side of the river Aire, with great suburbs on the south side, and both
joined by a stately stone bridge, so large and wide, that formerly the
cloth-market was kept upon it, and therefore the refreshment given the
clothiers by the inn-keepers (being a pot of ale, a noggin of pottage,
and a trencher of boiled or roast beef, for two pence) [was] called the
_Brigg-shot_ for a long time, though now disused.
... The trade soon made the Market too great to be confined to the
_Brigg_; so that it was removed to the High Street ... this bridge
was fallen into decay ... and by the narrowness of the road over,
occasioned by the buildings and other encroachments, made or set up
at both ends and abutments of the bridge, the way or passage over the
same was greatly confined and obstructed, and became ... dangerous to
passengers on foot and horseback....
But the Cloth market held in the Cloth-hall at Leeds is ... perhaps not
to be equalled in the world....
The Clothiers come early in the morning with their cloth ... at about
six o’clock in the summer, and about seven in the winter, the Clothiers
being all come by that time, the Market Bell at the Old Chapel by the
bridge rings; upon which it would surprise a stranger, to see in how
few minutes, without hurry, noise or the least disorder, the whole
market is filled, all the benches covered with cloth, as close to one
another as the pieces can lie longways, each proprietor standing behind
his own piece, who form a mercantile regiment, as it were, drawn up in
a double line, in as great order as a military one.
As soon as the bell has ceased ringing, the factors and buyers of all
sorts, enter the hall, and walk up and down between the rows, as their
occasions direct. Most of them have papers with patterns sealed on
them, in their hands; the colours of which they match, by holding them
to the cloths they think they agree to. When they have pitched upon
their cloth, they lean over to the clothier, and, by a whisper, in the
fewest words imaginable, the price is stated; one asks, the other bids;
and they agree or disagree in a moment.
The reason of this prudent silence is owing to the clothiers standing
so near to one another; for it is not reasonable that one trader should
know another’s traffic.... The buyers generally walk up and down twice
on each side of the rows, and in little more than an hour all the
business is done. In less than half an hour you will perceive the cloth
begins to move off, the clothier taking it up upon his shoulder to
carry it to the merchant’s house. At about half an hour after eight the
Market Bell rings again, upon which the buyers immediately disappear,
and the cloth which remains unsold is carried back to the inn.
Thus you see 10 or 20,000_l._ worth of cloth, and sometime much more,
bought and sold in little more than an hour, the laws of the Market
being the most strictly observed that I ever saw in any market in
England.
If it be asked, how all these goods, at this place, at Wakefield and at
Halifax are vended and disposed of? I would observe,
First, that there is an Home-consumption; to supply which several
considerable traders in Leeds used to go with droves of pack horses
loaden with those goods, to all the Fairs and Market-towns almost over
the whole island, not to sell by retail, but to the shops by wholesale,
giving large credit. It was ordinary for one of these men to carry a
thousand pounds worth of cloth with him at a time; and, having sold
that, to send his horses back for as much more, and this very often in
a summer. But of late they only travel for orders, and afterwards send
the goods, by the common carriers, to the different places intended.
For they travel chiefly at that season, because of the badness of the
roads.
There are others who have commissions from London to buy, or who
give commissions to factors and warehouse-keepers in London to sell
for them who not only supply all the shop-keepers and wholesale men
in London, but sell also very great quantities to the merchants, as
well for exportation to the English Colonies in America, which take
off great quantities of the coarse goods, especially New England,
New York, Virginia, etc., as also to the Russia merchants, who send
exceeding great quantities to Petersburg, Riga, Dantzie, Narva, Sweden
and Pomerania, though of late the manufacture of this kind set up in
Prussia and other Northern parts of Germany interfere a little with
them.
The third sort are such as receive commissions directly from abroad, to
buy cloth for the merchants chiefly in Hamburg, Holland, etc. These are
not only many in number, but some of them very considerable in their
dealings, and correspond with the farthest provinces in Germany....
Another hall is appropriated for the sale of white clothes.... This,
though large, is much inferior to the other.
THE WEST RIDING, 1724
(Ibid., pp. 144-6)
... the nearer we came to Halifax, we found the houses thicker, and the
villages greater in every bottom; and not only so, but the sides of the
hills, which were very steep every way, were spread with houses; for
the land being divided into small inclosures, from two acres to six
or seven each, seldom more, every three or four pieces of land had an
house belonging to them.
In short, after we had mounted the third hill we found the country
one continued village, though every way mountainous, hardly an house
standing out of a speaking distance from another; and as the day
cleared up, we could see at every house a tenter, and on almost every
tenter a piece of cloth, kersie or shalloon; which are the three
articles of this country’s labour.
In the course of our road among the houses, we found at every one of
them a little rill or gutter of running water; if the house was above
the road, it came from it, and crossed the way to run to another; if
the house was below us, it crossed us from some other distant house
above it; and at every considerable house was a manufactory; which not
being able to be carried on without water; these little streams were
so parted and guided by gutters or pipes, that not one of the houses
wanted its necessary appendage of a rivulet.
Again, as the dyeing-houses, scouring-shops, and places where they
use this water, emit it tinged with the drugs of the dyeing-vat, and
with the oil, the soap, the tallow and other ingredients used by the
clothiers in dressing and scouring, etc., the lands through which it
passes, which otherwise would be exceeding barren are enriched by it
to a degree beyond imagination.
Then as every clothier must necessarily keep one horse, at least to
fetch home his wool and his provisions from the market, to carry his
yarn to the spinners, his manufacture to the fulling-mill, and when
finished to the market to be sold, and the like; so everyone generally
keeps a cow or two for his family. By this means, the small pieces of
inclosed land about each house are occupied; and by being thus fed, are
still farther improved by the dung of the cattle. As for corn, they
scarce grow enough to feed their poultry.
Such, it seems, has been the bounty of nature to this country, that
two things essential to life, and more particularly to the business
followed here, are found in it ... I mean coals, and running water on
the tops of the highest hills ... Nor is the industry of the people
wanting to second these advantages. Though we met few people without
doors, yet within we saw the houses full of lusty fellows, some at
the dye-vat, some at the loom, others dressing the cloths; the women
and children carding or spinning: all employed from the youngest to
the oldest; scarce anything above four years old, but its hands were
sufficient for its own support. Nor a beggar to be seen, nor an idle
person, except here and there in an almshouse, built for those that
are ancient and past working. The people in general live long: they
enjoy a good air; and under such circumstances hard labour is naturally
attended with the blessing of health, if not riches.
THE COAL TRADE
(Defoe, _The Complete English Tradesman_, Ed. 1841, Vol. II, p. 172).
The Newcastle coals, brought by sea to London, are bought at the pit,
or at the steath or wharf, for under five shillings per chaldron; I
suppose I speak with the most; but when they come to London, are not
delivered to the consumers, under from twenty-five to thirty shillings
per chaldron; and when they are a third time loaded on board the
lighters in the Thames, and carried through bridge, then loaded a
fourth time into the great west country barges, and carried up the
river, perhaps to Oxford or Abingdon, and thence loaded a fifth time in
carts or wagons, and carried perhaps ten or fifteen, or twenty miles to
the last consumer; by this time they are sometimes sold from forty-five
to fifty shillings per chaldron; so that the five shillings first cost,
including five shillings tax, is increased to five times the prime cost.
And because I have mentioned the frequent loading and unloading the
coals, it is necessary to explain it here once for all, because it may
give a light into the nature of this river and coast commerce, not in
this thing only, but in many others; these loadings are thus:--
(1) They are dug in the pit a vast depth in the ground, sometimes
fifty, sixty to a hundred fathoms; and being loaded (for so the miners
call it) into a great basket or tub, are drawn up by a wheel and
horse, or horses, to the top of the shaft, or pit mouth, and there
thrown out upon a great heap to lie ready against the ships come into
the port to demand them.
(2) They are then loaded again into a great machine or wagon; which
by the means of an artificial road, called a wagon-way, goes with the
help of but one horse, and carries two chaldron, or more, at a time
and this, sometimes three or four miles to the nearest river or water
carriage they come at; and there they are either thrown into, or from
a great storehouse, called a steath, made so artificially, with one
part close to, or hanging over the water, that the lighters or keels
can come close to, or under it, and the coals be at once shot out of
the wagons into the said lighters, which carry them to the ships,
which I call the first loading upon the water.
INDIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
CAUSES OF THE LOSS OF CALCUTTA
(Evidence of David Rannie, Captain in E.I. Co.’s service, August, 1756)
(S. C. Hill, _Bengal in 1756-57_, Vol. III, pp. 283-4)
The causes of the war were principally three, viz., our acting
unjustifiably by the Moors [Mahommedans]; our being tricked out of
Cassim bazaar Fort, and the example shown on the coast of Coromandel,
where the English and French have in a great measure, it is said,
divided the country, while their respective Nabobs are no better than
shadows of what they should be.
The injustice to the Moors consists in that being by their courtesy
permitted to live here as merchants, to protect and judge what natives
were their [our?] servants, and to trade custom free, we under
that pretence protected all the Nabob’s subjects that claimed our
protection, though they were neither our servants nor our merchants,
and gave our _dustucks_ or passes to numbers of natives to trade
custom free, to the great prejudice of the Nabob’s revenue, nay more,
we levied large duties upon goods brought into our districts from the
very people that permitted us to trade custom free, and by numbers
of their [our?] impositions [framed to raise the Company’s revenue]
some of which were ruinous to ourselves, such as taxes on marriages,
provisions, transferring land, property, etc., caused eternal clamour
and complaints against us at Court.
INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH MERCHANTS ON COLONIAL POLICY
(Callender, _Economic History of the United States_, p. 140. Franklin,
_Causes of American Discontent_, Works, IV, p. 249)
The colonists being thus greatly alarmed ... by the news of the Act for
abolishing the legislature of New York, and the imposition of these new
duties ... (accompanied by a new set of revenue officers) ... began
seriously to consider their situation....
That the whole American people was forbidden the advantage of a direct
importation of wine, oil and fruit from Portugal but must take them
loaded with all the expense of a voyage, one thousand leagues about,
being to be landed first in England, to be re-shipped for America, ...
and all this, merely that a few Portugal merchants in London may gain
a commission on those goods passing through their hands.... That on a
slight complaint of a few Virginia merchants, nine colonies had been
restrained from making paper money, become absolutely necessary to
their internal commerce, from the constant remittance of their gold and
silver to Britain....
Iron is to be found everywhere in America, and the beaver furs are
the natural produce of that country. Hats and nails and steel are
wanted there as well as here. It is of no importance to the common
welfare of the empire, whether a subject of the King’s obtains his
living by making hats on this or on that side of the water. Yet the
hatters of England have prevailed to obtain an act in their own
favour, restraining that manufacture in America; in order to oblige
the Americans to send their beaver to England to be manufactured,
and purchase back the hats, loaded with the charges of double
transportation. In the same manner have a few nail-makers, and a still
smaller body of steel-makers (perhaps there are not half a dozen of
these in England) prevailed totally to forbid by an Act of Parliament
the erecting of slitting-mills or steel-furnaces in America; that the
Americans may be obliged to take all their nails for their buildings,
and steel for their tools, from these artificers under the same
disadvantages.
AMERICAN NON-IMPORTATION POLICY
(Callender, _Econ. Hist. of U.S._, pp. 151-54 (summarized). _Journal of
the Continental Congress_, 1774, I, p. 75)
We, His Majesty’s most loyal subjects, the delegates of the several
colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the three lower
counties of New Castle, Kent and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, deputed to represent
them in a continental Congress, held in the city of Philadelphia,
on the 5th day of September, 1774, avowing our allegiance to His
Majesty, our affection and regard for our fellow-subjects in Great
Britain and elsewhere, affected with the deepest anxiety and most
alarming apprehensions, at those grievances and distresses with which
His Majesty’s American subjects are oppressed; and having taken under
our most serious deliberation the state of the whole continent [of
America] find, that the present unhappy situation of our affairs
is occasioned by a ruinous system of colony administration adopted
by the British ministry about the year 1763, evidently calculated
for inslaving these colonies, and with them, the British Empire....
To obtain redress of these grievances ... we are of opinion, that
a non-importation, non-consumption and non-exportation agreement,
faithfully adhered to, will prove the most speedy, effectual and
peaceable measure; and, therefore, we do, for ourselves and the
inhabitants of the several colonies, whom we represent, firmly agree
and associate, under the sacred ties of virtue, honour and love of our
country, as follows:--
(1) That from and after the first day of December next, we will not
import, into British America, from Great Britain or Ireland, any
goods, wares or merchandise whatsoever, or from any other place, any
such goods, wares or merchandise, as shall have been exported from
Great Britain or Ireland; nor will we, after that day, import any
East India tea from any part of the world; nor any molasses, syrups,
paneles, coffee or pimento, from the British plantations or from
Dominica; nor wines from Madeira or the Western Islands; nor foreign
indigo.
(2) We will neither import nor purchase, any slave imported after
the first day of December next, after which time, we will wholly
discontinue the slave trade; and will neither be concerned in it
ourselves, nor will we hire our vessels, nor sell our commodities or
manufactures to those who are concerned in it.
(3) ... we will not purchase or use any tea, imported on account of
the East India Company, or any on which a duty hath been or shall be
paid; and from and after the first day of March next, we will not
purchase or use any East India tea, whatever....
(4) The earnest desire we have, not to injure our fellow subjects in
Great Britain, Ireland or the West Indies, induces us to suspend a
non-exportation, until the tenth day of September, 1775; at which
time, if the said Acts ... of the British Parliament ... are not
repealed, we will not, directly or indirectly, export any merchandise
or commodity whatsoever, to Great Britain, Ireland or the West Indies,
except rice to Europe....
(11) That a committee be chosen in every county, city, or town ... to
observe the conduct of all persons touching this association....
(12) That the committee of correspondence, in the respective colonies
do frequently inspect the entries of their custom houses....
(14) ... And we recommend it to the provincial conventions, and to
the committees in the respective colonies, to establish such farther
regulations as they may think proper, for carrying into execution this
association.
A PETITION FOR RECONCILIATION, 1775
(Callender, _Economic History of U.S._, pp. 155-57. Hansard’s
_Parliamentary Debates_, XVIII, p. 168)
Mr. Alderman Hayley said he had a petition from the merchants of the
city of London concerned in the commerce to North America ... setting
forth--
“That the petitioners are all essentially interested in the trade to
North America, either as exporters or importers, or as vendors of
British and foreign goods for exportation to that country; and that
the petitioners have exported, or sold for exportation, to the British
colonies in North America, very large quantities of the manufactures of
Great Britain and Ireland, and in particular, the staple articles of
woollen, iron and linen, also those of cotton, silk, leather, pewter,
tin, copper and brass, with almost every British manufacture; also
large quantities of foreign linens and other articles imported into
these kingdoms, from Flanders, Holland, Germany, the East Countries,
Portugal, Spain and Italy, which are generally received from those
countries in return for British Manufactures; and that the petitioners
have likewise exported, or sold for exportation, great quantities of
the various species of goods imported into this kingdom from the
East Indies, part of which receive additional manufacture in Great
Britain; and that the petitioners receive returns from North America
to this kingdom directly, viz., pig and bar iron, timber, staves,
naval stores, tobacco, rice, indigo, deer and other skins, beaver and
furs, train oil, whalebone, beeswax, pot and pearl ashes, drugs and
dyeing woods, with some bullion, and also wheat flour, Indian corn and
salted provisions, when, on account of scarcity in Great Britain, those
articles are permitted to be imported;
and that the petitioners receive returns circuitously from Ireland [for
flax seed, etc., exported from North America] by bills of exchange on
the merchants of this city trading to Ireland, for the proceeds of
linens, etc., imported into these kingdoms from the West Indies; in
return for provisions, lumber and cattle, exported from North America
for the use and support of the West India Islands, by bills of exchange
on the West India merchants, for the proceeds of sugar, molasses, rum,
cotton, coffee or other produce, imported from those islands into these
kingdoms; from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Flanders, Germany,
Holland and the East Countries by bills of exchange or bullion in
return for wheat flour, rice, Indian corn, fish and lumber, exported
from the British colonies in North America, for the use of those
countries;
and that the petitioners have great reason to believe, from the best
informations they can obtain, that on the balance of this extensive
commerce, there is now due from the colonies in North America, to the
said city only, 2,000,000_l._ sterling and upwards; and that by the
direct commerce with the colonies, and the circuitous trade thereon
depending, some thousands of ships and vessels are employed, and many
thousands of seamen are bred and maintained, thereby increasing the
naval power and strength of Great Britain;
and that, in the year 1765, there was a great stagnation of the
commerce between Great Britain and her colonies, in consequence of an
Act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, and other duties,
in the British colonies and plantations in America, by which the
merchants trading to North America, and the artificers employed in the
various manufactures consumed in those countries, were subjected to
many hardships;
and that, in the following year, the said Act was repealed ... upon
which repeal, the trade to the British colonies immediately resumed its
former flourishing state;
and that in the year 1767, an Act passed for granting certain duties in
the British colonies and plantations in America, which imposed certain
duties, to be paid in America, on tea, glass, red and white lead,
painters’ colours, paper, pasteboard, millboard and scaleboard, when
the commerce with the colonies was again interrupted;
and that in the year 1770, such parts of the said Act as imposed duties
on glass, red and white lead, painters’ colours, paper, pasteboard,
millboard and scaleboard, were repealed, when the trade to America soon
revived, except in the article of tea, on which a duty was continued,
to be demanded on its importation into America, whereby that branch of
our commerce was nearly lost;
and that in the year 1773, an Act passed, to allow a drawback of the
duties of customs on the exportation of tea to His Majesty’s colonies
or plantations in America, and to empower the Commissioners of the
Treasury to grant licences to the East India Company, to export tea,
duty free;
and by the operation of those and other laws, the minds of His
Majesty’s subjects in the British colonies have been greatly disquieted
a total stop is now put to the export trade with the greatest and most
important part of North America, the public revenue is threatened with
a large and fatal diminution, the petitioners with grievous distress,
and thousands of industrious artificers and manufacturers with utter
ruin....”
