are a class of Sudra devotees, who live by begging, and pretend to
powers of divination. They wear garments coloured with red ochre,
and allow the hair to grow unshorn. They often have settled abodes,
but itinerate. Many are married, and their descendants keep up the
sect, and follow the same calling." [145]
Sapiri.--A synonym of Relli.
Sappaliga.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that
"in some taluks of South Canara they are said to be identical with,
or a sub-caste of Ganiga." The Ganigas are a Canarese caste, of which
the traditional occupation is oil-pressing. In the Manual of the South
Canara district, it is recorded that "Sappaligs appear to be identical
with the Devadigas (temple musicians) in North Canara, though they
are regarded as distinct castes in South Canara. The Sappaligs are,
as the name sappal (noise) implies, a class of musicians in temples,
but a number of them are cultivators." Sappaliga is an occupational
term. The musicians among the Tulu Moger fishing caste are called
Sappaligas, in the same way that those Mogers who are engaged as
oil-pressers are called Ganigas, both being occupational names.
Sara (thread).--A gotra of Kurni.
Saragu (dried or withered leaves).--A sub-division of Valaiyan.
Sarangulu.--Recorded, in the Nellore district, as being sailors. The
name is doubtless equivalent to Serang, which has been defined [146]
as meaning "a native boatswain, or chief of a lascar crew; the skipper
of a small native vessel."
Sarattu (sacred thread).--A sub-division of Kanakkan, members of
which wear the sacred thread.
Sarayi (alcoholic liquor).--A sub-division of Balija.
Sarige (lace).--The name of a class of gold-lace makers in Mysore,
and of an exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Sastri.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Sastri (one learned in
the shastras) is described as "unrecognizable. The word is used as a
title by Smarta Brahmans in the Madras Presidency, but the persons
returning it came from Bombay, and were not Brahmans." Sastri is
recorded in my notes as a title of Devangas.
Satani.--The Satanis are described in the Madras Census Report,
1891, as "a class of temple servants very much like the Malis of
Bengal. The word Satani is a corrupt form of Sattadavan, which,
literally means one who does not wear (the sacred thread and tuft
of hair). For temple services Ramanuja classed Vaishnavites into
Sattinavan and Sattadavan. The former are invariably Brahmans,
and the latter Sudras. Hence Satani is the professional name given
to a group of the Vaishnava creed. It is sometimes stated that the
Satanis of the Madras Presidency are the disciples of the famous
Bengali reformer Chaitanya (15th century), from whom, they say, the
term Satani took its origin. But, so far as I can ascertain, this
supposition rests on no better foundation than the similarity in sound
of the two names, and it seems to me more than doubtful. There is no
evidence of Chaitanya having ever preached in the Dravidian country,
and the tenets of the Satanis of this Presidency differ widely from
those of the followers of Chaitanya. The former worship only Krishna,
while the latter venerate Vishnu in the form of Narayana also. The
Satanis, too, have as much reverence for Ramanuja as the followers of
Chaitanya have towards their guru, who is said to be an incarnation
of Krishna. With regard to their religion, it will suffice to say that
they are Tengalai Vaishnavites. They shave their heads completely, and
tie their lower cloth like a Brahman bachelor. In their ceremonies they
more or less follow the Brahmans, but the sacred thread is not worn
by them. Though the consumption of alcoholic liquor and animal food
is strictly prohibited, they practice both to a considerable extent on
all festive occasions, and at sradhs. Drinking and other excesses are
common. Some Satanis bury the dead, and others burn them. The principal
occupations of Satanis are making garlands, carrying the torches during
the god's procession, and sweeping the temple floor. They also make
umbrellas, flower baskets and boxes of palmyra leaves, and prepare
the sacred balls of white clay (for making the Vaishnavite sectarian
mark), and saffron powder. Their usual agnomen is Aiya."
