some years ago by one Nilambur Thachara Kovil Mana Vikrama, alias
Elaya Tirumalpad, the plaintiff entered an objection to his being
said by the Collector to be of "a caste (Nayar), who are permitted
to eat fish and flesh, except of course beef." He stated in court
that he was "a Samantan by caste, and a Samantan is neither a
Brahman, nor a Kshatriya, nor a Vaisya, nor a Sudra." Samantan,
according to him, is a corruption of Samantran, which, he stated,
meant one who performs ceremonies without mantrams. He said that
his caste observes all the ceremonies that Brahmans do, but without
mantrams. And he gave the following as the main points in which his
caste differs from that of the Nayars. Brahmans can take their food
in the houses of members of his caste, while they cannot do so in
those of Nayars. At the performance of sradhs in his caste, Brahmans
are fed, while this is not done in the case of Nayars. Brahmans can
prepare water for the purpose of purification in his house, but not
in that of a Nayar. If a Nayar touches a Samantan, he has to bathe
in the same way as a Brahman would have to do. For the performance
of marriages and other ceremonies in his caste, Malabar Brahmans are
absolutely necessary. At marriages the tali is tied by Kshatriyas. A
Samantan has fourteen days' pollution, while a Nayar has fifteen. He
can only eat what a Brahman can eat. He added that he was of the same
caste as the Zamorin of Calicut. A number of witnesses, including the
author of the Keralavakhsha Kramam, were examined in support of his
assertions. It was noted by the District Judge that no documentary
evidence was produced, or reference to public records or works of
authority made in support of the theory as to the existence of a caste
of Samantas who are not Nayars, and are classed under Kshatriyas, and
above the Vaisyas. The following account is given by the author of the
Keralavakhsha Kramam of the origin of the Samantas. Some Kshatriyas
who, being afraid of Parasu Rama, were wandering in foreign parts,
and not observing caste rules, came to Malabar, visited Cheraman
Perumal, and asked for his protection. On this Cheraman Perumal,
with the sanction of the Brahmans, and in pursuance of the rules laid
down by the Maharajas who had preceded him, classed these people as
members of the Samantra caste. "That this book," the Judge observed,
"can be looked on as being in any way an authority on difficult and
obscure historical questions, or that the story can be classed as more
than a myth, there are no grounds for supposing." No linguistic work
of recognised authority was produced in support of the derivation of
the word Samantan from Samantran, meaning without mantrams.
One exhibit in the case above referred to was an extract from the
report of a commission appointed to inspect the state and condition
of the province of Malabar. It is dated 11th October, 1793, and in it
allusion is made to the 'Tichera Tiroopaar' who is described as a chief
Nayar of Nilambur in the southern division of the country. Evidence was
given to show that Tichera Tiroopaar is the Nilambur Tirumulpad. And,
in a letter from the Supervisor of Malabar, dated 15th November,
1793, allusion is made to Tichera Tiroopaar as a Nayar. Two extracts
from Buchanan's well-known work on Mysore, Canara and Malabar, were
also filed as exhibits. In one Buchanan relates what was told him
by the Brahmans of the history of 'Malayala'. Among other things,
he mentions that Cheraman Perumal, having come to the resolution of
retiring to Mecca, went to Calicut. "He was there met by a Nayar who
was a gallant chief, but who, having been absent at the division,
had obtained no share of his master's dominions. Cheraman Perumal
thereupon gave him his sword, and desired him to keep all that he
could conquer. From this person's sisters are descended the Tamuri
Rajahs or Zamorins." In the second extract, Buchanan sums up the
result of enquiries that he had made concerning the Zamorin and his
family. He states that the head of the family is the Tamuri Rajah,
called by Europeans the Zamorin, and adds: "The Tamuri pretends to be
of a higher rank than the Brahmans, and to be inferior only to the
invisible gods, a pretension that was acknowledged by his subjects,
but which is held as absurd and abominable by the Brahmans, by whom
he is only treated as a Sudra."
An important witness said that he knew the plaintiff, and that he was
a Sudra. He stated that he had lived for two years in the Zamorin's
kovilagom, and knew the customs of his family. According to him
there was no difference between his own caste customs and those of
the Zamorin. He said that Samantan means a petty chieftain, and drew
attention to the 'Sukra Niti,' edited by Dr. Oppert, where a Samantan
is said to be "he who gets annually a revenue of from one to three
lakhs karshom from his subjects without oppressing them." There are,
according to him, some Nayars who call themselves Samantas, and he
added that when, in 1887, the Collector of Malabar called for lists
of all stanom-holders [138] in the district, he examined these lists,
and found that some of the Nayar chiefs called themselves Samantan.