AMERICAN APPEAL TO FRANCE, JANUARY 5, 1775
(Callender, _Economic History of U.S._, p. 167. Wharton, _The
Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States_, II,
p. 245)
Sir,
The Congress, the better to defend their coasts, protect their trade,
and drive off the enemy, have instructed us to apply to France for
eight ships of the line, completely manned, the expense of which they
will undertake to pay. As other princes of Europe are lending or hiring
their troops to Britain against America, it is apprehended that France
may, if she thinks fit, afford our independent States the same kind of
aid, without giving England any just cause of complaint. But if England
should on that account declare war, we conceive that by the united
force of France, Spain and America, she will lose all her possessions
in the West Indies....
We also beg it may be particularly considered, that while the
English are masters of the American seas, and can, without fear of
interruption, transport with such ease their army from one part of our
extensive coast to another, and we can only meet them by land marches,
we may possibly, unless some powerful aid is given us or some strong
diversion be made in our favour, be so harassed and be put to such
immense distress, as that finally our people will find themselves
reduced to the necessity of ending the war by an accommodation....
B. Franklin,
Silas Deane,
Arthur Lee.
EFFECT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE ON EUROPE
LETTER FROM FRANKLIN AND DEANE, PARIS, 1777
(Callender, _Economic History of U.S._, pp. 174-75. Wharton,
_Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence_, II, p. 287)
All Europe is for us. Our Articles of Confederation, being by our means
translated and published here, have given an appearance of consistence
and firmness to the American States and Government that begins to make
them considerable. The separate constitutions of the several States
are also translating and publishing here, which afford abundance of
speculation to the politicians of Europe, and it is a very general
opinion that if we succeed in establishing our liberties, we shall, as
soon as peace is restored, receive an immense addition of numbers and
wealth from Europe, by the families who will come over to participate
in our privileges, and bring their estates with them. Tyranny is so
generally established in the rest of the world, that the prospect of
an asylum in America, for those who love liberty, gives general joy,
and our cause is esteemed the cause of all mankind. Slaves naturally
become base, as well as wretched. We are fighting for the dignity and
happiness of human nature. Glorious is it for the Americans to be
called by Providence to this post of honour. Cursed and detested be
everyone that deserts or betrays it.
POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS RESULTING, 1788
(Callender, _Economic History of U.S._, pp. 176-67. B. de Warville,
_The Commerce of America with Europe_, p. 8)
... this war has occasioned discussions important to public
happiness--the discussion of the social compact--of civil liberty, of
the means which can render a people independent, of the circumstances
which give sanction to its insurrection, and make it legal, and which
give this people a place among the powers of the earth.
What good has not resulted from the repeated description of the English
constitution, and of its effects? What good has not resulted from the
codes of Massachusetts and New York, published and spread everywhere?
And what benefits will they still produce? They will not be wholly
taken for a model; but despotism will pay a greater respect, either
from necessity or reason, to the rights of men, which are so well known
and established.... This revolution, favourable to the people, which is
preparing in the cabinets of Europe, will be undoubtedly accelerated,
by that which its commerce will experience, and which we owe to the
enfranchisement of America. The war which procured it for her, has
made known the influence of commerce on power, the necessity of public
credit, and consequently of public virtue, without which it cannot long
subsist....
These are the advantages which France, the world and humanity, owe to
the American Revolution....
INVENTORS OF MACHINERY
(Macpherson, _Annals of Commerce_, Vol. IV, p. 77)
In the early part of the 18th century [1748] an engine was invented by
Mr. Paul, with the assistance of some others in London, who, having
obtained a patent [1748], made trial of it at Nottingham and elsewhere,
to the great loss of all concerned. Other schemes for spinning cotton
by machinery have since been tried, and proved equally abortive.
About the year 1767 the discovery of this great desideratum in
mechanics and manufacture was attempted by three different persons.
The first, I believe, was Mr. Hargreaves of Blackburn in Lancashire,
who constructed an engine, capable of spinning 20 or 30 threads of
cotton yarn fit for fustian: but his machinery being destroyed by
popular tumults, he removed to Nottingham.... Mr. Hayes invented a
spinning engine and cylindrical carding engines, but never brought
them to perfection. Mr. Arkwright ... after many experiments, finished
his first engine in the year 1768 ... and in the year 1775, having
brought his original machinery to a greater degree of perfection, and
having also invented machines for preparing the cotton for spinning,
he obtained a fresh patent for his new invention. Hitherto he and
his partners had reaped no profits from the undertaking; but now,
proper buildings being erected at the expense of 30,000l. and the
machinery being made capable of being put in motion by the strength
of cattle, water, steam, or any other regular moving power, it began,
notwithstanding some losses from riots ... to be productive to the
proprietors.
JAMES’ ACCOUNT OF HARGREAVES
(Baines, _History of Cotton_, p. 164. Note)
“I knew Mr. Hargreaves very well: he was a stout, broadset man,
about five feet, ten inches high, or rather more: he first worked in
Nottingham with Mr. Shipley about 1768, and here my father first met
him. He was making jennies for Shipley, who then wished to go into
the cotton spinning. My Father prevailed on him to leave Shipley and
embark with him in a new concern: and money was borrowed by my father
principally on the mortgage of some freehold property, on which they
were to erect their mill. The mill was erected, and two dwelling
houses, in one of which my father resided and in the other was Mr.
Hargreaves’ family.”
ARKWRIGHT OVERRATED
(Baines, _History of Cotton_, p. 195)
The marvellous and “unbounded invention” which he claimed for himself
... did not belong to Arkwright. It is clear that some of the
improvements which made the carding engine what it was when he took
out his second patent, were devised by others; and there are two prior
claimants to the invention of spinning by rollers before the patent of
Arkwright. [Possibly] the latter derived the principle of his machine
either from Wyatt or Highs ... at the same time it is certain that
Arkwright displayed great inventive talent in perfecting the details.
* * * * *
Wealth flowed in upon him with a full stream from his skilfully managed
concern. For several years he fixed the price of cotton twist, all
other spinners conforming to his prices.... In 1786 Arkwright was
appointed High Sheriff of Derbyshire ... and [later] received the
honour of knighthood.
CROMPTON’S MULE
(Ibid., p. 199)
“In regard to the mule, the date of its being first completed was
in the year 1799: at the end of the following year I was under the
necessity of making it public, or destroying it, as it was not in my
power to keep it and work it; and to destroy it was too painful a task,
having been four and a half years at least, wherein every moment of
time and power of mind as well as expense, which my other employment
would permit, were devoted to this one end, the having good yarn to
weave; so that to destroy it, I could not.”
THE BANKING-HOUSE OF COUTTS & CO.
(Sir W. Forbes, _Memoirs of a Banking-House_, Ed., Chambers, 1860)
The founder of the Edinburgh house of business ... was Patrick Coutts,
the fourth son of Alexander Coutts, provost of Montrose (p. 1) ...
he carried on business in Edinburgh as a merchant at least as early
as the year 1696. The books are kept in Scots money and very neatly
and distinctly written. He appears to have been a general merchant,
whose transactions were considerably extended, for in his books there
are accounts of mercantile adventures to New York and Pennsylvania,
to Amsterdam, to France and to the Canaries.... He left three sons,
John, James and Christian ... (John) engaged in mercantile concerns
in Edinburgh in the year 1723.... Their business was dealing in
corn, buying and selling goods on commissions, and the negotiation
of bills of exchange in London, Holland, France, Italy, Spain and
Portugal. The negotiation of bills of exchange formed at that period
a considerable part of the business of Edinburgh; for there were then
no country banks.... I see many notices of the difficulty, at that
time, of effecting money transactions of any considerable extent in
the country towns of Scotland.... A mercantile business was likewise
formed about this time (1750) in London, by the Messrs. Coutts ... as
the correspondents of the house in Edinburgh (p. 6).... In England
the house had large quantities of corn shipped for them at Yarne
and at Stockton in Yorkshire; at Lyme Regis, Fakenham and Yarmouth,
all in the rich corn county of Norfolk; at Haverfordwest in South
Wales, and by the noted Cooper Thornhill, who at that time kept the
Bell inn at Hilton, was one of the most considerable corn factors in
England.... Indeed, I have often thought it not a little singular
that a banking-house ... should have chosen to embark so largely
in the corn-trade, which is, perhaps, that most liable to sudden
fluctuation.... Yet in this the Messrs. Coutts were not singular....
The other principal banking-houses in Edinburgh at that time were
Messrs. Mansfield & Co., William Cuming, William Hogg and Son, and
William Alexander & Sons. The two first confined themselves strictly
to the banking-business, in which they rose to great eminence from a
very obscure origin. From a slender start in life, as a draper, old
Mr. James Mansfield began to deal a little in bills of exchange, and
by degrees founded a banking-house of the first celebrity in Scotland.
In the same manner William Cuming succeeded to his father, old Patrick
Cuming’s cloth-shops in the Parliament Close, which he afterwards
converted into a counting-house where he confined himself entirely to
the transacting of money business and after a long life left a very
large fortune. William Hogg & Son were not in very extensive business
and they managed it very confusedly. William Alexander & Sons were
very considerable money-dealers, though their chief employment was
purchasing tobacco for the Farmers-general of France (p. 9).