In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Satanis are summed up as
being "a Telugu caste of temple servants supposed to have come
into existence in the time of the great Vaishnavite reformer Sri
Ramanujacharya (A.D. 1100). The principal endogamous sub-divisions
of this caste are (1) Ekakshari, (2) Chaturakshari, (3) Ashtakshari,
and (4) Kulasekhara. The Ekaksharis (eka, one, and akshara, syllable)
hope to get salvation by reciting the one mystic syllable Om; the
Chaturaksharis believe in the religious efficacy of the four syllables
Ra-ma-nu-ja; the Ashtaksharis hold that the recitation of the eight
syllables Om-na-mo-na-ra-ya-na-ya (Om! salutation to Narayana)
will ensure them eternal bliss; and the Kulasekharas, who wear the
sacred thread, claim to be the descendants of the Vaishnava saint
Kulasekhara Alvar, formerly a king of the Kerala country. The first
two sections make umbrellas, flower garlands, etc., and are also
priests to Balijas and other Sudra castes of the Vaishnava sects,
while the members of the other two have taken to temple service. In
their social and religious customs, all the sub-divisions closely
imitate the Tengalai Vaishnava Brahmans. The marriage of girls after
puberty, and the remarriage of widows, are strictly prohibited. Most
of them employ Brahman purohits, but latterly they have taken to
getting priests from their own caste. They attach no importance to
the Sanskrit Vedas, or to the ritual sanctioned therein, but revere
the sacred hymns of the twelve Vaishnava saints or Alvars, called
Nalayira Prabandham (book of the four thousand songs), which is in
Tamil. From this their purohits recite verses during marriages and
other ceremonies." At the census, 1901, Ramanuja was returned as
a sub-caste of Satani. In the Manual of the North Arcot district,
Mr. H. A. Stuart describes the Satanis as "a mixed religious sect,
recruited from time to time from other castes, excepting Paraiyans,
leather-workers, and Muhammadans. All the Satanis are Vaishnavites,
but principally revere Bashyakar (another name for Ramanuja), whom they
assert to have been an incarnation of Vishnu. The Satanis are almost
entirely confined to the large towns. Their legitimate occupations are
performing menial services in Vishnu temples, begging, tending flower
gardens, selling flower garlands, making fans, grinding sandalwood
into powder, and selling perfumes. They are the priests of some Sudra
castes, and in this character correspond to the Saivite Pandarams."
In the Census Report, 1871, the Satanis are described as being
"frequently religious mendicants, priests of inferior temples,
minstrels, sellers of flowers used as offerings, etc., and have
probably recruited their numbers by the admission into their ranks
of individuals who have been excommunicated from higher castes. As a
matter of fact, many prostitutes join this sect, which has a recognised
position among the Hindus. This can easily be done by the payment of
certain fees, and by eating in company with their co-religionists. And
they thus secure for themselves decent burial with the ceremonial
observances necessary to ensure rest to the soul."
In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, it is noted that Satanis are
also styled Khadri Vaishnavas, Sattadaval, Chatali, Kulasekhara,
and Sameraya. These names, however, seem to have pricked their
amour propre in the late census, and they took considerable pains
not only to cast them off, but also to enrol themselves as Prapanna
Vaishnavas, Nambi, Venkatapura Vaishnavas, etc. The idea of being
tabulated as Sudras was so hateful to them that, in a few places, the
enumerators, who had so noted down their caste according to precedent,
were prosecuted by them for defamation. The cases were of course thrown
out. Further, the Mysore Census Superintendent, 1901, writes that "the
sub-divisions of the Satanis are Khadri Vaishnavas, Natacharamurti,
Prathama Vaishnava, Sameraya or Samogi, Sankara, Suri, Sattadhava,
Telugu Satani, and Venkatapurada. Some are employed in agriculture,
but as a rule they are engaged in the service of Vishnu temples,
and are flower-gatherers, torch-bearers, and strolling minstrels."
