neither may those

shoot at any Pheasant, Partridge, Herre, Duck, Mallard, Housedoue,

Pigeon, Wigeon, Teale, or Heathcock, vpon paine of x pounds for euery

shoot.

Highways

Next you shall inquire whether your high waies bee sufficiently amended

and made passable, as they ought to be, or no; for to that end and

purpose there ought to be two Superuisors chosen in euery Parish,

between Easter and Midsomer, by the Constables and Church wardens; and

there ought to be six days appointed for amending of highwayes, eight

houres eury day, vpon paine of xxs to bee lost by the Superuisors.

And every one that hath a cart to send two able men with it, with

tooles fit for that seruice, or else to lose twelve pence for euery

day wanting. And they ought most chiefly to amend the wayes leading to

Market Townes; and they may gather stones in any man’s grounds, and

also digge pits of ten yards square in any man’s seuerall for stones

and rubbish (if it be needful), filling the same vp againe, without

danger of Law. And they must turne springs, if they can, out of the

high wayes; and trees and hedges which hang ouer the King’s high wayes

must be cut and shredded, vpon paine of xs for euery default.

Purprestures and Assarts, 18 Eliz. 2

Next you shall inquire of Purprestures and Assarts, and that is where

any Wall, Hedge, Ditch, or House is set, leuied, or abated in the

King’s Highway, or any watercourse stopped or turned into the highway,

to hinder the passage of the King’s subjects, or any way annoy them.

Bounds and Marks

Also you shall inquire whether any mearestones or stakes bonds or

markes, betweene this Lordship and any other, or betweene tenant and

tenant, hath bin remoued since the last law day, or before, and not set

in the vsual place again: if there be any which haue offended herein,

you must present them.

Highways or Footsteps (Footpaths)

Also if any high wayes or footpathes to Church, Mill, or Market bee

stopped or hedged vp, which haue beene accustomed to lye open, you must

present him or them which shut it vp, for the King’s subjects must not

be stopped of his lawfull passage to Church, Mill or Market.

Common Bridges Broken

Also if any Common Bridges ouer Common Streames bee broken, that by

reason thereof the King’s subjects cannot pass about their affaires and

businesses, you must present those which ought to make them, vpon a

paine.

Common Pounds Broken

And also if common pounds bee broken, so that they will hold no

distresse that is brought to them untill they bee deliuered thence by

order of law, you must present those which ought to make such pounds,

vpon a paine.

Sleepers by Day and Walkers by Night

Also you shall inquire of Sleepers by day, and walkers by night, to

steale and purloine other men’s goods and Conies out of Warrens, Fish

out of men’s seuerall Ponds or Waters, Hennes from Henhouse, or any

other thing whatsoever, for they are ill members in a Common wealth,

and deserue punishment: therefore if you know any such, present them.

Eavesdroppers

Also you shall inquire of Eues droppers, and those are such as by night

stand or lye harkening under walles or windowes of other men’s, to

hear what is said in another man’s house, to the end to set debate and

dissension between neighbors, which is a very ill office: therefore, if

you know any such, present them.

Forestallers, Regraters and Ingrossers

Also you shall inquire of Forestallers, Regraters, and Ingrossers,

euill members in a Commonwealth.

A Forestaller is hee which buyeth or causeth to be bought any victualls

whatsoeuer going to any Faire or Market to bee sold, and maketh any

bargaine for the buying thereof before the same bee brought into the

Faire or Market, or doth make any motion for the inhancing of the

price of any victuals, or doth mooue or perswade any person comming to

the Faire or Market with victuals, to absent and forbeare his comming

thither with any victuall to be sold there.

Regrator is hee that getteth into his hands in any Faire or Market any

Corne, Tallow, or Candles, or any dead victuall whatsoeuer, brought to

any Faire or Market to be sold, and doth sell the same againe in any

Fair or Market, within foure miles next adioyning thereunto.