* * * * *
“John Coutts, the second son (of the late Lord Provost Coutts) under
whose eye chiefly I served my apprenticeship, was one of the most
agreeable men I ever knew. Lively and wellbred, and of very engaging
manners, he had the happy talent of uniting a love of society and
public amusements with a strict attention to business.... Having
received his mercantile education in Holland, he had all the accuracy
and all the strictness of a Dutchman; and, to his lessons it is that
I owe any knowledge I possess of the principles of business, as well
as an attachment to _form_ which I shall probably carry with me to the
grave....
So strict was he in the discipline of the counting-house, that I
slept but one night out of Edinburgh from the commencement of my
apprenticeship in May 1754, till the month of September, 1760, when I
obtained leave to go to Aberdeenshire with my mother to pay a visit to
our relations” (p. 10).
* * * * *
... Our new copartnery commenced ... the Seven Years’ War had just
been terminated.... The rate of exchange for bills on London was as
high as three, four and even five per cent. against Scotland. This,
of necessity, occasioned demands on the bank at Edinburgh for specie
which they were unable or unwilling to answer.... In London the
character and credit of Scottish paper was at the lowest ebb, and the
Bank of England was extremely shy of discounting bills drawn on London
from Edinburgh. It was therefore a task of no ordinary difficulty
to conduct the affairs of our two houses with safety (p. 19)....
Very soon after (1771) two important events took place, extremely
memorable in the history of the house. I mean the commission from the
Farmers-general of France for the purchase of tobaccos in Scotland;
and the erecting of the Banking Co., in St. James’ Street, London. The
great company in France, known by the name of the Farmers-general,
from their having farmed the public taxes of that kingdom under the
old government, enjoyed by consequence the exclusive privilege of
importing tobacco into France, with which they were chiefly supplied
from Scotland, the article being originally procured by the merchants
of Glasgow from North America (p. 27).
ROMAN ROADS IN YORKSHIRE
(D. Defoe, _Tour through Great Britain_, p. 123)
From Ferrybridge, within a mile of Pontefract, extends a large stone
Causeway, about a mile in length, to a village called Brotherton. A
little to the south of this village, the great Road divides into two
parts; one goes on to the right to York, and the other through Aberford
and Watherley to Scotland.... This Causeway in many places is entirely
perfect, although undoubtedly a work of 16 or 1700 years old, and
in other places where it is broken up, the courses appear to be of
different materials; the bottom is clay or earth, upon that is chalk,
then gravel, upon the gravel is stone, and then gravel upon that....
This Causeway runs in a direct line from Doncaster to Castleford,
where it makes an angle and runs in another direct line to Aberford,
Tadcaster and York. It is very easy to trace its course over moors and
open grounds which have not been cultivated; but there are few or no
remains upon the enclosed lands. There is no doubt but that the Romans
had communications between all their stations in this country, by roads
of this kind.
THE ROMAN WALL
(A. Young, _Northern Tour_, Letter XVI, p. 112)
From Glenwelt I walked about half a mile to view some of the remnants
of the famous Roman wall, a piece above five feet high and several
yards long; the facing is of regularly cut freestone but I measured
none of them above thirteen inches long and seven broad; the mortar
in the facing is quite gone, but much of it remains in the middle,
the filling up; very little of it is of that hard nature often found
in ancient buildings, but crumbles with ease between the fingers.
The stones of the facing are cut very regularly, and well laid; the
workmanship undoubtedly very good. Not far from this wall the remains
of an earth entrenchment, thrown up for the same purpose, are seen in a
parallel line with it.
LANCASTER
(Ibid., Letter XVIII, p. 196)
Lancaster is a flourishing town, well situated for trade, of which it
carries on a pretty brisk one; possessing about 100 sail of ships, some
of them good burthen, for the African and American trades. The only
manufactory in the town is that of cabinet ware. Here are many cabinet
makers who work up the mahogany brought home in their own ships, and
re-export it to the West Indies, etc.
MARLING
(Ibid., Letter XVIII, p. 198)
As to manures, marle is the grand one, which is found under all this
country (Lancashire) and generally within sixteen or twenty inches of
the surface ... it lies in beds, many of them of a vast depth, the
bottoms of some pits not being found. It is white, and as soft and
soapy as butter. They lay about a hundred two-horse cartloads to an
acre, but some farmers less, on to lays[31] and stubble. It lasts a
good improvement for twenty years: costs about £4 10s. 0d. an acre.
Marle is their principal manure, both white, black, blue, sandy and
some small marle. They sometimes find perfect cockle and periwinkle
shells nine yards deep in beds of marle. It does best on light soil.
MANCHESTER
(Ibid., Letter XVIII, pp. 242, _et seq._)
The Manchester manufacturers are divided into four branches--the
fustian, the check, the hat and the worsted small wares. All sorts of
cotton are used but chiefly the West Indian.... Many low priced goods
they make for N. America, and many fine ones for the West Indies. The
whole business was exceedingly brisk during the (7 Years’) war, and
very bad after the peace, but now are pretty good again, though not
equal to what they were during the war. All the revolutions of late
in the N. American affairs are felt severely in this branch ... the
interruptions caused by the convulsions in America very severely felt
by every workman. None ever offered for work but they at once had it,
except upon the regulations of the Colonies cutting off their trade
with the Spaniards, and the Stamp Act. The last advices received
from America have had a similar effect, for many hands were paid off
in consequence of them ... America takes three-fourths of all the
manufacturers of Manchester.
NEWCASTLE
(Ibid., Letter XV, p. 11. 1770)
This town is supposed to contain 40,000 souls, and to employ of its own
500 sail of ships, 400 of which are colliers. The people employed in
the coal mines are prodigiously numerous amounting to many thousand;
the earnings of the men are from 1/-to 4/-a day and their firing.
About five miles from Newcastle are the ironworks, late Crawley’s,
supposed to be the greatest manufactory of the kind in Europe. Several
hundred hands are employed in it, insomuch that £20,000 a year is paid
in wages. They earn from 1/-to 2/6 a day, and some of the foremen as
much as £200 a year. The quantity of iron they work up is very great,
employing three ships to the Baltic that each make ten voyages yearly
and bring 70 tons at a time.... They use a good deal of American iron
which is as good as any Swedish and for some purposes much better. They
would use more of it if larger quantities were to be had, but they
cannot get it--which is worthy of remark.
In general their greatest work is for exportation and are employed
very considerably by the East India Company: they have of late had a
prodigious artillery demand from that Company[32].
As to the machines for accelerating several operations in the
manufacture, copper rollers ... and the scissors for cutting bars of
iron ... the turning cranes ... the beating hammer. There are machines
of manifest utility, simple in their construction and all moved by
water ... there are no impossibilities in mechanics, an anchor of 20
tons may undoubtedly be managed with as much ease as a pin.
AMERICAN TRADE
(Macpherson, _Annals of Commerce_, IV, p. 10)
The Consequences resulting to Great Britain from the independence of
the American States, may, with great truth, be called _advantages_....
A great and obvious advantage was the relief from governing and
protecting them ... relief from the payment of bounties ... the
recovery of the valuable trade of shipbuilding ... sacrificed to the
zeal for promoting the prosperity of the Colonies.
It was said ... that Great Britain possessed the whole of the American
trade before the revolt.... It is well known that before the war the
Americans carried a considerable proportion of their trade to other
nations, contrary to law. Now they are at liberty to deal with other
nations or with Britain; and for that reason alone some of them will
choose to deal with Britain.... Experience has fully shown that there
was no real cause to apprehend any decay of the British commerce in
consequence of the new order of things in America: and moreover, what
must effectually silence all controversy on the subject, the official
accounts of the Custom House demonstrate that there has been a greater
and more rapid increase in the general commerce of Great Britain, and
especially of the commerce with America, since the era of American
independence than ever there was.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ENCLOSURES
(A. Young, _Northern Tour_, Letter IV, pp. 252-65)
There is scarcely any point in rural economics more generally
acknowledged than the great benefits of enclosing open lands ... some
... it is true ... assert them to be very mischevious to the poor.
First: The proprietors of large estates generally agree upon the
measure ... the small proprietor, whose property in the township is
perhaps his all, has little or no weight ... and as little weight in
the choice of commissioners.
Third: The attorney delivers his bill to the commissioners, who pay
him and themselves without producing any account, and in what manner
they please ... the expenses previous to the actual inclosing are from
£1800 to £2000 all which is levied and expended by the commissioners
absolutely and without control.
Fourth: The division and distribution of the lands are totally in their
breasts.... Nor is there any appeal but to the commissioners themselves
from their allotments, however carelessly or partially made. Thus
is the property of the proprietors, and especially the small ones,
entirely at their mercy.
I am not here arguing against inclosures, the advantages arising from
them are certainly very extensive. I am only saying they do not always
indemnify the _present_ possessor from the great expense he is at in
obtaining them, by the absurd and extravagant manner in which they are
generally conducted.
PRICE OF LABOUR
(A. Young, _Northern Tour_, Letter XXXIX, pp. 445 _et seq._)
{ Harvest 10/8 }
Averages { Hay 9/5 } Pay per week
{ Winter 6/5 }
I do not think there is much reason to find fault with any of these
average prices as exorbitant or higher than a flourishing agriculture
can well afford to pay, nor are any of them so low as to oppress the
labouring poor; there not being above one or two places where any
allowance is made for _piece work_, whereas much is everywhere done;
and it is universally known that they earn more in that manner than the
weekly pay of the country.
