prevailing disaffection had reached it, and was producing its fruits
of weakness and division. The forces collected for its defence were
wholly inadequate to the object.
In this juncture of affairs, Hidalgo might doubtless have seized on
the capital; indeed, many were anxiously awaiting his approach, as its
deliverer. After an anxious night, great was the surprise the next
morning, on the part of the people, when they saw the assailants
retiring. The cause of Hidalgo's strange retrograde movement has never
been satisfactorily ascertained.
From this period, sad reverses awaited him. When he had arrived at
Aculco, on his retreat, he was attacked, on the 7th of November, by
Calleja, who, with the main part of the Spanish army, had previously
reached the capital. Of the royal troops, six thousand were disciplined
veterans, and their imposing appearance alone was sufficient to frighten
Hidalgo's Indians. These fled at the first fire; the regular troops
being thus left unsupported, were unable long to stand the attack.
Pursued by the royalists with great fury, the slaughter became immense;
ten thousand of the independents, in the official report of Calleja,
were said to have been killed, wounded, and taken prisoners. Hidalgo,
having retreated to Guanaxuato, was, on the 29th of November, attacked
again by Calleja, and driven from his position, with the loss of
twenty-five pieces of cannon and several valuable officers.
"Hidalgo retreated to Valladolid, where he caused eighty Europeans to
be beheaded, and proceeded thence to Guadalaxara; he made another
triumphal entrance into that city, on the 24th of November. Here he
committed another act of cold-blooded massacre, which has left a foul
blot on his name. All the Europeans having been thrown into prison,
Hidalgo determined to destroy them. Without trial or previous
examination, they were taken out in small parties, and conducted under
the veil of night to retired parts of the neighboring mountains, where
between seven and eight hundred were butchered in secret. This
remorseless act of barbarity, besides being wholly unjustifiable by
the rules of war, was impolitic in the extreme. It prevented many
respectable Creoles from joining the insurgents; and as it drove the
Spaniards to despair, it furnished them at the same time with an
excuse for any atrocities which they chose to commit."
Hidalgo continued to retreat towards Saltillo. By this time, his
forces were reduced to about four thousand men; and arriving at
Saltillo, a distance of nearly five hundred miles from the Mexican
capital, he left the army, and with several officers sought the
frontiers of the United States, with the intention of purchasing arms
and military stores. He was destined, however, to be the victim of
treachery. One of his subordinates in office had the baseness to
arrest him, for the purpose of securing a pardon for himself. The
leader, unsuspicious of danger when attacked, was easily overcome and
taken. It was on the 21st of March, 1811, that Hidalgo and his
followers were made prisoners. Many of them were executed on the field
of action the next day. Hidalgo and a few others were not put to death
until the 27th of July following.
_Continuation of the War by the Patriot Chiefs._--The revolution had
evidently taken deep hold on the minds of the people. The fate of
Hidalgo did not dispirit the chiefs of the patriot cause. The prominent
of these, Rayon, a lawyer, Villagran, and Morelos, a priest, now assumed
the responsibility of directing the storm. The principal of these was
Morelos, and to an account of his movements we confine ourselves.
From small beginnings Morelos possessed, at length, an efficient army,
and was obeyed throughout nearly the entire southern coast of Mexico.
On taking the field, town after town was taken, and victory succeeded
to victory. His course, moreover, was marked by the humane treatment
of his prisoners in every instance. Morelos had now great reason to
hope for success in his noble enterprise, while the inhabitants were
ready to aid him in every possible way. In this state, it was deemed
necessary to oppose to him the greatest captain of the governmental
forces, and Calleja was summoned to defend the capital.
Calleja, soon after his arrival at Mexico, attacked the army of
Morelos at Quantla; but after a severe action, he was repulsed, and
obliged to retreat, leaving five hundred dead on the field of battle.