"A consideration of all the evidence," the Judge writes, "appears to me
to prove conclusively that the plaintiff is a Nayar by caste.... What
appears to me, from a consideration of the evidence, to be the safe
inference to draw is that the members of the plaintiff's family, and
also the descendants of certain other of the old Nayar chieftains,
have for some time called themselves, and been called by others,
Samantas, but that there is no distinctive caste of that name, and
that the plaintiff is, as the defendant has described him, a Nayar
by caste." [139]
The Samantans are summed up as follows in the Gazetteer of
Malabar. "Samantan is the generic name of the group of castes
forming the aristocracy of Malabar, and it includes the following
divisions:--Nambiyar, Unnitiri, Adiyodi, all belonging to North
Malabar; and Nedungadi, Vallodi, Eradi, and Tirumulpad, all belonging
to South Malabar. There are also Nayars with the title of Nambiyar
and Adiyodi. Nedungadi, Vallodi and Eradi, are territorial names
applied to the Samantans indigenous to Ernad, Walavanad, and Nedunganad
respectively; or perhaps it may be more correct to say that the tracts
in question take their names from the ruling classes, who formerly
bore sway there. Eradi is the caste to which belongs the Zamorin Raja
of Calicut. It is also the name of a section of Kiriyattil Nayars. The
Raja of Walavanad is a Vallodi. Tirumulpad is the title of a class of
Samantans, to which belong a number of petty chieftains, such as the
Karnamulpad of Manjeri and the Tirumulpad of Nilambur. The ladies
of this class are called Kolpads or Koilammahs. Many Nambiyars in
North Malabar claim to belong to the Samantan caste, but there is at
least reason to suppose that they are properly Nayars, and that the
claim to the higher rank is of recent date. That such recruitment is
going on is indicated by the difference between the number of persons
returned as Samantans in the censuses of 1901 and 1891 (4,351 and 1,225
respectively), which is far above the normal percentage of increase of
population. Kshatriyas wear the punul (thread); Samantans as a rule do
not. Most Kshatriyas eat with Brahmans, and have a pollution period of
eleven nights, indicating that their position in the caste hierarchy
lies between the Brahmans with ten days and the Ambalavasis proper
with twelve. Samantans as a rule observe fifteen days' pollution, and
may not eat with Brahmans. Both follow marumakkatayam (inheritance
in the female line), and their women as a rule have sambandham
(alliance) only with Brahmans or Kshatriyas. Those who belong to the
old Royal families are styled Raja or Tamburan (lord), their ladies
Tamburattis, and their houses Kovilagams or palaces. Some Samantans
have the caste titles of Kartavu and Kaimal. But it does not appear
that there are really any material differences between the various
classes of Samantans, other than purely social differences due to
their relative wealth and influence."
"Tradition," writes the Travancore Census Superintendent (1901),
"traces the Samantas to the prudent Kshatriyas, who cast off the holy
thread, to escape detection and slaughter by Parasu Rama. They are
believed to have then fled to uninhabited forests till they forgot
the Sandhyavandana prayers, and became in certain respects no better
than Sudras. Thus they came, it is said, to be called Amantrakas,
Samantrakas, Samantas, or having no mantra at all. Referring to
this, Mr. Stuart says [140] 'Neither philology, nor anything else,
supports this fable.' From the word Samantra, Samanta can, no doubt,
be conveniently derived, but, if they could not repeat mantras, they
should have been called Amantras and not Samantras. In the Kerala
Mahatmya we read that the Perumals appointed Samantas to rule over
portions of their kingdom. Taking the Sanskrit word Samanta, we may
understand it to mean a petty chief or ruler. It is supposed that
the Perumals who came to Malabar contracted matrimonial alliances
with high class Nayar women, and that the issue of such unions were
given chiefships over various extents of territories. Changes in
their manners and customs were, it is said, made subsequently, by way
of approximation to the Kshatriyas proper. Though the sacred thread,
and the Gayatri hymn were never taken up, less vital changes, as, for
instance, that of the wearing of the ornaments of the Kshatriya women,
or of consorting only with Nambutiri husbands, were adopted. Those who
lived in Ernat formed themselves by connections and alliances into
one large caste, and called themselves Eratis. Those who lived in
Valluvanat became Vallotis. The unification could not assume a more
cosmopolitan character as the several families rose to importance at
different times, and, in all probability, from different sections of
the Nayars."