* * * * *
Servants’ wages are higher than I conceived. £10 8s. 6d. for upper
farming men is out of proportion to the average pay of labourers.
* * * * *
The rates of labour admit of prodigious variations.... I apprehend
that Chance has been the mother of three fourths. Famine before the
exportation of corn was encouraged, and extreme high prices locally
heightened the prices of labour, as the richer inhabitants were more
or less willing to assist the poor. The rates so raised in some places
continued after the occasion, in others were reduced.
* * * * *
In some places I was informed of the value of servants’ board, washing
and lodging; average £9.
* * * * *
PRICES OF LABOUR IN THE MANUFACTURING TOWNS (SUMMARIZED)
Men: from 15/- or 11/- (colliers) to }
7/6 or 7/1 (textile) } per week
Women: „ 6/6 (potteries) or }
5/4 (textile) to } „ „
3/3 (textile) }
Children: „ 5/- or 4/- (textile) to }
1/8 or 1/- } „ „
Average of poor rates: 1/1.
Poor rates are never nicely proportioned to the prices of provisions
and the necessities of the poor, but depend on the temper of
individuals, the caprice of parish officers and justices of the peace.
They are as often raised by clamour as by real necessity.
INCOME OF THE SOIL OF ENGLAND
Reckoned 32 million acres, half arable, half grass
(A. Young, _Northern Tour_, Letter XLII, p. 493)
The Landlord’s rent was found to be £16,000,000
„ Tenants’ profit £18,237,691
„ Clergy £5,500,000
„ Industrious poor (being the amount of labour) £14,596,937
„ Non-industrious (being the amount of rates) £866,666
„ Interest of money £4,400,000
Total of these several incomes arising from the soil £59,601,294
ROADS
(A. Young, _Northern Tour_, Letter XLIII, p. 573)
[A few examples]
Turnpike: To Stevenage Good
To Wooburn Good
Bad: To Newport
Pagnell Middling
To Bedford A vile narrow cut up lane
To Castle
Howard Infamous. I was near
being swallowed up in a
slough
To Darlington is the great north road and
execrably broke into holes,
like an old pavement, sufficient
to dislocate one’s bones
To Wigan rutts which I actually
measured four feet deep
and floating with mud only
from a wet summer.... I
actually passed three carts
broken down in these
eighteen miles
To Newcastle I was forced to employ two
men at one place to support
my chaise from overthrowing
in turning out for a
cart of goods overthrown
and almost buried
Good: To Choleford
Bridge Excellent. Much indebted
is the country to Sir Walter
Blacket for the many good
roads which lead every way
round him
To Kirkleatham Crossroad. This road is a
rare instance of the public
spirit of the gentlemen of
Cleveland.... They are
doing it by subscription
CHILDREN IN FACTORIES
(John Fielden, _The Curse of the Factory System_)
_Sir R. Peel’s_ evidence before a committee of the House of Commons,
1816:--
“Having other pursuits, it was not often in my power to visit the
factories, but whenever such visits were made I was struck with the
uniform appearance of bad health, and, in many cases, stunted growth
of the children. The hours of labour were regulated by the interests
of the overseer, whose remuneration was regulated by the quantity of
work done” (p. 9).
_Evidence of John Moss_, overseer of Blackbarrow Mill, near Preston
(summarized):--
The children in the mill were almost all apprentices from London
parishes. They were worked from five in the morning to eight at night
all the year round, with only one hour for the two meals; in making up
lost time they frequently worked from five in the morning till ten at
night, and invariably they worked from six on the Sunday morning till
twelve, in cleaning the machinery for the week!
“Did the children sit or stand “Stand.”
at work?”
“The whole of their time?” “Yes.”
“Were there any seats in the “None.”
Mill?”
“Were they usually much “Yes, some of them
fatigued at night?” were very much
fatigued.”
“Where did they sleep?” “They slept in the
apprentice
house.”
“Did you inspect their beds?” “Yes, every night.”
“For what purpose?” “Because there were
always some of
them missing;
some sometimes
might be run
away. Others
sometimes I
have found
asleep in the
mill.”
“Upon the mill-floor?” “Yes.”
“Did the children frequently lie “I have found them
down upon the mill floor at frequently upon
night when their work was the mill floor
over and fall asleep before after the time
their supper?” they should
have been in
bed” (p. 10).
_Mr. Horner’s statements_ in the House of Commons, 6th June, 1815.
“These children were often sent one, two, or three hundred miles from
their place of birth, separated for life from all relations. It had
been known that with a bankrupt’s effect a gang ... of these children
had been put up to sale and were advertised publicly as a part of the
property ... a number of these boys, apprenticed by a parish in London
to one manufacturer, had been transferred to another, and had been
found by some benevolent persons in a state of absolute famine.... Not
many years ago an agreement had been made between a London parish and
a Lancashire manufacturer ... that with every twenty sound children,
one idiot should be taken!” (p. 11).
_Report of Commissioners, 1833, from Scotland_, p. 41. _Evidence of a
Spinner._
“I find it difficult to keep my _piecers_ awake the last hours of a
winter evening; have seen them fall asleep and go on performing their
work with their hands while they were asleep, after the _billey_ had
stopped. When their work was over, I have stopped and looked at them
for two minutes, going through the motions of _piecening_ when they
were fast asleep, when there was no work to do, and they were doing
nothing; children at night are so fatigued that they are asleep often
as soon as they sit down, so that it is impossible to wake them to
sense enough to wash themselves, or even to eat a bit of supper, being
so stupid in sleep” (p. 19).
_Half-overseer’s evidence._
Does not like the long hours; he is very tired and hoarse at night and
that some of the young female workers in his, the spinning flat, have
so swelled legs, one in particular, from standing so long, about 17
years old, that she can hardly walk; that various of them have their
feet bent in and their legs crooked from the same cause (p. 21).
FOOTNOTES:
[30] Denied by Anglicans to-day.
[31] Lays, leys, or leas, is an old name for the common fields about a
village.
[32] East India Co. had, in 1757, taken responsibility for the defence
of Bengal, and been involved in war with the heir to the Mogul throne,
1759; the Nawab Mir Kasim, 1763; the Mahrattas, 1765; they also sold
arms and artillery to natives.
INDEX
Abbey, 26
----, Westminster, 136
Abbot, 29, 32, 39
Acapulce, 116
Acton Burnell, Statue of, 12
Adam of Gloucester, 15, 21
Admiral, 92, 110
Æthelstane, 2, 48
Æthelwald, 10
Albuquerque, 121
Alderman, 10, 19, 27, 57, 60, 61, 69, 72, 123
Aldgate, 60, 129
