Spaniards, and a large auxiliary force of Mexicans. He met, however,
with strenuous opposition in his progress. The Indians were defeated
in several engagements, and the Spaniards remained masters of the
provinces in which these engagements took place. On entering the
kingdom of Quiche, they met with a more serious resistance than they
had received elsewhere. The invaders, nevertheless, on the 14th of
May, 1524, gained the victory in a great battle. Alvarado continued
his march to the capital of the king of Kachiquel, who had sent his
submission to Cortez. This prince received the stranger with courtesy,
and on the 29th of July, 1524, they laid the foundation of the ancient
city of Guatemala. The conquest of the remaining provinces followed
soon after, although many savage wilds have remained to the present
day very little explored or known by the conquerors.
[Illustration: Alvarado marching on Guatemala.]
_Independence of the Country._--The people of Guatemala declared
Guatemala independent on the 15th of September, 1821, and subsequently
it was incorporated with Mexico; but on the fall of Iturbide, it
disconnected itself from Mexico, and formed a separate independent
republic on the 4th of July, 1843, under the title of the "Federation
of Central America."
The constitution of the republic is modeled on that of the United
States. The president and vice-president are elected for four years. The
senate is composed of two members from each of the states, and the house
of representatives consists of deputies (one deputy for thirty thousand
inhabitants) elected by the people. They have abolished slavery in this
country, as well as in Mexico. No other religion than the Catholic is
tolerated in Guatemala, that being the established faith.
SOUTH AMERICA.
I. NEW GRENADA.
[Illustration: Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.]
EXTENT and Physical Features--Revolution of 1811--Formation of a
Constitution--Liberation of Quito--The Crisis of
1828--Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator--State
of the Government since the Separation.
_Extent and Physical Features._--New Grenada constitutes the
north-west portion of the South American continent, commencing with
the isthmus, and extending down on the western coast nine hundred and
eighty miles. It contains an area of three hundred and eighty thousand
square miles. The country is traversed by several chains of the Andes,
the basis of which consists of elevated plains or table-lands, which
are many thousand feet above the level of the sea. The soil is
extremely fertile, and produces in great richness and abundance the
various fruits and vegetables of the tropical regions. The climate is
hot and unhealthy in the low country on the coast, but on the
table-lands is found a perpetual spring.
_Revolution of_ 1811.--Soon after the invasion of Spain by the French
in 1808, a revolutionary spirit began to manifest itself in the
Spanish colonies of South America; and in the course of a few years,
all these colonies, one after another, declared themselves
independent, and formed republican constitutions, most of which took
that of the United States as a model, in a great measure. But the
people were ill-prepared for free governments. Their character,
education, and habits were little in accordance with republicanism.
New Grenada declared itself an independent state in 1811, and after a
long and severe struggle with the mother-country, expelled the
Spaniards from its territory. The memorable victory of Carabobo, in
1821, completed the overthrow of the Spanish authority. In this
battle, an army of six thousand royalists was nearly annihilated, only
four hundred men saving themselves by taking shelter in Porto Cavello.
The patriots were led on by Bolivar.[86] Previously to this period,
viz: in 1819, a union was decreed of New Grenada and Venezuela into
one republic, under the name of Columbia, the presidency of Quito
having subsequently succeeded to the confederacy.
_Formation of a Constitution._--On the 17th of July, 1821, a general
congress met at _Rosario de Cucuta_, to form a constitution, which was
completed and adopted on the 30th of August. The legislative power was
vested in a senate of thirty-six members, and in a chamber of deputies
of ninety-four members, and Simon Bolivar was elected president, and
Santander vice-president. Bolivar and Santander were both rëelected for
a second term, commencing on the 1st of January, 1827.
_Liberation of Quito._--In respect to the liberation of Quito, it
appears that the destruction of the royal army, on the plains of
Carabobo, enabled Bolivar to direct his whole attention to the
expulsion of the Spaniards from the southern provinces. The presidency
of Quito, afterwards formed into the republic of Equador, had, for
many years, been united with New Grenada. The army of the South, under
Sucre, was rëinforced by the troops which could be spared from other
situations, amounting to seven thousand men, and the president placed
himself at its head. Both parties having at length concentrated their
forces, the campaign and the fate of Quito were decided at the battle
fought at Pinchincha, about the 1st of June, 1822. Bolivar's usual
success still attended him, and the arms of the republic were again
crowned with a most signal victory.