An Ingrosser is he or she that doth ingrosse and get into his or

her hands, by buying or promise taken, other than by demise, grant,

or lease, of bonde or bill of Corne growing in the Fields, or any

other Corne, Graine, butter, Cheese, Fish, or any other dead victuall

whatsoeuer to the intent to sell the same again for profit.

For the first offence they ought to haue two moneths imprisonment,

without bail or mainprise, and forfeit the value of the goods bought

and sold.

For the second offence they ought to haue halfe a yeeres imprisonment,

and to forfeit double the value of the goods bought and sold.

And for the third offence they ought to be set vpon the Pillorie, and

to lose all their goods and chattels, and bee imprisoned during the

King’s pleasure.

Butchers

No butcher ought to sell in any open Fair or Market any other victuall

then that which is good and wholesome for man’s body, and for

reasonable gaines, and not at excessive prices.

Shoemakers

They ought to make their Shooes and Bootes of good and well tanned

Leather, and well licoured, curried, and sowed, to keep men dry of

their legges and feet.

Tanners

Also you shall inquire of Tanners that haue vsed the occupation of a

Cordwainer or a Currier, or that hath put any leather to sale, but red

Leather as it came from the Tanne fatte, or that hath put any Hide or

peece of Leather to sale, before it be well dryed, marked, and sorted,

and then sold in open market, or that hath tanned any sheep-skins.

Bakers

Also you shall inquire whether the bakers doe their duties or not, in

making of good and wholesome bread for man’s bodie, of sweet corne and

not corrupted, and that they make their Bread in weight according to

the price of wheat in three markets next adioyning, not changing the

assise of Bread, but by six pence in weight in increasing or abating;

and if they doe the contrarie, and be thereof duly conuicted, then

for the first, second, and third time they shall bee amerced after

the quantitie of their fault, and shall lose from time to time their

bread so found too light in weight; but if they shall bee found faultie

herein the fourth time, then they must be set vpon the pillorie in open

market, whose punishment may not be released for gold or silver.

Also a baker must set his own proper marke vpon euery loafe of bread

that hee maketh and selleth, to the end that if any bread be faultie in

weight, it may be then knowne in whom the fault is.

Brewers, 5 H. 3. 51 E. 3

Also you shall inquire of Brewers and Typlers whether they make good

and wholesome ale and beere for man’s bodie, or not, and sell and utter

the same according to the lawes and statutes of this Realme. And also

they ought not to put out their signe or ale stake until their ale be

assayed by the ale taster, and then to sell and not before.

Fishers, 25 H. 8 ca. 7. 31 H. 8. ca. 2

Also you shall inquire of Fishers whether they doe their duties or

no, in bringing to the Market such fish as is good and wholesome for

man’s body, and not corrupt or stinking, and there sell the same at

reasonable prices, without taking of any excessiue gains, but onely for

euery twelue pence bestowing one penny cleere gaines ouer and beside

their charges; and if any Fisher shall doe the contrarie, then he shall

be grievously amerced from time to time, and his Fish, if it be corrupt

and stinking, to bee taken from him and openly burned in the Market.

Also no man ought to fish with any Net, or Engine, angling onely

excepted, but with such Net or Trannell as euery mesh shall be two

inches and a half wide, except Nets onely to take Loches, Mennas,

Bulheads, Gudgions, eeles, and none other Fish, vpon paine of XXs for

euery time offending, and losse of the fish and the unlawfull Net.

False Weights and Double Measures, 51 E. 3

Also if any within your inquirie shall vse any false Weights or double

measures in deceiving of the King’s subjects in buying with a great

measure, and in selling with a lesse, the offender therof therein shall

be grieuously punished and imprisoned vntill he hath made fine with the

King for his offence.