In the Travancore Census Report (1901) the chief divisions of the
Samantas are said to be Atiyoti, Unyatiri, Pantala, Erati, Valloti,
and Netungati. "The Unyatiris," the Travancore Census Superintendent
writes further, "look upon themselves as a higher class than the rest
of the Samantas, as they have an Aryapattar to tie the tali of their
girls, the other five castes employing only Kshatriyas (Tirumulpats)
for that duty. The word Atiyoti has sometimes been derived from Atiyan,
a slave or vassal, the tradition being that the Kattanat Raja, having
once been ousted from his kingdom by the Zamorin of Calicut, sought
the assistance of the Raja of Chirakkal. The latter is believed
to have made the Kattanat Raja his vassal as a condition for his
territory being restored. The Unnittiris are not found in Travancore,
their place being taken by the Unyatiris, who do not differ from them
materially in any of their manners and customs. The word Unnittiri
means the venerable boy, and is merely a title of dignity. The word
Pantala comes from Bhandarattil, meaning 'in or belonging to the
royal treasury'. They appear to have been once the ruling chiefs of
small territories. Their women are known as Kovilammamar, i.e., the
ladies of palaces or ranis. The Erati, the Valloti, and Netungati are
British Malabar castes, and receive their names from the localities,
to which they may have been indigenous--Ernat, Valluvanat, and
Netunganat. The Zamorin of Calicut is an Erati by caste. [In 1792,
the Joint Commissioners wrote that 'the Cartinaad and Samoory
(the principal families in point of extent of dominion) are of the
Samanth or Euree (cowherd) caste.'] [141] Some of these Eratis, such
as the Raja of Nilambur, are called Tirumulpats. The only peculiarity
with these Tirumulpats is that they may tie the tali of their women,
and need not call other Tirumulpats for the purpose, as the rest of
the Samantas have to do. A title that several Samantas often take is
Kartavu (agent or doer), their females being called Koilpats, meaning
literally those who live in palaces. The Samantas of Manchery and
Amarampalam in Malabar are also called Tirumulpats. The Samantas of
Chuntampattai and Cherupulasseri are called Kartavus. Both Kartas and
Tirumulpats are called by the Sudra castes Tampuran or prince. The
caste government of the Samantas rests with the Namputiri Vaidikas,
and their priesthood is undertaken by the Namputiris. They follow
the marumakkathayam law of inheritance (through the female line), and
observe both the forms of marriage in vogue in the country, namely,
tali-kettu and sambandham. Women wear the three special ornaments of
the Kshatriyas, viz., the mittil or cherutali, entram, and kuzhal. The
chief of these is the mittil, which is used as the wedding ornament. It
has the appearance of Rama's parasu or battle-axe. The houses of
those Samantas, who are or were till recently rulers of territories,
are known as kottarams or palaces, while those of the commonalty are
merely called mathams, a name given to the houses of Brahmans not
indigenous to Malabar. The occupations, which the Samantas pursue, are
chiefly personal attendance on the male and female members of Royal
families. Others are landlords, and a few have taken to the learned
professions." In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, it is stated that
"Samantas and Ambalavasis do not interdine. At public feasts they
sit together for meals. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Nampidis, and most of
the Ambalavasi castes, do not take water from them. Birth and death
pollution last for eleven days."
In the Madras Civil List of titles and title-holders, the Zamorin
of Calicut, and the Valiya Rajas of Chirakkal, Kadattanad, Palghat,
and Waluvanad, are returned as Samantas.
Samanthi (Chrysanthemum indicum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba and
Togata. The flowers of the chrysanthemum are largely used for garlands,
etc., in temple worship.
Samantiya.--The Samantiyas are an Oriya caste of agricultural
labourers and firewood sellers. It has been suggested that the caste
name is derived from samantiba, which denotes sauntering to pick up
scattered things. The Samantiyas are one of the castes, whose touch
is supposed to convey pollution, and they consequently live apart in
separate quarters.
All the Samantiyas are said to belong to the nagasa (cobra) gotra. The
headman is called Behara, and he is assisted by an official called
Poricha. There is also a caste servant entitled Dogara. The caste
title is Podhano, which is also frequently given out as being the
name of the caste.
Samantiya women will not eat food prepared by Brahmans or members of
other castes, and they apparently object to cooking in open places
when travelling, and leave this work for the men to perform. An
Oriya Brahman purohit officiates at the marriage ceremonies, which,
with slight variations, conform to the standard Oriya type. The
marriage pandal (booth) is generally covered with cocoanut leaves and
leafy twigs of Eugenia Jambolana and Zizyphus Jujuba. Four lights,
and a vessel of water, are kept on the dais throughout the marriage
ceremonies. The knot, with which the cloths of the bride and bridegroom
are tied together, is untied on the evening of the bibha (wedding)
day, instead of on the seventh day as among many other castes.