_The Crisis of 1828._--In 1828, the country was threatened with
anarchy, and Bolivar took a decisive step--and daring as it was
decisive--in dissolving the Columbian congress on the 27th of August
of that year, and assuming absolute authority. To this movement he had
been encouraged by addresses from various municipal bodies, calling
upon him to put an end to the public disorders, by taking upon himself
that authority. He organized a new government to suit his own views,
and soon began to feel the consequences of the bold measure he had
adopted, in the conspiracies that were formed against him. The month
of September did not pass without an attempt to assassinate him. His
aid-de-camp was killed, but Bolivar's life was saved by the courage of
his officers. Generals Padilla and Santander were charged with this
plot, and by a special tribunal condemned to death. The former was
executed, but the punishment of Santander was commuted for
banishment. Several other individuals suffered death. The country was
more or less agitated by violent factions; many military leaders
aspired to the supreme command, and Bolivar's efforts to prevent
dissension incited insurrections. Many denounced him as a usurper and
tyrant. Venezuela claimed her independence, and Bolivar, after
endeavoring in vain to unite them, and create a spirit of harmony
under his rule, resigned all his authority to the congress at Bogota,
in 1830. He retired to Carthagena in deep depression of spirits, on
account of the calamities of his country.
_Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, or Equator._--On
the 4th of May, 1830, Senor Joachim Mosquera was elected president,
and General Domingo Caicedo, vice-president; but on the 4th of
September, Mosquera resigned, and Urdanata was appointed temporary
president until the arrival of Bolivar, whose return to power was
decreed by a meeting of soldiers and citizens; but Bolivar died at
Carthagena, December 17th, the same year. Venezuela again joined
Columbia for a short time; but in November, 1831, a new separation
took place, and since that time the late republic of Columbia has been
divided into three republics, viz: New Grenada, Venezuela, and
Equator, whose constitutions are similar to that of Columbia.
_State of the Government since the Separation._--Since this period,
there seems to have been a regularity in the appointment of the
highest officers of the government. In 1832, General Santander was
called to the presidency, whose term of office expired in 1836. The
next term of four years was filled by José Ignacio de Marquez. Of late
years--that is, for two successive terms--General Herran has been
president of New Grenada. Don Thomas C. Mosquera was elected president
of the republic in 1848.
FOOTNOTE:
[86] Simon Bolivar was a native of Caraccas, and belonged to one of
the most respectable and wealthy families of that city. By a series of
brilliant and arduous services, he established the liberty and
independence of his native country, and procured the well-deserved
title of The Liberator.
II. VENEZUELA.
[Illustration: First Discovery by the Spaniards--They approach the
Village built upon poles.]
NAME, Physical Features, &c.--Discovery--State of the Country
under the Spanish Dominion--Termination of the Spanish
Dominion--Condition since.
_Name, Physical Features, &c._--This republic formerly known by the
name of the Captain-generalship of Caraccas, as has been seen, once
formed a part of the republic of Columbia. When it was first brought
to the knowledge of the Spaniards, they called the place where they
landed Venezuela, from the common propensity to find a resemblance
between the objects they saw in America, and those that were familiar
to them at home. An Indian village, built upon piles, was the object
which suggested the name.
Venezuela includes a portion of the great chain of the Andes and a vast
plain, which constitutes the greater part of the surface. It is watered
by the Orinoco, one of the largest rivers of the world, which empties
into the Atlantic by about fifty mouths. The area of Venezuela measures
four hundred and fifty thousand square miles. In respect to its soil,
it has all the richness of the equatorial regions of the globe.
_Discovery._--The Spaniards, under Ojeda, first visited this country,
in 1499. They made some attempts to settle at the Indian village
before adverted to, which they observed built upon piles, in order to
raise the huts above the stagnant waters around. But their labors
were, for the most part, abortive. The reduction of the country was
brought about by soldiers of fortune, abounding in Germany in the
sixteenth century, who, through an arrangement of the Emperor Charles
V., were introduced into these wilds. These adventurers, neglecting
the purpose for which they were placed there, which was to cultivate
and improve the country, became impatient to amass riches, and
wandered from district to district in search of mines. In this
pursuit, they cruelly plundered the natives, and imposed on them
intolerable tasks. In a few years, the desolated province hardly
afforded them subsistence; and when they were removed by their
employers, the Spaniards again took possession of the country, and
soon renewed the horrors which it had already experienced. In
consequence of these, and other ravages at a later period, the whole
region lay waste for a long season. When new settlements were at
length commenced, they advanced so slowly, that this part of the
Spanish possessions remained comparatively unproductive, while the
other American colonies were in a thriving state.
_State of the Country under the Spanish Dominion._--As in the other
provinces held by Spain on this continent, the Spanish dominion
continued in this until the early part of the nineteenth century.
Venezuela was, however, agitated by the question of freedom and
independence, perhaps, earlier than was the fact elsewhere in Spanish
America. As early as in 1797, an attempt to raise the standard of
independence was made in Venezuela, so keenly did the country feel the
rapacity and oppression of the Spanish government. Two natives of
Caraccas were leaders in this revolt, which comprised a large number of
people distinguished for their talents, virtues, and wealth. The
insurrection, which had for its object the securing of the heads of
government, as hostages, till a treaty could be made with the court of
Spain for a redress of grievances was fixed for the 14th of July, 1797;
but was divulged by one of the conspirators on the evening previous. The
consequence was, that most of the conspirators were arrested, and
eventually put to death, but the leaders effected their escape.