No man ought to sell any corne, ale bread or wine but by a measure

sealed with this letter H., vpon paine of forfeiture for the first

offence, 6s. 8d., for the second offence, 13s. 4d., and for the third

offence twenty shillings, and to bee set on the pillorie, to the

example of others, and the measure not sealed to be broken, all which

forfeitures are to the Lord of the Libertie where such offence is

committed, and if it be in a citie or borough, then it is to the maior

and communaltie.

Hunting Dogs

No Lay man may lawfully keepe any Greyhound or Hunting Dogge, Ferrits,

or Nets, vnless he can dispend fortie shillings per annum, Freehold:

nor no Spiritual man, vnlesse hee can dispend ten pound per annum of

spirituall promotion, vpon paine of a yeares imprisonment.

Drunkards

Also you shall inquire of Drunkards, for they ought to bee presented

and to pay if they be able for euery time they bee drunke Vs to the vse

of the poore of the Parish where the offence is committed; if not able,

then after connuiction thereof they ought to sit six houres in the

Stockes.

Waifs, Strays and Felon’s Goods, 18 E.2

Also you shall inquire of waifes, strayes, and felon’s goods. Waifes

are Cattell stolne and weiued out of the possession of him that stole

them, and straies are Cattell straied out of their haunt, and they

ought to be seised vpon to the Lord’s vse, and to be wreathed and put

into an open place, and not in a couert, to the end the owner may have

the view of them, and they must be cryed at three market towns next

adioyning to the place where they are straied; and if they be not

challenged within a yeare and a day, then they belong to the Lord of

the soile where they are, by the Law, otherwise not.

Which is all manner of felon’s goods which may (presently) after the

felonie is knowne to be committed, be seized vpon, but not taken away,

but left with the towneship, for the felon must haue his finding out

of it so long as he liues vnconuicted or attainted; but when he is

conuicted or attainted, his goods they properly belong to the Lord of

the Leet, if he have words for it in his Charter, otherwise they belong

to the King.

Treasure Trove

Also you shall inquire of Treasure troues, either vpon the ground or

within the ground: for if any hath been found within the jurisdiction

of this Court, it belonged to the Lord of this Leet or Law day.

And to conclude, if there shall any other thing come to your knowledge

meete to bee presented, and by any omitted to bee giuen in charge, you

shall as well inquire thereof and present it as the rest.

DRAINING OF THE FENS

(Dugdale, _History of Imbanking and Draining_, p. 375)

It hath been a long received opinion, as well by the borderers upon the

Fens as others, that the total drowning of this Great Level (whereof

we have in our times been eyewitnesses) hath for the most part,

been occasioned by the neglect of putting the laws of sewers in due

execution in these latter times; and that before the dissolution of the

monasteries by King Henry VIII the passages for the water were kept

with cleansing, and the banks with better repair, chiefly through the

care and cost of those religious houses.

... but wholly to clear them was impossible without the perfect opening

and cleansing of their natural outfalls.... In order whereunto the

first considerable attempt ... was in 20 Eliz. the Queen then granting

her commission to Sir Thomas Cecil, Sir W. Fitzwilliams, Sir Edward

Montague and Sir Henry Cromwell, Knights, etc. Howbeit ... little was

done.... But King James ... encouraged their proceedings therein,

expressing his readiness to allow a part of his own lands to be so

recovered, towards the charge of the work, in like proportion that

other of his subjects should do....

After this ... the lords of the ... Privy Council ... desired them

[the commissioners] to endeavour to satisfy all such persons as

having no respect to the general good ... should oppose it ... the

said commissioners ... concluded (with one consent) that this work

of draining was feasible ... and most beneficial to the countries

interested, to have good by, that ever was taken in hand of that kind

in those days; ... The commissioners names subscribed thereto being

these, viz.:

Oliver Cromwell, etc., Thomas Lambert, Robert Cromwell, Ireby, etc.,

etc.

