Whether Poverty Is Required for Religious Perfection?
Objection 1: It would seem that poverty is not required for religious
perfection. For that which it is unlawful to do does not apparently
belong to the state of perfection. But it would seem to be unlawful
for a man to give up all he possesses; since the Apostle (2 Cor.
8:12) lays down the way in which the faithful are to give alms
saying: "If the will be forward, it is accepted according to that
which a man hath," i.e. "you should keep back what you need," and
afterwards he adds (2 Cor. 8:13): "For I mean not that others should
be eased, and you burthened," i.e. "with poverty," according to a
gloss. Moreover a gloss on 1 Tim. 6:8, "Having food, and wherewith to
be covered," says: "Though we brought nothing, and will carry nothing
away, we must not give up these temporal things altogether."
Therefore it seems that voluntary poverty is not requisite for
religious perfection.
Obj. 2: Further, whosoever exposes himself to danger sins. But he who
renounces all he has and embraces voluntary poverty exposes himself
to danger--not only spiritual, according to Prov. 30:9, "Lest perhaps
. . . being compelled by poverty, I should steal and forswear the
name of my God," and Ecclus. 27:1, "Through poverty many have
sinned"--but also corporal, for it is written (Eccles. 7:13): "As
wisdom is a defense, so money is a defense," and the Philosopher says
(Ethic. iv, 1) that "the waste of property appears to be a sort of
ruining of one's self, since thereby man lives." Therefore it would
seem that voluntary poverty is not requisite for the perfection of
religious life.
Obj. 3: Further, "Virtue observes the mean," as stated in _Ethic._
ii, 6. But he who renounces all by voluntary poverty seems to go to
the extreme rather than to observe the mean. Therefore he does not
act virtuously: and so this does not pertain to the perfection of
life.
Obj. 4: Further, the ultimate perfection of man consists in
happiness. Now riches conduce to happiness; for it is written
(Ecclus. 31:8): "Blessed is the rich man that is found without
blemish," and the Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 8) that "riches
contribute instrumentally to happiness." Therefore voluntary poverty
is not requisite for religious perfection.
Obj. 5: Further, the episcopal state is more perfect than the
religious state. But bishops may have property, as stated above (Q.
185, A. 6). Therefore religious may also.
Obj. 6: Further, almsgiving is a work most acceptable to God, and as
Chrysostom says (Hom. ix in Ep. ad Hebr.) "is a most effective remedy
in repentance." Now poverty excludes almsgiving. Therefore it would
seem that poverty does not pertain to religious perfection.
_On the contrary,_ Gregory says (Moral. viii, 26): "There are some of
the righteous who bracing themselves up to lay hold of the very
height of perfection, while they aim at higher objects within,
abandon all things without." Now, as stated above, (AA. 1, 2), it
belongs properly to religious to brace themselves up in order to lay
hold of the very height of perfection. Therefore it belongs to them
to abandon all outward things by voluntary poverty.
_I answer that,_ As stated above (A. 2), the religious state is an
exercise and a school for attaining to the perfection of charity. For
this it is necessary that a man wholly withdraw his affections from
worldly things; since Augustine says (Confess. x, 29), speaking to
God: "Too little doth he love Thee, who loves anything with Thee,
which he loveth not for Thee." Wherefore he says (QQ. lxxxiii, qu.
36) that "greater charity means less cupidity, perfect charity means
no cupidity." Now the possession of worldly things draws a man's mind
to the love of them: hence Augustine says (Ep. xxxi ad Paulin. et
Theras.) that "we are more firmly attached to earthly things when we
have them than when we desire them: since why did that young man go
away sad, save because he had great wealth? For it is one thing not
to wish to lay hold of what one has not, and another to renounce what
one already has; the former are rejected as foreign to us, the latter
are cut off as a limb." And Chrysostom says (Hom. lxiii in Matth.)
that "the possession of wealth kindles a greater flame and the desire
for it becomes stronger."
Hence it is that in the attainment of the perfection of charity the
first foundation is voluntary poverty, whereby a man lives without
property of his own, according to the saying of our Lord (Matt.
19:21), "If thou wilt be perfect, go, sell all [Vulg.: 'what'] thou
hast, and give to the poor . . . and come, follow Me."
Reply Obj. 1: As the gloss adds, "when the Apostle said this (namely
'not that you should be burthened,' i.e. with poverty)," he did not
mean that "it were better not to give: but he feared for the weak,
whom he admonished so to give as not to suffer privation." Hence in
like manner the other gloss means not that it is unlawful to renounce
all one's temporal goods, but that this is not required of necessity.
Wherefore Ambrose says (De Offic. i, 30): "Our Lord does not wish,"
namely does not command us "to pour out our wealth all at once, but
to dispense it; or perhaps to do as did Eliseus who slew his oxen,
and fed the poor with that which was his own so that no household
care might hold him back."