The discontents of the people continued, and General Miranda, in
consequence of earnest entreaties expressed in letters from Venezuela,
to put himself at the head of an expedition for revolutionizing the
country, acceded to the proposal. Proceeding to the United States, he
collected there a body of a few hundred adventurers. With this force
he sailed from New York in 1806; but after arriving on the coast, he
was repulsed by the Spanish gun-boats; and it was only after
recruiting his forces at Trinidad, and aided under the convoy of a
British sloop, that he again proceeded to the place of destination.
He, however, effected nothing, as he found the people now luke-warm in
the cause of revolt, and abandoned the project, with the loss of
numbers of his men, who were taken and hanged.
_Termination of the Spanish Dominion._--The Spanish authority,
however, over the province, was drawing to an end. The great
revolution broke out in 1810. On the 19th of April, the
captain-general of Caraccas was deposed, and delegates were chosen by
the people to meet in a congress, for the purpose of forming a
government for Venezuela. The congress published a declaration of
independence on the 5th of July, 1811, and this example was followed
by the other provinces, which were afterwards united, as has already
been mentioned, in the republic of Columbia.
In so succinct an account as the present, the details of the revolution
cannot be given, nor would they be specially interesting or useful, from
their want of general and permanent results. It needs only to be stated,
that the patriots were generally successful till 1812, when they
experienced the terrible calamity of the loss of their city, Caraccas,
by an earthquake; a circumstance which wrought upon the superstitious
fears of the populace against the cause, and that Miranda, who had
returned to this country, in despair capitulated, was taken a prisoner,
and finally sent to Spain, where he died in a dungeon.
From this period, through a series of years, the contest maintained a
doubtful character; Bolivar defeating the royalists in several
battles, and they in their turn defeating him. The struggle between
the parties continued, until after the junction of New Grenada and
Venezuela, in 1819. The battle of Carabobo in 1820, as already related
in the history of the former state, put the finishing stroke to the
war in Venezuela. By the end of the year, the Spaniards were driven
from every part of the two provinces, except Puerto Cabello and Quito.
_Condition since the Overthrow of the Spanish Power._--The promise of
better times soon after the union of New Grenada and Venezuela, was
realized but in part. The country continued disturbed for years. In
the mean time, the republic of Columbia was formed, but, as already
shown, it was not destined to continue: its remembrance, however, will
always be connected with the heroic efforts of Bolivar.
The government of the country was administered from 1831 to 1835, by
General José Antonio Paez, the president, and 1835 to 1839, by Dr.
Vargas, also the president. Since the last-named period, the
government has been in the hands again of General Paez. From recent
accounts, however, it would seem that the country is in a disturbed
state, a war being carried on between Paez and Monagas--Paez
representing the constitutional party. Very lately, the latter
obtained a decided victory over Monagas.
III. EQUATOR, OR ECUADOR.
[Illustration: EQUADOR.]
NAME, Extent, Physical Character--Classes of the
Inhabitants--Subversion of the Spanish Authority--Condition
since the Spanish Rule.
_Name, Extent, &c._--This country derives its name from its situation,
it being intersected towards the north by the equator. It is one of
the three republics before spoken of, formed from the territory which,
before 1831, constituted the republic of Columbia, and it comprehends
the ancient kingdom or presidency of Quito, and formerly constituted a
part of the vice-royalty of New Grenada. It has an area of three
hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles, and a population of six
hundred and fifty thousand souls.
The western part of Ecuador is traversed from north to south by a
chain of the Andes, forming a double ridge of colossal summits; the
valley between which, constitutes a table-land of about twenty-five
miles in width, and from nine thousand to nine thousand five hundred
feet in height. Throughout this elevated valley, a perpetual spring is
enjoyed; while on the summits of the mountains the snows of winter
are always seen; and in the low country, along the coast, the heat is
excessive, and the climate is dangerous to foreigners. The whole
eastern portion of the state is traversed by the great River Amazon,
which forms a part of the southern boundary of the republic.
_Classes of the Inhabitants._--A small proportion only of the
inhabitants are whites, the Indians and mixed breeds composing the bulk
of the population. The civilized part of the population is confined to
the central valley and the western coast, the vast tracts of land to the
east of the mountains being occupied by independent and hostile tribes
of savages. The aborigines belonged to the Peruvian family, and numerous
remains of their architectural industry and skill are still visible.