Samanto.--A title of Jatapus, and other Oriya castes.
Samaya.--In his 'Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola' in Mysore,
Mr. Lewis Rice refers to the Samaya as "Dasaris or Vaishnava religious
mendicants, invested with authority as censors of morals. No religious
ceremony or marriage could be undertaken without gaining their consent
by the payment of fees, etc. Under the former Rajas the office was
farmed out in all the large towns, and credited in the public accounts
as samayachara. An important part of the profits arose either from the
sale of women accused of incontinency, or from fines imposed on them
for the same reason. The unfortunate women were popularly known as
Sarkar (Government) wives." "The rules of the system," Wilks writes,
[142] "varied according to the caste of the accused. Among Brahmans
and Komatis, females were not sold, but expelled from their caste,
and branded on the arm as prostitutes. They then paid to the ijardar
(or contractor) an annual sum as long as they lived, and, when
they died, all their property became his. Females of other Hindu
castes were sold without any compunction by the ijardar, unless some
relative stepped forward to satisfy his demand. These sales were not,
as might be supposed, conducted by stealth, nor confined to places
remote from general observation; for, in the large town of Bangalore,
under the very eyes of the European inhabitants, a large building
was appropriated to the accommodation of these unfortunate women,
and, so late as 1833, a distinct proclamation of the Commissioners
was necessary to enforce the abolition of this detestable traffic."
Samayamuvaru.--An itinerant class of mendicants attached to the
Sale caste. From a note by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, I gather that they
say that the name is an abbreviation of Ranasamayamuvaru, or men of
the day of battle. According to a legend, when Bhavana Rishi, the
patron saint of the caste, was challenged to battle by Kalavasina,
a rakshasa, these people were created, and, with their assistance,
the rakshasa was conquered. In recognition of their services, Bhavana
Rishi made the Sales maintain them. They wander from place to place in
single families, and, when they reach a halting-place, dress up, and
visit the house of the Pedda Senapati (headman), who feeds them for
the day, and gives a chit (note) showing the amount paid by him. At
their visits to Sale houses, Bhavana Rishi is praised. They marry in
the presence of, and with the aid of the Sales.
Samban.--Samban, meaning Samba or Siva, has been recorded as a
sub-division of Idaiyan and Paraiyan. At times of census, Sambuni Kapu
has been returned as the caste name by some Palle fishermen in Nellore.
Sambandham.--Sambandham, meaning literally connexion, is "the term
used by the Nayars [and other castes] of South Malabar to denote that a
man and woman are united by a quasi-matrimonial bond." [143] In Act IV
of 1896, Madras, sambandham is defined as "an alliance between a man
and a woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom
of the community, to which they belong, or either of them belongs,
cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife."
Same (millet: Panicum miliare).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Sami Puli (holy tiger).--An exogamous sept of Kallan.
Sammathi Makkal (hammer-men).--An exogamous section of Kallan.
Sammeraya.--A name for Telugu beggars employed as servants and
messengers by the heads of Lingayat mutts (religious institutions). It
is derived from samme, denoting confederacy or league, and denotes
those who are bound to the rules laid down by Lingayats.
Samolo.--A title of Doluva.
Sampige.--Sampige and Sampangi (champac: Michelia Champaca) have been
recorded as an exogamous sept of Kurni and Odde. Champac flowers are
used in the manufacture of temple garlands.
Samudra.--Samudra, Samudram, or Samudrala, meaning the ocean, has been
recorded as an exogamous sept of Telugu Brahmans, Koravas, Kurubas,
Balijas, and Malas. The equivalent Tamudri occurs as the title of
the Zamorin, who is the sea-king or ruler of Calicut.
Sani.--The Sanivallu, who are a Telugu dancing-girl caste, are
described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as women who have not entered
into matrimony, gain money by prostitution, and acting as dancers at
feasts. Sani is also a title of the Oriya Doluvas in Ganjam, who are
said to be descended from Puri Rajas by their concubines. The streets
occupied by Sanis are, in Ganjam, known as Sani vidhi. I have heard of
missionaries, who, in consequence of this name, insist on their wives
being addressed as Ammagaru instead of by the customary name Dorasani.