Reply Obj. 2: He who renounces all his possessions for Christ's sake
exposes himself to no danger, neither spiritual nor corporal. For
spiritual danger ensues from poverty when the latter is not
voluntary; because those who are unwillingly poor, through the desire
of money-getting, fall into many sins, according to 1 Tim. 6:9, "They
that will become rich, fall into temptation and into the snare of the
devil." This attachment is put away by those who embrace voluntary
poverty, but it gathers strength in those who have wealth, as stated
above. Again bodily danger does not threaten those who, intent on
following Christ, renounce all their possessions and entrust
themselves to divine providence. Hence Augustine says (De Serm. Dom.
in Monte ii, 17): "Those who seek first the kingdom of God and His
justice are not weighed down by anxiety lest they lack what is
necessary."
Reply Obj. 3: According to the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 6), the mean
of virtue is taken according to right reason, not according to the
quantity of a thing. Consequently whatever may be done in accordance
with right reason is not rendered sinful by the greatness of the
quantity, but all the more virtuous. It would, however, be against
right reason to throw away all one's possessions through
intemperance, or without any useful purpose; whereas it is in
accordance with right reason to renounce wealth in order to devote
oneself to the contemplation of wisdom. Even certain philosophers are
said to have done this; for Jerome says (Ep. xlviii ad Paulin.): "The
famous Theban, Crates, once a very wealthy man, when he was going to
Athens to study philosophy, cast away a large amount of gold; for he
considered that he could not possess both gold and virtue at the same
time." Much more therefore is it according to right reason for a man
to renounce all he has, in order perfectly to follow Christ.
Wherefore Jerome says (Ep. cxxv ad Rust. Monach.): "Poor thyself,
follow Christ poor."
Reply Obj. 4: Happiness or felicity is twofold. One is perfect, to
which we look forward in the life to come; the other is imperfect, in
respect of which some are said to be happy in this life. The
happiness of this life is twofold, one is according to the active
life, the other according to the contemplative life, as the
Philosopher asserts (Ethic. x, 7, 8). Now wealth conduces
instrumentally to the happiness of the active life which consists in
external actions, because as the Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 8) "we
do many things by friends, by riches, by political influence, as it
were by instruments." On the other hand, it does not conduce to the
happiness of the contemplative life, rather is it an obstacle
thereto, inasmuch as the anxiety it involves disturbs the quiet of
the soul, which is most necessary to one who contemplates. Hence it
is that the Philosopher asserts (Ethic. x, 8) that "for actions many
things are needed, but the contemplative man needs no such things,"
namely external goods, "for his operation; in fact they are obstacles
to his contemplation."
Man is directed to future happiness by charity; and since voluntary
poverty is an efficient exercise for the attaining of perfect
charity, it follows that it is of great avail in acquiring the
happiness of heaven. Wherefore our Lord said (Matt. 19:21): "Go, sell
all [Vulg.: 'what'] thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt
have treasure in heaven." Now riches once they are possessed are in
themselves of a nature to hinder the perfection of charity,
especially by enticing and distracting the mind. Hence it is written
(Matt. 13:22) that "the care of this world and the deceitfulness of
riches choketh up the word" of God, for as Gregory says (Hom. xv in
Ev.) by "preventing the good desire from entering into the heart,
they destroy life at its very outset." Consequently it is difficult
to safeguard charity amidst riches: wherefore our Lord said (Matt.
19:23) that "a rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of
heaven," which we must understand as referring to one who actually
has wealth, since He says that this is impossible for him who places
his affection in riches, according to the explanation of Chrysostom
(Hom. lxiii in Matth.), for He adds (Matt. 19:24): "It is easier for
a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to
enter into the kingdom of heaven." Hence it is not said simply that
the "rich man" is blessed, but "the rich man that is found without
blemish, and that hath not gone after gold," and this because he has
done a difficult thing, wherefore the text continues (Matt. 19:9):
"Who is he? and we will praise him; for he hath done wonderful things
in his life," namely by not loving riches though placed in the midst
of them.
Reply Obj. 5: The episcopal state is not directed to the attainment
of perfection, but rather to the effect that, in virtue of the
perfection which he already has, a man may govern others, by
administering not only spiritual but also temporal things. This
belongs to the active life, wherein many things occur that may be
done by means of wealth as an instrument, as stated (ad 4). Wherefore
it is not required of bishops, who make profession of governing
Christ's flock, that they have nothing of their own, whereas it is
required of religious who make profession of learning to obtain
perfection.
Reply Obj. 6: The renouncement of one's own wealth is compared to
almsgiving as the universal to the particular, and as the holocaust
to the sacrifice. Hence Gregory says (Hom. xx in Ezech.) that those
who assist "the needy with the things they possess, by their good
deeds offer sacrifice, since they offer up something to God and keep
back something for themselves; whereas those who keep nothing for
themselves offer a holocaust which is greater than a sacrifice."
Wherefore Jerome also says (Contra Vigilant.): "When you declare that
those do better who retain the use of their possessions, and dole out
the fruits of their possessions to the poor, it is not I but the Lord
Who answers you; If thou wilt be perfect," etc., and afterwards he
goes on to say: "This man whom you praise belongs to the second and
third degree, and we too commend him: provided we acknowledge the
first as to be preferred to the second and third." For this reason in
order to exclude the error of Vigilantius it is said (De Eccl. Dogm.
xxxviii): "It is a good thing to give away one's goods by dispensing
them to the poor: it is better to give them away once for all with
the intention of following the Lord, and, free of solicitude, to be
poor with Christ."
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