Whereupon there was a particular view of the whole Level, begun ... (21

June, 1605) and ... the king himself ... incited them to fall in hand

speedily with the work and the rather because that was a dry summer,

and so the more proper for it ... intimating also that, for the better

expediting thereof, he had employed his Chief Justice Popham to take

pains therein ... they had information ... that in several places of

recovered grounds, within the isle of Ely, etc. such as before that

time had lived upon alms having no help but by fishing and fowling and

such poor means, out of the common Fens, while they lay drowned, were

since come to good and supportable estates.

The limitation of time allowed to Sir John Popham, knight, Lord Chief

Justice, and the rest of the adventurers, for accomplishing the work,

was to be ten years ...

... for the space of five years at the least ... there nothing

appeareth of consequence to have been prosecuted therein, by reason of

the opposition which divers perverse spirited people made thereto ...

by bringing of turbulent suits in law ... and making of libellous songs

...

THE POWTES COMPLAINT

Come, Brethren of the water, and let us all assemble

To treat upon this matter, which makes us quake and tremble;

For we shall rue, if it be true, that Fens be undertaken,

And where we feed, in Fen and Reed, they’ll feed both Beef and

Bacon.

They’ll sow both beans and oats, where never man yet thought it,

Where men did row in boats, ere undertakers[29] bought it:

But Ceres, thou behold us now, let wild oats be their venture,

Oh, let the frogs and miry bogs destroy where they do enter.

Behold the great design, which they do now determine,

Will make our bodies fine, a prey to crows and vermine:

For they do mean all fens to drain, and waters overmaster,

All will be dry, and we must die, ‘cause Essex calves want

pasture.

* * * * *

Away with boats and rudder, farewell both boots and skatches,

No need of one nor th’other, men now make better matches;

Stilt-makers all and tanners shall complain of this disaster:

For they will make each muddy lake for Essex calves a pasture.

The feathered fowls have wings, to fly to other nations;

But we have no such things to help our transportations;

We must give place (oh grievous case) to horned beasts and cattle,

Except that we can all agree to drive them out by battle, etc.

And upon the 12th of August (1618) ... at a general session of sewers

held at Huntingdon ... there were appointed three commissioners of

every county to accompany ... Sir Clement Edwards (one of the Clerks

of the Council) ... who gave in this following certificate ... That

forasmuch as the inhabitants of Marshland complained much.... And

though there were many gentlemen of good worth in those parts who

wanted neither zeal nor judgement to do service therein; yet it was

conceived, that the work might be best effected by such as had no

interest at all in the country.... In pursuance of which order, the

said Earl of Arundel made a journey into those parts; where having

treaty with Sir William Ayloffe, knight, baronet, Anthony Thomas, Esq.,

and others, they ... as undertakers in this great adventure, did make

these following proposals, viz.:

1. To have all the King’s lands drowned with fresh or salt water, which

should be so recovered, at the free rent of 4d. the acre ...

2. To have all the Prince’s lands upon the like condition.

3. To have of all subjects lands, so drowned all the year, two thirds

to them the said undertakers ...

4. And of all such lands of subjects which lay drowned half the year,

to have the one half ...

* * * * *

... the said undertakers did propose to begin their work at the sea,

by opening the outfalls of Nene, and Welland; and to make the same

navigable to Spalding and Wisbech, which would take away all fear of

turning the water upon any neighbour country and draw the same into

their true and natural channels....

... Certain it is, that no farther progress was made therein....

Howbeit ... at King’s Lynne, upon the 1st of September (1630) there

was a contract made with Sir Cornelius Vermuden, knight (a person well

experienced in works of this kind) for the draining of this Level; and

he, for his recompense therein, to have 95 thousand acres of the said

surrounded lands: But the country not being satisfied to deal with Sir

Cornelius, in regard he was an alien, they ... became humble suitors to

Francis, then Earl of Bedford (who was owner of near 20 thousand acres

about Thorney and Whittlesey, of this fenny level) to undertake the

work; at whose request, as also of the commissioners, he condescended

thereto....

These things being thus settled, the said Earl taking in divers

adventurers as participants with him therein, they cast the whole

(95,000 acres) so allowed for their recompense, into 20 parts or

lots....