The Satanis are also called Dasa Nambis. They are flesh-eaters,
but some have now become pure vegetarians. There are, for example,
at Srivilliputtur in the Tinnevelly district, a large number who have
abandoned a meat dietary. They are connected with the temple of Andal,
and supply flowers and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) leaves for worship,
carry torches before the goddess during processions, and watch the
gate of the temple during the night. The small income which they
derive from the temple is supplemented by the manufacture and sale of
palmyra leaf baskets, and umbrellas made from Pandanus leaves. As a
class, the Satanis are given to liquor, and all important ceremonial
occasions are made the excuse for copious potations. This weakness is
so well known that, in the north of the Presidency, the term Ramanuja
Matham is used to denote the consumption of meat and drink at death or
sradh ceremonies, just as Saivam signifies vegetarianism. The Satani
mendicant can be recognised by the peculiar flat gourd-shaped brass pot
and palm leaf fan which he carries. The Satanis claim to have sprung
from the sweat of Virat Purusha (lord of the universe). The following
legend is told, as accounting for the removal of the kudumi (tuft of
hair on the head), and wearing the cloth without a fold behind. In
the time of Ramanuja, the Satanis enjoyed certain privileges in the
temples, but, not satisfied with these, they claimed to take rank next
to Brahmans. This privilege was accorded, and, when flowers and other
things used in the worship of the god were to be distributed, they
were handed over to the Satanis. They, however, were unable to decide
who should be deputed to represent the community, each person decrying
the others as being of low caste. Ramanuja accordingly directed that
they should shave their heads, and wear their loin-cloths with a fold
in front only.
In addition to other occupations already noted, Satanis sell
turmeric, coloured powders, and sacred balls of white clay used by
Vaishnavites. Some act as priests to Balijas and Komatis, at whose
death ceremonies the presence of a Satani is essential. Immediately
after death, the Satani is summoned, and he puts sect marks on
the corpse. At the grave, cooked food is offered, and eaten by the
Satani and members of the family of the deceased. On the last day of
the death ceremonies (karmandiram), the Satani comes to the house
of the dead person late in the evening, bringing with him certain
idols, which are worshipped with offerings of cooked rice, flesh,
and liquor in jars. The food is distributed among those present,
and the liquor is doled out from a spoon called parikam, or a broom
dipped in the liquor, which is drunk as it drips therefrom.
Satani women dress just like Vaishnava Brahman women, from whom it
is difficult to distinguish them. In former days, the Satanis used to
observe a festival called ravikala (bodice) utchavam, which now goes
by the name of gandapodi (sandal powder) utchavam. The festival, as
originally carried out, was a very obscene rite. After the worship
of the god by throwing sandal powder, etc., the Satanis returned
home, and indulged in copious libations of liquor. The women threw
their bodices into vessel, and they were picked out at random by the
men. The woman whose bodice was thus secured became the partner of
the man for the day.
For the following note on Satanis in the Vizagapatam district, I am
indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Satani is said to be the shortened
form of Saththadavan, the uncovered man. They are prohibited from
covering three different parts of their bodies, viz., the head with
the usual tuft of hair, the body with the sacred thread, and the waist
with the customary strip of cloth. All devout Satanis shave their
heads completely. [There is a proverb "Tie a knot on the Satani's
tuft of hair, and on the ascetic's holy thread." The Satanis shave
the whole head, and the Sanyasis have no sacred thread.] [147] The
caste is divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu. The custom of
menarikam, according to which a man marries his maternal uncle's
daughter, is observed. The remarriage of widows and divorce are
not allowed. Attempts have been made by some members of the caste,
in other parts of the Madras Presidency, to connect themselves with
Chaitanya. But, so far as the Vizagapatam district is concerned,
this is repudiated. They are Ramanuja Vaishnavas of the Tenkalai
persuasion. Their gurus are known as Paravasthuvaru--a corruption of
Paravasu Deva, whose figure is on the vimana of the Srirangam temple,
and who must be visited before entering the principal sanctuary. They
live at Gumsur in Ganjam, and have Sadacharulu, or ever-devout
followers, who act as their agents in Vizagapatam. They brand the
shoulders of Satanis with the Vaishnavite emblems, the sankha and
chakra, and initiate them into the mysteries of the Vaishnava religion
by whispering into their ears the word Ramanuja. The Satani learns by
heart various songs in eulogy of Srirangam and its deity, by means
of which he earns his living. He rises in the early morning, and,
after a bath, adorns his forehead and body with the Vaishnavite namam,
ties round his clean-shaved head a string of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)
beads known as thirupavithram, puts a tulsi garland round his neck,
and takes a fan called gajakarnam, or elephant's ear, in his right
hand. In his left hand he carries a copper gourd-shaped vessel. He
is generally accompanied by another Satani similarly got up. When
begging, they sing the songs referred to above, and collect the rice
which is given to them in their vessels. At the end of their round
they return home, and their wives clean the rice, bow down before
it, and cook it. No portion of the rice obtained by begging should
be sold for money. The Satanis play an important part in the social
life of the Vaishnavites of the district, and are the gurus of some
of the cultivating and other classes. They preside at the final
death ceremonies of the non-Brahman Vaishnavite castes. They burn
their dead, and perform the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day)
death ceremonies.