_Subversion of the Spanish Authority._--Dissatisfaction with the
authority of the central junta of Spain, and generally the anxiety
which was felt for the fate of the colonies, in case the French should
prevail in the peninsula, led to the establishment of a junta in the
province of Quito in August, 1809, and the Marquis Selva Allegre was
chosen its president.
The viceroy of New Grenada, Don Amar, determined to destroy the junta;
"but, desirous of exhibiting an appearance of acting in conformity to
the will of the people, he convened the principal inhabitants of Santa
Fe de Bogota, for the purpose of consulting them on the subject,
believing that they would not have independence sufficient to oppose
his will. In this, however, he was disappointed. The assembly not only
approved of the proceedings at Quito, but declared that a similar body
ought to be formed in Santa Fe, for the security of the country, in
case Spain should finally be conquered by the French.
"The assembly, with the consent of the viceroy, was adjourned to meet
again on the 11th of September, 1809, the first meeting being on the
7th. Still thinking to intimidate the members, the viceroy required
that each one should give his vote in writing. When the assembly again
met, they were surprised to see that the guards of the palace were
doubled, and that great military preparations had been made, as if an
enemy was approaching the city. But even this seasonable display of
military force did not have the effect of overawing the assembly; its
debates were bold and spirited; and the voting by written ballots,
showing the opinions of the different members, tended to strengthen
their firmness and resolution, so that the friends of the measure were
rather increased than diminished.
"This occasion first brought into notice several individuals, who
afterwards became distinguished patriots; Camillo de Torres,
Gutierrez, Father Padilla, and Moreno, were among the number. Being at
length persuaded that he could not have the appearance of acting in
conformity to public opinion, he took immediate steps to suppress the
popular junta at Quito by an armed force; and the viceroy of Peru
having dispatched troops for the same object, the junta was obliged to
yield to a power which it had no means of resisting. And although an
assurance was given by the president of the _audiencia_ of Quito, that
no one should any way suffer on account of what had taken place; yet,
in violation of this plighted faith, a large number of those who had
belonged to, or supported the popular government, were arrested and
imprisoned, and on the 2d of August, the following year, they were all
massacred in prison, under pretence of revolt. The troops stationed in
the city, after massacring the prisoners, were suffered to plunder the
inhabitants; the scene of rapine and carnage was shocking, and
involved the property of thousands, and the lives of more than three
hundred persons, murdered in cold blood."
From this period, a long struggle ensued--most of the incidents are
common with those which have been narrated. The Spanish authority was
not entirely overthrown, until the splendid victory of Pinchincha, in
1822; soon after which, Quito was united with Columbia. This union
was dissolved in 1830, and Quito formed an independent state.
_Condition since the Spanish Rule._--One of the early presidents of the
republic was Vincente Rocafuerte; more lately, the executive department
has been filled by Juan Joseph Flores; according to the latest advices
from Ecuador, there are symptoms of a revolution. Numerous accusations
against the president have been brought forward. What events may grow
out of it, time will decide. The instability of political affairs in
that quarter of the world has long been remarked; nor perhaps will it
soon cease to be a feature of the governments of South America.
[Illustration]
IV. PERU.
[Illustration: Manco Capac and his Wife appearing on the borders of
Lake Titiaca.]
LOCALITY, Extent, and Physical Character--Condition at the time of
its Invasion by the Spaniards--Conquest by Pizarro--Condition
of the Country after the Conquest--Insurrection--Revolutionary
Movement--Declaration of Independence--Condition of the
Country after the Expulsion of the Spaniards.
_Locality, Extent, &c._--Peru lies south of Equator along the western
shore of the continent, nearly central between the isthmus and the
Straits of Magellan, having an area of five hundred thousand square
miles, and a population of one million eight hundred thousand. The
country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, from north to
south, the principal chain lying nearly parallel to the coast. There
exists a great variety as to the surface, soil, and climate of Peru,
portions of the country being sterile, with no rains, and only dews;
and others very fertile, abounding in impenetrable forests of gigantic
trees, and producing the rich fruits and vegetables of tropical
regions. The traveler, according to his elevation, meets here with
eternal snows or perpetual summer, or the most excessive and deadly
heat. The gold and silver wealth of Peru has a world-wide celebrity.
The silver mines of Potosi are perhaps the richest known, unless the
recent golden treasures of California shall be found to exceed them.
Like the latter, the former were first made known by accident. An
Indian, by the name of Hualpa, one day following some wild animals up
the mountain, laid hold of a shrub or tree to aid his ascent; which,
giving way, revealed a mass of silver ore, which lay so near the
surface as to cling to the roots. For some time Hualpa kept his
discovery a secret, but his rapid increase of wealth attracting the
notice of a countryman, he revealed it to him. The friends, however,
soon quarreled; upon which, the secret was divulged.
[Illustration: Hualpa discovers the Mine of Potosi.]