Alexius, 38
Alfred, King, 10, 15, 21
Alien, 48, 60
Allmund, 10
Alloy, 89
All Souls, 68
Almaine, 63, 66, 122-5, 130
Almond, 93
Alms, 96
Almshouse, 101
Alnwick, 83
Alum, 53
Ambassador, 132, 134, 139
Ambulatory (_cloister_), 34
America, 152, 157, 161, 162, 167, 175
Anabaptist, 155
Anderby, Richard, 98
Angell, Michael, 115, 116
Anne of Bohemia, 126
Anselm, 29
Antiphonary (_book of chants_), 3
Anti-Semite, 73
Approval, 83
Apulia, 38
Arab, 29, 38
Arbalester (_slinger_), 77
Archbishop, 37
Archer, 77
Ardnot of Spalding, 37
Arequipa, 115
Arica, 114
Aristotle, 37
Arkwright, 169
Armourer, 26, 131
Arquebuse (_gun_), 113, 116
Arrow, 33, 94, 113, 130
Articles of Confederation, 167
Artillery, 118, 131, 140
Arundel, Earl of, 148
Assay, 16, 144
Ashwell, 135
Assize, 59, 65
---- of bread, 144
Astronomy, 69
Assumption, 100
Augustine, 1, 100
Averagium (_carrying service_), 14
Award, 63
Bailiff, 17, 18, 19, 22, 53, 68
---- of Husbandry, 88
---- of Cambridge, 103
Bailiwick, 59
Baker, 19, 68
Banner, 22, 26
Barnard, Peres, 76
Baron of Exchequer, 48, 56, 59
Barrel, 18
Bartholomew of Cremona, 42
----, Saint, 54
Baptista, Alon o Rodriguez, 115
Basings, Thomas de, 67
Bassett, Sir Philip, 67
Baptist, Saint John, 25
Battle Abbey, 3
----, Customs of, 12-14, 87
Beaver, 162
Bedeste (_bedstead_), 26
Beech, 30
Bell, 33
----, Great, of St. Paul’s, 63, 114
Bishop, as civil ruler, 7, 9, 32, 57, 100
Bishopsgate, 123
Black Death, 49
---- Sea, 46
Blancher, 56
Blund, Peter, 58
Boc (_book_, _i.e._, _written record_), 9, 29, 87
Bocara, 46
Bolgara, 46
Bondman, 11
Booth, 18
Boroughbridge, 49
Bot (_amends_), 3, 7
Boundary, 2
Brabant, John of, 16
Brass, 33
Bread, 59, 144
Bribe, 66
Briggshott, 156
Bristol, 19, 21
Britain, 28, 121
Bronze, 36
Brotheredyas (_brotherhoods_), 26, 27
Brundisium (_Brindisi_), 38
Buckerel, Stephen, 63
Burel-cloth, 17
Burh (_burg_, _bury_, _borough_, _a fortified place_), 8
Burgess, 19, 96, 132
Butcher, 19, 143
Byfleet, 76
Bynch (_bench_), 25
Cadiz, 107
Callao, 115
Cambaluc, 47
Cambridge, 102
Camel, 40
Campe, 92
Candlemass (_February 2_), 90
Cannibal, 109
Canoe, 109
Canterbury, 8
Captain, 91, 101, 116, 130
Carambaru, 112
Carnatic, 101
Carpini, Friar John de Plano, 29, 40-5
Carucate (_120 acres, 1 hide_), 52
Castle, 84
Castille, 106, 112
Catesby, 100
Cathay (Kythay), 41, 45, 106, 107, 108
Cattle, 4, 5, 11, 12, 40, 43, 83, 159
Ceres (_goddess of corn_), 147
Cecil, Sir Thomas, 147
Ceorl (_freeman_), 4
Challenger, 86
Chancery, 72
Chantry, 97
Chaplain, 27
Chapman (_trader_), 4, 6, 126
Chapter-house, 34, 36
Charles I, II, 16, 150, 153
Chari, 110
Charter (_written grant or licence_), 10, 16, 21, 28, 32, 33, 66, 67, 124
Chattel, 20
Cheese, 18
Chepe, 68
Chichester, 8
Chile, 115
Chimney, 25
Chippenham, 95
Chinghiz Cham, 41
Chirograph, 32, 57, 74
Chubb, Richard, 25
Cinque Ports, 63
Citeaux, Monastery of, 29
City of London, 49, 63, 78, 125
Clerk, Common, 26
---- of the Compters, 27, 33
---- of the Irons, 59
----, Walter, 95, 99
Clerkenwell, 130
Clipping, 48, 56, 75
Clive, 121
Cloister, 29, 33, 35, 96-8
Close, 4, 83
Cloth, 17, 20
----, broad, 24, 54, 79, 82, 93, 134
---- market, 156
Clout, Robin, 103
Coal, 159
Coffer, 19, 24, 26, 94
Cog, 78
Coinage, 48, 50, 75, 82, 89
Colchero, 117
Colechurch Street, 73
Columbus, 106-13
Colworthe, Joan, 98, 99
Commandments, Ten, 5
Common Council, 19
---- Field System, 83, 87, 89
Commonalty (_community_), 17, 21, 56, 73
Commons, 61, 64, 72, 82, 93, 100, 102
Compensation, 1, 2
Compurgators, 99
Compact of Government, 154
Company, Livery, 16, 26, 122, 129, 149
Congress, 166
Constable, 19, 48, 129
---- of Tower, 58, 63, 67
---- Lists, 86
----, Town, 88
Constantinople, 38, 42, 45, 106
Convent, 10, 39, 96, 98
Cope, 27
Copper, 39, 89
Corn, 9, 12, 30, 32, 36, 41, 53, 66, 68, 123
Cornhill, 129
Cornwall, Richard Earl of, 123
Coromandel, 161
Corrody, corrodier (_tenure--tenant by service
of one night’s lodging_), 36, 96
Corporation, 23, 26, 102
Corsair, 119
Council, 19, 27, 53, 67, 74, 147
Court of Common Bench, 15
----, City, 19
---- roll, 10
---- Leet, 49, 52, 122, 140-6
----, Ecclesiastical, 55
----, East India Company, 6
---- of Directors, 121
Courtier, 121, 134, 135
Craft gilds, 15, 19, 62
Crompton, 170
Cromwell, Sir Henry, 147
----, Oliver, 147
----, Robert, 147
Cross bow, 93
---- of St. Paul’s, 60
---- and Pile, 75
Croyland, 27
Crusade, 29, 49
Customary tenants roll, 10, 11, 12, 21, 28, 32, 66, 67, 124
Dantzic, 156
Deane, 152, 167
Defoe, Daniel, 151
Despencer, Hugh le, 61-3
----, Madame le, 76
Diego, Columbus, 112
----, Mandez, 106
Dissent, 153-5
Dormitory, 34, 36, 39, 100
Dooms, 3
Doomsday, 31
Dover, 61
Drake, Sir Francis, 106, 113-9
Drawback, 166
Duke, 27, 41
Dupleix, 121
Durgis (_dirges_), 25
Dutch (_Deutsch_ = _German_), 43, 93, 121, 124
Dytton, 102
Easterling (sterling) (_man or coin from
Eastern Europe_), 82, 120, 124, 165
East India Company, 120, 132, 163
Eclaf, 10
Education, 9
Edward I, Sir, 26, 49, 52, 64, 69, 77
---- the Confessor, 32
---- II, 49, 75
---- III, 27
---- IV, 25, 27, 125
---- de Westminster, 56
Edwardes, Sir Clement, 148
Elizabeth, 28, 82, 118, 120, 147, 153
Ell, 54
Elsin of Pyncebek, 37
Emperor, 29, 41, 47
Enclosure, 83, 100-5, 177
Engineer, 77
Engraver, 50
Engrosser, ingrosser, 17, 143
Enriquez, Don Martin, 116
Envoy, 46
Earl (_jarl, Danish title of district ruler_), 7
Espanola, 109
Essex, 101, 147
Estate, 32
Ethelbald, 10, 30
Ethelbert, 3
Ethelred, 9
Ethiopian, 109
European, 28
Exchange, 51, 54
Exchequer, 51, 95
Exeter, Excete, Mint at, 8
----, Gild at, 23, 24
Exploration, 106, 122
Factory, 181
Fair of St. Botolph, 54
---- of Westminster, 62
Falcheon, 117
Falstaffe, Sir John, 93
Famine, 49, 66, 178
Fanne, 102
Farm (_ferme_), 31, 83
---- fee, 18, 21
Farmers-general, 173
Farthing, 51
Fealty, 31, 63
Feast, 22
---- of All Saints, 50
Fee, 18, 31
Felaschipe (_fellowship_), 24, 92
Fens, 30, 147-150
Ferdinand of Spain, 107
Feudal, 28, 29
Fine, 19, 26, 54, 59
Fire of London, 125
Fishmonger, 73, 145
Fitzalan, Peter, 55
Fitzthomas, Thomas, 61, 64
Fitzwilliams, Sir William, 147
Flagon, 28
Flanders, 92, 138
Fleece, 5
Fleet, 82
---- Prison, 96, 167
Fleming, 16
Flesh, 4, 5, 74
Floods, 28
Folkmote, 49, 60
Folkright, 7
Fontenelle, 29, 39
Foreigner (_person from another district_), 7, 58
Forestaller, 143
Forest, 32
Forfeiture, 53, 93
Forstage (_forecastle_), 90
France, 28, 36, 39
----, King of, 63, 77, 92, 157, 161
Franchise, 17, 20, 56, 96, 123
Franklin, 152, 161, 167
Frankpledge, 15, 122
Frater, 96, 98
Fraternity, 15, 26, 27
Frederick II, 29
Freeholder, 17
Freeman, 3, 11, 17, 21, 123
----, Robert, 134
French, 77, 78
Friar, 40
---- Minorite, 40
---- Ascelline, 40
---- Bartholomew, 42
----, Black, 102, 107
Frieze, 93
Froissart, 82
Fulmar, Lord Monk, 35
Furme (_form_), 25
Galley, 78, 116
Games, 130, 131
Gates, 18
----, Aldgate, Bridgegate, Ludgate, Newgate, 59, 60, 123
Gemot, 6, 10