Sathu.--A synonym, meaning a company of merchants or travellers,
of Perike and Janappan.
Saurashtra.--A synonym of the Patnulkarans, derived from the Saurashtra
country, whence they came southward. They also style themselves
Saurashtra Brahmans.
Savalaikkaran.--A Tamil name for fishermen, who fish in the
sea. Savalai or saval thadi is the flattened paddle used for rowing
boats. The Savalaikkarans are more akin to the Pallis or Vanniyans
than to the Sembadavans. Though a large number are agriculturists,
some play on the nagasaram (reed instrument). In the Tinnevelly
district, where Melakkarans are scarce, the temple musicians are either
Savalaikkarans or Panisavans. The agricultural Savalaikkarans use the
title Padayachi, and the musicians the title Annavi. Their marriages
last three days, and the milk-post is made of teak-wood. Widow
remarriage is prohibited. The dead are always buried. Socially they
are on a par with the Maravans, with whom they interdine.
Savali.--A synonym of Budubudike.
Savantiya.--A synonym of Samantiya.
Savara.--The Savaras, Sawaras, or Saoras, are an important
hill-tribe in Ganjam and Vizagapatam.The name is derived by
General Cunningham from the Scythian sagar, an axe, in reference
to the axe which they carry in their hands. In Sanskrit, sabara or
savara means a mountaineer, barbarian, or savage. The tribe has
been identified by various authorities with the Suari of Pliny
and Sabarai of Ptolemy. "Towards the Ganges," the latter writes,
"are the Sabarai, in whose country the diamond is found in great
abundance." This diamond-producing country is located by Cunningham
near Sambalpur in the Central Provinces. In one of his grants,
Nandivarma Pallavamalla, a Pallava king, claims to have released
the hostile king of the Sabaras, Udayana by name, and captured his
mirror-banner made of peacock's feathers. The Rev. T. Foulkes [148]
identifies the Sabaras of this copper-plate grant with the Savaras of
the eastern ghats. But Dr. E. Hultzsch, who has re-edited the grant,
[149] is of opinion that these Sabaras cannot be identified with
the Savaras. The Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig-veda makes the Savaras
the descendants of the sons of Visvamitra, who were cursed to become
impure by their father for an act of disobedience, while the Ramayana
describes them as having emanated from the body of Vasishta's cow to
fight against the sage Visvamitra.
The language of the Savaras is included by Mr. G. A. Grierson [150]
in the Munda family. It has, he writes, "been largely influenced by
Telugu, and is no longer an unmixed form of speech. It is most closely
related to Kharia and Juang, but in some characteristics differs from
them, and agrees with the various dialects of the language which has
in this (linguistic) survey been described under the denomination
of Kherwari."