The said Francis ... etc.... did obtain Letters Patents of

Incorporation ... into a body politic, to be guardians and conservors

of the Fen lands....

All which being accomplished about three years after in a session of

Sewers held at Peterborough, 12 October, 1637, the whole Level was

adjudged drained ... the charge of these works to the said Earl and his

participants having been no less than an hundred thousand pounds....

But ... though the lands were very much improved by those works, yet

were they subject to inundation especially in the winter season....

Hereupon ... Charles I ... did command divers gentlemen to give their

advice ... amongst which ... Vermuden was one ... the king himself

was declared the undertaker; and to have not only those 95,000 acres

... but also 57,000 acres more, to make the same fens as well winter

grounds as summer grounds.... And that though the Earl of Bedford had

not performed his undertaking, he should in recompense of his great

charge in those rivers, cuts and drains ... have 40,000 acres....

The king’s work [owing to the Civil War] being ... obstructed.... The

Earl, etc., fell in hand with the work ... this main body of the fens

is divided into three distinct Levels, viz., the North Level, the

Middle Level and the South Level ... the Level on the 25th of March,

1653 was adjudged to be fully drained: Whereupon the said Earl and his

participants had possession of those 95,000 acres awarded to them.

FOOTNOTES:

[28] The prohibition of iron-tyred carts was common in towns at this

period.

[29] Speculators, investing capital in draining.

CHAPTER VIII

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EXTRACTS

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Military, religious and constitutional questions are not suitable for

children, and are only touched here in Defoe’s racy, if partisan,

summary. The close of the first extract gives a clear statement of the

theory of a compact by virtue of which, rather than by Divine right,

the Whigs considered the King to reign.

American affairs, however, played a part in the interests of great

classes of the nation, and in the growth of the empire. “No taxation,”

etc., was a party-cry rather than a real grievance; it was the

monopolist trade rules demanded by British merchants that ultimately

caused the war. To meet this monopoly the Americans adopted the

successful policy of refusing to import British goods.

The “Appeal to France” shows the motives inciting our Continental

enemies against us and also the weakness of America even at that date.

In the writings of Franklin, Deane, and de Warville, can be seen the

enthusiasm and debate which made the American example the real cradle

of “Libérté, égalité, fraternité,” a relation not usually stressed in

English history books.

The main effect of the century was the growth of a great capitalist

class able to control the national affairs, drawing their wealth

from the colonies, from new methods of agriculture, or of finance

and industry, such as are seen in the references to Defoe’s Tour,

Young’s Northern Tour, the Life of Coutts, and indications of the new

inventions in industry, and the conditions they produced.

A DEFENCE OF DISSENT

(D. Defoe’s Works, 2nd edition, _A New Test of the Church of England’s

Loyalty_, p. 406 _et seq._)

Our first Reformation from Popery was in the days of King Edward VI

... ‘twas under him that the whole Nation and Government embraced the

Protestant Reformed Religion ... and here it began to be called the

Church of England.

Some enquiring Christians were for making farther steps, and carrying

on the Reformation to a higher degree ... but the return of Popery

under Queen Mary put a stop to the work in general.... Queen Elizabeth

restored it again.... Those who insisted upon the further Reformation

were then called Puritans, because they set up for a greater purity of

worship; and they separated themselves from the Established Church....

Before this time there was no such thing as Church of England, it was

then the Church of Rome[30] that was the established National Church.

The Protestants under the title of Lollards, Wickliffians, Hussites,

what did they do? Did they, as our modern people say everybody should

conform to what the Government commanded? No, the present Church of

England party were the Dissenters, the Schismatics and Fanatics, in the

days of Henry VIII were persecuted for not coming to Church, many of

them put to death and always treated with scorn and contempt.... In the

next Ages these come to have the power in their hands and forgetting

that they had found it “Righteous in the sight of God to obey God

rather than man,” they treat those whose consciences oblige them to

dissent from them, with the same contempt which themselves had received

from the Roman [church] government.