In a note on the Sanis of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway
writes as follows. "In this district, dancing-girls and prostitutes
are made up of six perfectly distinct castes, which are in danger
of being confused. These are the Sanis proper, Bogams, Dommara
Sanis, Turaka Sanis, Mangala Bogams, and Madiga Bogams. Of these,
the Bogams claim to be superior, and will not dance in the presence
of, or after a performance by any of the others. The Sanis do not
admit this claim, but they do not mind dancing after the Bogams, or
in their presence. All the other classes are admittedly inferior to
the Sanis and the Bogams. The Sanis would scorn to eat with any of
the other dancing castes. The Sani women are not exclusively devoted
to their traditional profession. Some of them marry male members
of the caste, and live respectably with them. The men do not, as
among the dancing castes of the south, assist in the dancing, or by
playing the accompaniments or forming a chorus, but are cultivators
and petty traders. Like the dancing-girls of the south, the Sanis
keep up their numbers by the adoption of girls of other castes. They
do service in the temples, but they are not required to be formally
dedicated or married to the god, as in the Tamil country. Those of
them who are to become prostitutes are usually married to a sword on
attaining puberty."
Sani, meaning apparently cow-dung, occurs as a sub-division of the
Tamil Agamudaiyans.
Sanjogi.--The Sanjogis are an Oriya class of religious mendicants,
who wear the sacred thread, and act as priests for Panos and other
lowly people. The name indicates connection, and that they are the
connecting link between ordinary people and those who have given up
earthly pleasures (Sanyasis). The Sanjogis follow the ordinary as
well as the ascetic life. Mr. G. Ramamurti Pantulu informs me that
they are believed to be the offspring of ascetics who have violated
their vow of celibacy, and women with whom they have lived. They make
and sell bead rosaries of the sacred tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum)
which are worn by various Oriya castes. Some are cultivators, while
others are beggars. A Sanjogi beggar goes about with a bell on the
thigh, and a coloured pot on the left shoulder. A few are employed
at Oriya maths (religious institutions), where it is their duty to
invite Bairagis and ascetics to a dinner party, and afterwards to
remove the leaf platters, and eat the food which is left.
Sankati (ragi or millet pudding).--An exogamous sept of Boya. Ragi
is the staple dietary of many of the lower classes, who cannot
afford rice.
Sanku.--Sanku, the conch or chank (Turbinella rapa) has been
recorded as a sub-division of Dasaris, Koppala Velamas, and
Paraiyans who act as conch-blowers at funerals, and as an exogamous
sept of Kuruba. Sankukatti, or those who tie the chank, occurs as a
sub-division of Idaiyan. The chank shell, which is regularly collected
by divers off Tuticorin in the Tinnevelly district, is highly prized by
Hindus, and used for offering libations, and as a musical instrument
at temple services, marriages, and other ceremonials. Vaishnavites
and Madhvas are branded with the emblems of the chank and chakram. The
rare right-handed chank shell is specially valued, and purchased for
large sums. A legend, recorded by Baldæus, runs to the effect that
"Garroude (Garuda) flew in all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna
the chianko or kinkhorn twisted to the right". Such a shell appears on
the coat-of-arms of the Raja of Cochin and on the coins of Travancore.
Sanno (little).--A sub-division of Bottada, Omanaito, Pentiya,
and Sondi.
Sanror.--A synonym of Shanans, who claim that Shanan is derived from
Sanror, meaning the learned or noble.
Santarasi.--An exogamous sept of Dandasi. The members thereof may
not use mats made of the sedge of this name.
Santha (a fair).--An exogamous sept of Devanga and Odde.
Santo.--A sub-division of Oriya Brahmans and Bhayipuos.
Sanyasi.--"A Sanyasi is literally a man who has forsaken all, and
who has renounced the world and leads a life of celibacy, devoting
himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to the study
of holy books. He is considered to have attained a state of exalted
piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste and
ceremony. His is the fourth Asrama or final stage of life recommended
for the three higher orders. ["Having performed religious acts in a
forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a Sanyasi,
for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection." [144]]
The number of Brahman Sanyasis is very small; they are chiefly the
Gurus or High Priests of the different sects. These are, as a rule,
men of learning, and heads of monasteries, where they have a number of
disciples under instruction and training for religious discussion. They
are supported entirely by endowments and the contributions of their
disciples. They undertake periodical tours for the purpose of receiving
the offerings of their followers. Since the Sanyasi is considered to
be above all sin, and to have acquired sufficient merit for salvation,
no sradha is performed by the children born to him before he became
an anchorite. [The skull of a Sanyasi is broken after death, as a
guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Cf. Gosayi.] The corpse
of a Sanyasi is buried, and never burnt, or thrown into the river.