But what he could not effect by storm, he now attempted to accomplish
by siege. For seventy-five days he continued to besiege Morelos, who
was determined, if possible, to hold out; but all hopes of obtaining
provisions being, at length, extinguished, Morelos resolved to
evacuate the place, which he effected on the night of the 2d of May,
1811. Most of the inhabitants marched out with the army. When Calleja
discovered the movement, he commenced a spirited attack upon them, and
four thousand of the patriots were slain. It was during the events
attending the siege of Quantla, that Victoria and Bravo, both young
men, began to distinguish themselves in the cause of independence.
Guerréro likewise, in the successful defence of a neighboring town,
began his long and perilous career.
Following the affair at Quantla, Morelos engaged in numerous encounters
with divisions of the enemy, and, for a time, was victorious; but he
was at length taken, and doomed to execution. Just prior to his death,
he uttered the following simple, but affecting prayer: 'Lord, if I have
done well, thou knowest it; if ill, to thy infinite mercy I commend my
soul.' He then bound a handkerchief over his eyes, gave the signal to
the soldiers to fire, and met death with as much composure as he had
ever shown when facing it on the field of battle.
_Decline of the Revolution._--After the death of Morelos, no leader
was found whose influence was sufficient to combine the efforts of the
insurgents, and secure harmony among the chiefs. The cause of the
revolution, therefore, declined apace. Teran, Guerréro, Rayon, Torrés,
Bravo, and Victoria, commanding in different parts of the country,
were mostly, in the course of two or three years, overcome, and taken
prisoners. The story of Victoria is one of uncommon interest. The
province of Vera Cruz was the field of his operations, and it was not
until after a struggle of two years, that this formidable insurgent
chief was disarmed of his power to harass the viceroy, Apadoca. He
lost many of his followers in battle, others deserted him, and he was
left, in the end, literally alone. No threats and no promises of
preferment could induce him to offer his submission to the government.
Unattended by a single friend, he sought the solitude and security of
the mountains, and was lost for several years to his country.
_Invasion of Mexico by Mina._--In the year 1817, when most of the
insurgent forces were dispersed, an enterprise of singular boldness
was attempted in Mexico, by a foreigner named Don Xavier Mina. His
more specific object was to establish the independence of Mexico on a
constitutional basis, without an entire severance of the country from
Spain. Mina was a nephew of the celebrated general of that name, who
so long resisted the French and Spanish royalists in his native
country. In May, 1816, he sailed from Liverpool with a small
expedition, having a few thousand stand of arms, and also equipages
for a body of infantry and cavalry, and arrived in the United States
in June. Here he procured the service of several officers, an addition
of muskets, and some pecuniary aid from Baltimore and New Orleans.
Sailing for the Gulf of Mexico, he did not reach Galveston until
November, where he was joined by Aury, the commander of the privateers
in that quarter, and by some of the inhabitants; but as it was too
late for operations, he passed the winter in Galveston.
Early in the following spring, Mina entered upon the prosecution of
his design. But the time chosen by him was unpropitious. The
revolutionary cause had fallen to a low point. Mina failed, was taken,
and shot. The power of the insurgents was broken, and most of their
eminent men were either killed in battle, or shot as traitors, or
imprisoned. But the principles of independence were daily gaining
ground in the country at large, and the spirit of the revolutionists,
though checked for a time, was not subdued, as was proved by
subsequent events in Mexican history.
_Revolution under Iturbide._--The unfortunate termination of the
expedition under Mina, was by no means a termination of the difficulties
in which Mexico had long been involved. The next person who largely
figured in her affairs was Augustin Iturbide, who had risen, in 1816, by
his valor and capacity, to the command of what was called the northern
army. In 1820, the cortes having ordered the sale of the church
property, the viceroy, Apadoca, refused to acknowledge the cortes; he
employed Iturbide to reduce Guerréro, one of the patriot chiefs; but,
instead of this, he formed a junction with that chief, and on February
24th, 1821, he proclaimed the independence of his country. Soon after,
he took possession of the capital, and, in 1822, May 18th, he usurped
the crown, through the subserviency of his troops. He was proclaimed
emperor, under the name of Augustin the First.