Geneat (_mounted servant_), 10
Genoa, 29
Genoese, 38, 45, 82
Gerbert, 39
German, 29, 38, 122, 158
Gihald, 20, 21
Gild, 15-26, 120
----, Great, 15
----, Merchant, 15
Gildfeast, 22
Gildhall, 15, 19, 64, 65, 68
---- Great sale, 18
Glaive, 86, 94
Glastonbury, 27
Gloucester, 9, 21
Gold, 41, 44, 47
---- penny, 51
----, sheet, 51, 66, 110, 117
Goset, 42
Goths, 12
Gown, 24, 26, 27
Gradal, 34
Greeks, 29
Gregory de Rokesle, 51
Gresham, 94
Guernsey, 92
Guest house, 96
Gule (_August 1_), 75
Guthlac, St., 30
Habit, 27
Haco of Multon, 37
Halesley, Agnes, 100
Halifax, 156-8
Hall, 34-6, 47
----, Great, 57
----, King’s, 72
----, Road, 123
Hamburg, 156
Hansa League, 82, 92, 120, 122-5
Hardel, Ralph, 59
Hargreaves, 169
Harness, 85, 129
Hastings, 8
Hastings, Warren, 121
Haunsard, William, 78
Hawes, Nathaniel, 134
Hawkins, John, 113, 118
Haytime, 13, 14
Helmet, 32, 84-7
Hemp, 124, 126
Henry I, 48
---- II, 26, 28
---- III, 59, 66, 122
---- IV, 49, 82, 83, 120
---- V, 27
---- VI, 27
---- VII, 82, 83
---- VIII, 29, 82, 147, 153
---- de Ba, 57, 65
Herald, 85, 86
Herbert, Sir William, 101
Hereford Iter, 16, 21
Hervi, Herevy, Walter de, 72
Holinshed, 83
Holland, 92, 156
Holy Land, 57
Homage, 28, 31
Horn, 3, 4, 32
Hostel, 52, 53
Hundred, 31, 122
Hungerford, Robert, 93-5
Hunting, 131, 195
Huntingdon, 149
Husbandry, 87, 88
Hutton, Mrs. Thomas, 101
Ides, 64
Incendiary, 127
Independent, 155
Independence, 167
Indian, 109
Indies, 106, 112
----, West, 164
Ingulf, 29-40
Infirmary, 34, 36, 96-8
Innocent IV, Pope, 40
Inquest, 19
Ireland, 163
Iron, 18, 86, 87
Isabella of Spain, 106
Italian, 29, 52, 118
Ivory, 133
Jack, 93, 94
Jake of the North, 103
James I, 120, 153
Java, 46
Jehanghir, 120, 132
Jerusalem, 39
Jesus Lane, 101
Jew, 48, 57, 72, 73
John at Well, 25
---- de Gatesdene, 57
---- de Gyteorz, 59
Joinville, 82
Joppa, 38
Juana (_North Caico_), 108
Juliana of Weston, 37
Justice, 6
---- of the Peace, 82, 89
---- , Chief, 147
Karakoram, 46
Kelaat (_a robe of honour_), 121
Kent, 3
----, John, 24, 101
Kertell (_kirtle_), 24
Khan, 41
----, Great, 46
----, Kublai, 46
King, 1, 21
---- John, 66, 87
----, E. I. Co.’s relations with, 121
King’s beam, 130
---- income, 48
King’s mint, 48
Knight, 28, 32, 63, 64
Korsova, 42
Kymbalde, 102
Kyngeston, Sir Will de, 76
Kythay (_China_), 41, 45
Labourer, 82
Lake village, 27
Lambes, Andrew, 102
Lammas, 102
Lancaster, Thomas Earl of, 49, 78, 81, 174
Landless man, 7
Latins, 38, 46
Latten, 36
Law, 1, 2, 3-9
---- merchant, 16, 21
---- day, 19
Lead, 29, 33
Leather, 18
Leech (_doctor_), 5
Leeds, 155-8
Leet Court, 139
Leicester, Earl of, 64
Leiburne, Sir Roger de, 64
Lepers, 74
Letters Patent (_charters_), 16, 26
Levant, 46, 106
Level, 122, 147-50
Lewes, 8
Leys, 102
Libel of English Policy, 82
Library, 29, 35
Lime-burner, 97
Lincoln, 16, 22, 96
Lincolnshire, 101
Lincolnshire’s Inn, 125
Linen-armourers, 26
Lists, 86
Livery Companies, 16, 75, 130
Lollard, 153
Lombard, 48
London, 8, 31, 37, 48, 54, 124-9
Longbow, 93, 130
Longridge, 10
Lord, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 27, 83
Lord’s Anointed, 155
Los Reys, 115
Lot, 26
Lübeck, 92
Ludgate, 60, 75
Lycia, 38
Lynch John, 25
Lynne, King’s, 150
Madeira, 163
Magalanus, Strait of, 114
Malay, 121
Malluccos, 114
Man, 2, 3, 10, 132
Manchester, 175
Manor, 10
---- of Alsistum, 12, 63
---- of Gresham, 93
Mansion, 94, 126
Manumission, 11
Market, 7, 8, 67, 142, 145
----, Cloth, 156
Marle, 174
Mars, 36
Marshal, 63
---- of the Lists, 86
Martinmas, 90
Mary, Queen, 153
Mass, 32
Mass-priest, 7, 9
Massacre, 112
Mast (_nuts_), 4, 10
Master, 19, 20, 23
---- of Exchange, 51
---- worker, 50
Mastresse, 26, 29, 88
Mattheu, John, 25
Maundy Thursday, 80
Mayor, 15, 17, 19, 25, 27, 48, 55, 72, 123
Measure, 69, 73, 145
Melter, 50
Mendez, Diego, 106
Mentz (_Mainz_), 38
Merchant Adventurers, 16
---- Gild, 15, 48, 49, 122
Merchants, 17, 19, 25, 27, 48, 55, 72, 82, 120, 122, 123, 124, 149, 161
Mercia, 9
Mercury, 36
Meston, Walter de, 72
Michaelmas, 14, 17, 19
Middlesex, 48, 56
Midlent, 57
Mill, 18, 63
Mint, 2, 49
Misdoer, 18
Moal (_Mogul_), 40, 44, 120, 133
Molyns, 93-5
Monk, 29-40, 83, 96-8, 147
Montague, Sir Edward, 147
Moot, gemot, 6, 10, 49
Nabob, 161
Nadir, 36
Narva, 157
Naval, 82, 90, 107
Nave, 29
Nene, 148
Nets, 58, 68, 145
New England, 157, 164
Newgate, 59
New Weir, 67
Nicaragua, 116
Nicolas, 42
Noble, gold, 109
Nomad, 28, 42-5
Nombre de Dios, 118
Non-importation, 162
Norman, 28, 29-40, 54
Northampton, 150
North Caico, 108
North Sea, 119
Novice, 29
Oak, 30
Oath, 2, 7, 9, 19
---- of loyalty, 49, 61, 63, 123
Oferhyrnes (_fine_), 8
Oies (_hear!_), 87
Oratory, 30
Ore (_Danish coin_), 7
Orders, 83
Osed (_cloth_), 24
Otter, 104
Ox, 2, 5, 13, 42-5
Oxford, 37
----, Statues of, 60, 62, 63
Paganism, 2
Paita, 115
Palace, 47
Palm Sunday, 74
Panama, 115
Pannage (_right to feed swine_; _rent for same_), 4, 10
Papacy, 29
Paper, 44
Parish, 10, 132, 146, 179
Park, 101
Parliament, 49, 83, 89, 90, 94, 95, 96, 153
Partney, 97
Paston Letters, 83, 93
Patriarch, 38
Pawn, 99
Pease porridge, 136
Peeke, William, 25
Peer, 58
Pembroke, Earl of, 49
Penhale, Thomas, 25
Penticost, 57, 59, 60
Penzance, 99
Pepper, 53
Persia, 46
Persian, 134
---- Gulf, 121
Peru, 116
Pesage, 53
Pestilence, 127
Peterborough, 150
Petersburgh, 156
Petition, 89, 94, 164
Pewter, 24
Pezo (_peso_, _Spanish coin_, 3_s._ 11_d._); 114, 115
Philip and Mary, 124
Phillippinas (_Phillipines_), 116
Pickering, 81
Pilgrim, 22
Pilgrimage, 38
Pillory, 68
Pirate, 92
Piwelesdone, Thomas, 63
Plaintiff, 21
Plancher, 93, 138
Plea of the Crown, 65
Plumber, 33
Police, 101, 122, 140-6
Pollard, 52
Pollaxe, 93
Polo, Maffeo, 45
----, Marco, 29, 45-7
----, Nicolas, 45
Pomerania, 156
Pope Innocent IV., 40, 48, 75, 162
Popham, Chief Justice Sir John, 147
Populace, 60, 61, 72
Port (_town with market_), 7, 8
Portingall (_Portuguese_), 114, 118, 121, 132, 161
Portland, 92
Potell, 24
Pound, 142
Powte (_a young bird_), 147
Praedicante, 40
Precept, 59
Presbyterian, 155
Press, 91
Price, 49, 78, 79
Prior, 54
----, 7, 55-98
Prisage, 67
Prison, 45, 54, 98
Privilege, 83, 96, 123, 131, 137
Proclamation, 52, 53, 100, 108
Proctector, Lord, 100
Protestant, 153
Provence, 53
Prussia, 92
Psalm, 98
Public-house, 131
Pudding Lane, 126
Puritan, 153
Purpresture, 62, 141
Purveyance, 90
Pyramid, 44
Pyrse Plowman, 105
Quaker, 155
Quarrel, 92
Quarter, 36, 69
Queen, 61
---- Hithe, 54, 118
Quercy, 53, 62
Quibian, 112
Quilt, 17
Quire, 99
Raid, 28
Rank, 3, 22, 49
Rannie, Captain, 121, 132, 159
Raymond, Thomas, 121, 134-9
Rebel, 101
Reeve, 3
----, King’s, 6
----, Port, 7
Refectory, 24, 36, 39
Reformation, 153
Regrator, 17, 143
Remigius, 36
Rent, 5, 11, 31
----, Barley, 4
Rhetoric, 37
Rhubarb, 110
Richard I, 49
---- II, 27, 124, 126
----, Earl, 54, 59
---- de Rulos, 36
Riga, 156
Rising, 60-4, 83
Road, 173, 180
Robber, 92, 94, 114-9
Rochester, 8
Roe, Sir Thomas, 120, 132
Rogation Days, 8