The Savaras are described by Mr. F. Fawcett [151] as being much more
industrious than the Khonds. "Many a time," he writes, "have I tried
to find a place for an extra paddy (rice) field might be made, but
never with success. It is not too much to say that paddy is grown on
every available foot of arable ground, all the hill streams being
utilized for this purpose. From almost the very tops of the hills,
in fact from wherever the springs are, there are paddy fields; at the
top of every small area a few square yards, the front perpendicular
revetment [of large masses of stones] sometimes as large in area
as the area of the field; and larger and larger, down the hillside,
taking every advantage of every available foot of ground there are
fields below fields to the bottoms of the valleys. The Saoras show
remarkable engineering skill in constructing their paddy fields, and
I wish I could do it justice. They seem to construct them in the most
impossible places, and certainly at the expense of great labour. Yet,
with all their superior activity and industry, the Saoras are decidedly
physically inferior to the Khonds. It seems hard the Saoras should
not be allowed to reap the benefit of their industry, but must give
half of it to the parasitic Bissoyis and their retainers. The greater
part of the Saoras' hills have been denuded of forest owing to the
persistent hacking down of trees for the purpose of growing dry crops,
so much so that, in places, the hills look almost bare in the dry
weather. Nearly all the jungle (mostly sal, Shorea robusta) is cut
down every few years. When the Saoras want to work a piece of new
ground, where the jungle has been allowed to grow for a few years,
the trees are cut down, and, when dry, burned, and the ground is
grubbed up by the women with a kind of hoe. The hoe is used on the
steep hill sides, where the ground is very stony and rocky, and the
stumps of the felled trees are numerous, and the plough cannot be
used. In the paddy fields, or on any flat ground, they use ploughs
of lighter and simpler make than those used in the plains. They use
cattle for ploughing." It is noted by Mr. G. V. Ramamurti Pantulu,
in an article on the Savaras, that "in some cases the Bissoyi,
who was originally a feudatory chief under the authority of the
zemindar, and in other cases the zemindar claims a fixed rent in
kind or cash, or both. Subject to the rents payable to the Bissoyis,
the Savaras under them are said to exercise their right to sell or
mortgage their lands. Below the ghats, in the plains, the Savara has
lost his right, and the mustajars or the renters to whom the Savara
villages are farmed out take half of whatever crops are raised by the
Savaras." Mr. Ramamurti states further that a new-comer should obtain
the permission of the Gomongo (headman) and the Boya before he can
reclaim any jungle land, and that, at the time of sale or mortgage,
the village elders should be present, and partake of the flesh of the
pig sacrificed on the occasion. In some places, the Savaras are said to
be entirely in the power of Paidi settlers from the plains, who seize
their entire produce on the plea of debts contracted at a usurious
rate of interests. In recent years, some Savaras emigrated to Assam
to work in the tea-gardens. But emigration has now stopped by edict.
The sub-divisions among the Savaras, which, so far as I can gather,
are recognised, are as follows:--
A.--Hill Savaras.
(1) Savara, Jati Savara (Savaras par excellence), or Maliah
Savara. They regard themselves as superior to the other divisions. They
will eat the flesh of the buffalo, but not of the cow.
(2) Arsi, Arisi, or Lombo Lanjiya. Arsi means monkey, and Lombo
Lanjiya, indicating long-tailed, is the name by which members of this
section are called, in reference to the long piece of cloth, which
the males allow to hang down. The occupation is said to be weaving
the coarse cloths worn by members of the tribe, as well as agriculture.
(3) Luara or Muli. Workers in iron, who make arrow heads, and other
articles.
(4) Kindal. Basket-makers, who manufacture rough baskets for holding
grain.
(5) Jadu. Said to be a name among the Savaras for the hill country
beyond Kollakota and Puttasingi.
(6) Kumbi. Potters who make earthen pots. "These pots," Mr. Fawcett
writes, "are made in a few villages in the Saora hills. Earthen
vessels are used for cooking, or for hanging up in houses as fetishes
of ancestral spirits or certain deities."
B.--Savaras of the low country.
(7) Kapu (denoting cultivator), or Pallapu.
(8) Suddho (good).
It has been noted that the pure Savara tribes have restricted
themselves to the tracts of hill and jungle-covered valleys. But,
as the plains are approached, traces of amalgamation become apparent,
resulting in a hybrid race, whose appearance and manners differ but
little from those of the ordinary denizens of the low country. The
Kapu Savaras are said to retain many of the Savara customs, whereas
the Suddho Savaras have adopted the language and customs of the Oriya
castes. The Kapu section is sometimes called Kudunga or Baseng, and the
latter name is said by Mr. Ramamurti to be derived from the Savara word
basi, salt. It is, he states, applied to the plains below the ghats,
as, in the fairs held there, salt is purchased by the Savaras of the
hills, and the name is used to designate the Savaras living there. A
class name Kampu is referred to by Mr. Ramamurti, who says that the
name "implies that the Savaras of this class have adopted the customs
of the Hindu Kampus (Oriya for Kapu). Kudumba is another name by which
they are known, but it is reported that there is a sub-division of them
called by this name." He further refers to Bobbili and Bhima as the
names of distinct sub-divisions. Bobbili is a town in the Vizagapatam
district, and Bhima was the second of the five Pandava brothers.