The next morning congress was convened in extraordinary session. His
election to the imperial dignity was proposed and discussed in his
presence, and was voted for by a few more than one-half the whole body
of delegates. Meanwhile, the friends of liberal institutions, overawed
by the power of the usurper, fled to their wonted retreats, until a
fitting season should arrive for acting with union and efficiency. The
acts of oppression of Iturbide, from this time, continued to increase.
He ordered the dissolution of congress, had recourse to forced loans,
with other usurpations.
While affairs were in this posture, Santa Anna, who at this time was
commanding at Vera Cruz, was suddenly dismissed. Surprised at
treatment thus harsh, and as he deemed unjust, Santa Anna excited the
garrison to revolt, for the purpose of dethroning Iturbide, and
establishing a republican government. While these matters were in
progress, Victoria, who for some years had lived in obscurity, made
his appearance, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the
insurgents. In February, 1823, Echavarri, the commander of the
imperialists, joined forces with Victoria and Santa Anna.
Defection now became general among the officers of the army; in
consequence of which, Iturbide was obliged to surrender his power.
Hastily assembling at Mexico the dispersed members of congress, on the
19th of March, 1823, he tendered them his abdication of the crown.
Congress allowed him a yearly pension of twenty-five thousand dollars,
on condition of his leaving the Mexican territory for ever. On the
11th of May, he embarked for Leghorn.
_Adoption of the Federal Constitution._--A provisionary government was
immediately established, and a triplicate executive appointed,
consisting of Generals Victoria, Bravo, and Negrete. Measures were at
once adopted for the convocation of a new congress, which, upon
assembling, entered on the arduous plan of framing a constitution of
government. This they did on the federative plan, and on the 2d of
February, it was sworn to in the capital, amidst the rejoicings and
acclamations of the people. The government soon went into operation, and
Victoria was chosen president of the republic, and Bravo vice-president.
Contrary to the decree of perpetual banishment against him, Iturbide
returned to Mexico in disguise; but, being discovered, he was shot.
This took place on the 10th of July, 1824. Several disturbances had
occurred, partly on his account, during his absence; but the republic
was now relieved from one great source of disquietude.
The general provisions of the new constitution, as to the distribution
of the powers of government into their parts, were the same as those
of the constitution of the United States; but they differed as to the
right of trial by jury, which was omitted, and the Roman Catholic
religion was alone to be tolerated in Mexico.
_Prosperity of the years 1825 and 1826._--The new government was now
acceptable to the Mexican people. The administration of Victoria was
popular, and measures were maturing for cementing the union of states,
and for consolidating the public liberty. Much was done, also, to
stimulate the industry of the people. The prospect of public peace,
order, and liberty in Mexico, was such as to attract thousands of
emigrants from the United States and from Europe. Wealth, and comfort,
and honors, were held out as a reward of virtue and enterprise. But
the pleasant vision soon vanished, and this ill-fated country was
again the theatre of turmoil and contention.
_Election of a President in 1828._--Victoria's term now expiring, a
new president was to be chosen; among the prominent candidates for
which office were General Guerréro, and Gomez Pedraza, then secretary
of war. The canvass resulted in the choice of Pedraza; but the friends
of Guerréro soon set up a claim in his favor, alleging that, in taking
the votes, he was defeated solely by fraud.
At the session of the new congress in January, 1829, the house of
representatives proclaimed Vincent Guerréro to be duly elected
president, on the constitutional ground that he had the majority of
the _legal_ votes. General Bustamente, who had been supported by the
partisans of Pedraza, was declared to be duly elected vice-president;
and in organizing the new administration, Zavala, then governor of the
state of Mexico, was appointed secretary of state, and General Santa
Anna, secretary of war.