Roger de Turkelby, 57
Roll, 10, 11, 96
----, Plea, 17, 29
----, King’s, 31
----, Winchester, 31
Roman, 1
---- road, 173
---- wall, 174
Roof, 29
----, palace, 47
Rood (_measure of land_), 32
---- (_sacred element_), 33
Roots, 83
Rose, John, 97
Rotation of crops, 83
Rowter, John, 24
Rubruquis, 29, 43-5
Russia, 42-5
Russian Company, 124
Rusticiano of Pisa, 45
Rutland, 102
Rydon, Robert, 24
Saint Bartholomew, 54
---- Botolph, 54
---- Edmund, Archbishop, 59
---- Edward, 56, 58
---- Giles, 54
---- Guthlac, 30, 37
---- John the Baptist, 25, 26
---- Margaret, 61
---- Martin, 55
---- Mary, 56
---- Michael, 22
---- Paul, 60
---- Sophia, 38
---- Stephen, 52
---- Thomas, 16
---- Valentine, 60
---- Valery, 39
Saints, All, 50
San Salvador, 108
Sanchez, Lord Raphael, 106, 107
Sanctuary, 28, 38
Sara, 46
Sartach, 42
Saxon 1-10, 28, 35, 48
Scavage (_right to display_), 58
Scot (_householders’ payment_), 26
Scraper, 31
Seal, seyelle, 19, 23, 26, 76
Sealy (_poor_), 103
Seam (_a measure of grain_), 12
Seford (_village near Battle_), 1
Seigneurage, 90
Seizin (_seisin_, _possession_), 72
Seld, 56, 65
Seres, 45
Serjeant, 17
----, Mayor’s, 27, 61, 64
Servant, 21, 26, 33, 42, 85
----, East India Company’s, 133, 178
Service, 5-11
----, Great, 76
Setsayne, 24
Seville, 111
Shaftesbury, 8
Sheep, 83, 99
Sheepshearing, 5, 14
Sheriff (_king’s officer over shire_), 19, 31
---- of London, 48, 54
---- wick, 58, 59, 60
Shiremoot, 15, 31
Shongavel (_tax on leather_), 19
Shops, 15, 56, 65, 129
Silk, 41
Silva, Amadis de, 114
Sister, 98
Six good men, 17
Skacha, John, 24
Skandleby, 97
Skinners, 27
---- Well, 120, 130
Sluys, 49, 77
Smer, smear, 18;
smergavel (_tax on smear_), 18
Smethefield (_Smithfield_), 58
Smiter of Irons, 50
Soc (_soke_), 17
---- men, 30
Soho, 128
Soldaia, Sudak (_a Crimean port_), 42, 46
Sophronius, 38
Soulcandle, 22
South Sea, 114
Steward, 12
Stiles, Captain, 134
Stock, Joint, 134
Stocks, 25, 139
Stone Age, 107
Stow, 16, 49, 78, 122-31
Stranger, 3, 6
Stremer (_streamer_), 26
Sturton, Lord, 101
Styrbrydge, 102
Suburb, 129
Sugar, 93
---- cane, 110, 126
Suit (_duty to attend court_), 12
---- (_petition_), 19
Sunday, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 56
Surat, 13
Surplice, 27
Surveyor of the Melting, 50
Sussex, 12
Swally Roads, 133
Sweden, 106
Swine, 1
Sword, 32, 75, 85, 86, 130, 132
Sylwes (_shelves_), 26
Sylver (_silver_), 26, 36, 37, 44, 47, 50, 66, 118
Symbol, 28
Synod of Greatanlea, 8
Syrians, 29, 38
Tabell (_table_), 25
Tabernacle, 40
Tailors’ Gild, 16, 23, 26
---- Hall, 25
Tallage (_tax on towns_), 72
Tally (_account stick_), 16, 21
Tartar, 40-5
Tavern, 97
Tailboys, 97
Temple, New, 27
Tenants, Customary, 10, 11, 12
Tent, 40, 130
Teredo worm, 113
Testament, 5, 41
Thames, 59, 67, 127
Thomas, Anthony, 148
---- of Canterbury, 16
Thomas of Winchelsea, 78
Tierce, 78
Tiffany (_Epiphany_), 75
Tigris, 46
Tithing, 31
Toll, 18
---- booth, 21, 72
Tom of Trumpington, 104
Tomlynson, 102
Tonnage and Poundage, 92
Torch, 22, 26, 27, 38, 130
Torres, Lycentiat, 114
Tourney (_tournament_), 82
Tovy, Michael, 50
Tower of London, 49, 54
----, Constable of the, 58, 61, 65, 67, 74
----, pound weight of the, 89, 127
Town, 28, 102
Trade, 1, 2, 4, 6
---- Union, 15
---- of gilds, 16-26
---- with the East, 38-47, 75, 121
---- Hansa, 122, 132, 161-6, 175-7
Transept, 29, 36
Treasure, 107
---- trove, 146
Treasurer, 48
Trebizond, 46
Tree, 4, 6
Tregaso, John, 25
Trestelle (_trestle_), 25
Trinity, 94
---- College, 102
Tron, 53, 54
Truce, 92
Tully, 37
Tun (_township or village_), 3
Turgemannus, 42
Tuthill Fields, 12
Undern (_9 a.m._), 19
Undertaker, 148
Upland, 30
Vacation, 126
Valiano, 116
Vane, Sir Harry, 135
Vannes, 92
Varnish, 47
Venus (_goddess of beauty_), 36
Veragua, 112
Verde, Cape, 114
Vermuden, Cornelius, 150
Vespers, 73
Vestiary (_vestry_), 35
Vestment, 35, 37
Viceroy, 115
Victual, 17, 44, 98, 142
View of frank pledge, 15
Vigil, 52, 54
Vill, 30, 33
Villein, 30
Vines, 4
Vineyard, 39
Vintner, 65
Viol, 118
Virgate (_60 acres_), 12
Virginia, 156, 161
Visitation, 83, 98
Vyel, Margery, 55
Wages, 82, 91
----, sea, 178
Wales, Henry, 123
Walsche, John, 24
Walton, 76
War, Civil, 150
---- of the Roses, 49, 83
----, Thirty Years’, 122
---- supplies, 124
Ward, 19, 60, 61, 129
Warden, 23, 24, 25, 26, 48, 49
---- of the Bridge, 58
---- of the Gates, 59, 65
Wareham, 8
Wash, 122
Watch, 120, 129
Wavere, Isobel, 98
Wax, 19, 22, 27, 32, 53, 78
Waynflete, John, 96
Wear (_weir_), 58, 67
Wed (_pledge_), 4
Weighhouse, 130
Welland, 148
Wer (_value_), 6
Werferth, 10
Wessex, 28, 31
Westchepe, 54, 58, 68
West Riding, 158
Westminster, 37, 54
----, Fair of, 56, 61, 67, 125
Whigs, 154
Whirlicotes, 126
Whitehall, 136
Wicker, 40
Wicket, 93
Wilferth, Bishop of Winchester, 10
William, Conqueror, 11, 29-31, 57
---- de Haverille, 56, 57
---- of Lincoln, 96
---- Spicer, 24
---- the Treasurer, 58
Wilts, 95
Winchester, 6, 8
----, Gild of, 15, 19, 28
Windac, 93
Windgoose Alley, 124
Wine, Prisage of, 65, 67
----, Assize of, 78
Wisbech, 148
Witan, 6
Witch, 5
Wite (_fine_), 3, 6, 7
Witness, 4, 7, 32
Woad, 18
Wolmer, 76
Woodchester, 10
Woodland, 1, 2, 10
Wool, 82
Worcester, 10
Wrestling, 130
Wudestoke (_Woodstock_), 56
Wulfhere, 10
Wycliffean, 153
Wyndlesore (_Windsor_), 57, 64
Wyrhta (_a measure of land_), 4
Wynwode, Master Secretary, 134
Wynyngton, Robert, 92, 120
Ya (_yes_), 61
Yantlet creek, 67
Yard, yardland (_30 acres_), 4
Yearbook, 21
Yeve and yeld, 26
Young, Arthur, 83
Ystleworth (_Isleworth_), 6
Zarate, Don Francisco de, 106, 116
Zealand, 92
Printed in Great Britain by Jarrold & Sons, Ltd., Norwich_
* * * * *
Transcriber’s note
All original spellings and hyphenations, including variations, were
retained except in the cases of the following apparent typographical
errors.
Page 38, “Christain” changed to “Christian.” (after the Christian
merchants had)
Page 58, “destroyd” changed to “destroyed.” (caused all wears to be
destroyed)
Page 84, “childen” changed to “children.” (enable children to grasp
these social changes)
Page 90, “peny” changed to “penny.” (grote, halfgrote, penny, halfpenny)
Page 115, “Pezes” changed to “Pezos.” (eighteen thousand Pezos of gold
and silver)
Page 142, “Henrouse” changed to “Henhouse.” (Ponds or Waters, Hennes
from Henhouse)
Page 153, “stablished” changed to “established.” ( was the established
National Church)
Page 167, “accomodation” changed to “accommodation.” (ending the war by
an accommodation)
In footnote 27, “Surburbs” changed to “Suburbs.” (Suburbs of Cambridge,
Trumpington above)
In the Index, the following entries were missing page numbers, which
have been added by the transcriber:
Russian Company
Basings, Thomas de
Saint Sophia
The following presumed errors in the original were not altered in this
text:
The heading “A.D. 1262” is repeated on pages 60 and 61.
The entry following “Prior” in the Index shows page numbers but no text.