Thus far they are upon even terms, as to obedience to their Superiors.

The Dissenters have the first occasion after this to show their

submission under extraordinary pressures. Queen Elizabeth

discountenanced them continually, and as good a queen as she was,

put some of them to death. King James I hunted them quite out of the

kingdom, made thousands of them fly into Holland and Germany, and at

last to New England.... Under the reign of King Charles I, the case

altered, the King and Parliament fell out about matters of civil rights

and invasion of the liberties and properties of the people; the

Puritans or Dissenters, call them what we please, fell in unanimously

with the Parliament.

And here ‘tis worthy of remark, that the first difference between

the King and English Parliament did not respect Religion but civil

property nor were the majority of the House Puritans, but true Church

Protestants and English men. (There were but four Dissenters in all

that Parliament).... (p. 408).

But the Parliament finding the Puritan party stuck close to their

cause, they also came over [to] them when things came to a rupture ...

the Whigs in 41 to 48, took up arms against their King, and having

conquered him and taken him prisoner, cut off his head, because they

had him: the Church of England took up arms against their King in 88,

and did not cut off his head, because they had him not. King Charles

lost his life because he did not run away; and his son, King James,

saved his life because he did run away.... Nay if arguments may be

allowed to have equal weight on both sides, the Whigs have been the

honester of the two, for they never protested any such blind, absolute

and undisputed obedience to Princes, as the others have done.

It has always been their opinion, that Government was originally

contrived by the consent and for the mutual benefit of the parties

governed, that the people have an original, native right to their

property, the liberty of their persons and possessions, unless

forfeited to the Laws; that they cannot be divested of their right

but by their own consent; and that all invasion of this right is

destructive of the Constitution, and dissolves the Compact of

Government and Obedience (p. 411).

They have always declared that they understand their allegiance to

their governors to be, supposing they govern them according to the Laws

of the Land; and that if Princes break this Bond of Government, the

Nature of it is inverted, and the Constitution ceases of course....

This has been the avowed doctrine of the Dissenters, and indeed is

the true sense of the Constitution itself; pursuant to this doctrine,

they thought they had a right to oppose violence with force; believing

that when Kings break Coronation Oaths, the Solemn Compact with their

people, and encroach upon their civil rights, contrary to the Laws of

the Land, by which they are sworn to rule, they cease to be the Lord’s

Anointed any longer; the sanction of their office is vanished, and they

become Tyrants and enemies of mankind, and may be treated accordingly

(p. 412).

SECTIONS OF DISSENTERS, 1705

(Ibid., _The Shortest Way to Peace and Union_, p. 456.)

The General body of the Dissenters are composed of four sorts, and

those four so opposite in their tempers, customs, doctrine and

discipline that I am of opinion ‘tis as probable all four should

conform to the Church of England as to one another.

There is the Presbyterian, Independent, Anabaptist and Quaker.... The

Independent could never bear Presbyterian Government, that has been

tried already; for they once pulled it down by the ears as intolerable.

The Anabaptists in general, declare the Presbyterian would set up

persecution from the old principle, that Presbyteries are “Jure divino”

and therefore to them, a Presbyterian Government would be all one with

Popery. The Presbyterian would never brook an Independent or Anabaptist

Government, because they count the one Sectary, and hardly admit the

other to be Orthodox Christians. None of the three would bear the

thought of a Quaker King, the Novelty would make mankind laugh at the

proposal; the splendour and magnificence of a Court, and the necessary

defence and offence which the Confederacies and interests of nations

require, are things so inconsistent with this plain dealing Professor,

that he must cease to be a Quaker when he began to be a King.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY HOME INDUSTRIES

(D. Defoe, _Tour through Great Britain: Yorkshire_, Vol. III, p. 124)

YORKSHIRE. LEEDS CLOTH MARKET.