_Usurpation of Bustamente._--Soon after the declaration of congress in
favor of the election of Guerréro, that body passed a resolution
investing him with dictatorial powers, in anticipation of an invasion
by Spain, to recover possession of Mexico. The Spanish army of four
thousand five hundred men, sent for that purpose, were defeated, and
compelled to retire. The continuance of his extraordinary power was
now no longer necessary; yet Guerréro continued to exercise it, and in
a manner and for purposes not contemplated. This brought upon him the
censure of Bustamente and others, who saw in his measures a desire to
perpetuate his dictatorship. Yet, on the 11th of December, Guerréro
resigned his dictatorship into the hands of congress, and retired to
his estate. Bustamente immediately assumed or usurped the presidency,
pretending that he was actuated solely by a desire to restore the
constitution, which had been violated in the elevation of Guerréro to
the presidency. The latter now fled to the mountains, but
circumstances, in the spring of 1830, seeming to favor an attempt to
regain his lost authority, he embarked in the enterprise, and the
whole country was again in arms. He was, however, unsuccessful, and
falling into the hands of his opponents, he was condemned as a
traitor, and executed in February, 1831.
_Defence of the Federal Constitution._--The measures of Bustamente
directly tended towards the establishment of a strong central
government, as those of Guerréro had been in favor of a perpetual
dictatorship. On the ground of Bustamente's procedure in his
government, Santa Anna, in 1832, placed himself at the head of the
garrison of Vera Cruz, and, as a pretext for revolt, demanded a
rëorganization of the ministry. His declarations were in favor of the
constitution and the laws, and consequently rallied the friends of the
federal system to his support. War soon began to rage, and it was not
until nearly a year, that an accommodation was made, when it was
agreed that Pedraza should be restored to the government. He was
accordingly restored, and by means of his favorable notice of Santa
Anna, now his friend, but formerly his enemy, he exerted such an
influence, that the latter was elected his successor in 1833. Gomez
Farias was chosen vice-president. The federal system was now
apparently rëestablished under the new administration.
_Proceedings of Santa Anna--a Central Republic Established._--From the
first moment of Santa Anna's accession to the presidency, he was
inflamed with a desire for dictatorial power. He seized an opportunity
to desert the federal republican party, and joined the centralist
faction. By a military order, he dissolved the constitutional congress
in May, 1834, and in January, 1835, he assembled a revolutionary and
aristocratic congress, which deposed the vice-president Farias, and
elected General Barragan, a leading centralist, in his place. About
the same time, through the influence of Santa Anna, the constitution
of 1824 was abolished by congress, as were also all the state
constitutions and state authorities, and a central republic was
established in its place. So violent a measure proved unacceptable to
several of the states. Zacatecas submitted, and declared for
centralism. "The torch of liberty was now extinguished in the
republic, and military despotism fully established." No! it was not
quite extinguished. One Mexican territory, Texas, with her by fifty
thousand bold inhabitants, chiefly emigrants from the United States,
was ready to resist the dictates of a usurper and a despot. Santa
Anna felt at once the importance of reducing Texas, and of defeating
the Americans or driving them from the country. He made the attempt
with an army of eight thousand men, but when he supposed that his
object had been attained, he was suddenly attacked at San Jacinto, by
General Houston, who routed his troops, and took him prisoner. This
occurred on the 21st of April, 1836. After being a prisoner several
months, he was permitted to return to Mexico, where, in the mean time,
his authority as president had been superseded, and where he passed
several years in obscurity, on his own hacienda (farm).
[Illustration: Texans Flying to Arms.]
_Attempts against the Central Government._--Two successive attempts
were made against the central government during the years 1837 and
1838, under Bustamente, who had been chosen president after his return
from France. The first consisted of declarations in favor of
federation, and of Gomez Farias for the presidency; but the
disturbance was easily quelled. The other attempt was made by Mexia
in 1838, who had once before raised the standard of rebellion against
the central government. He was opposed by Santa Anna, who had issued
from his retirement, and who hoped, by rendering some service to the
government, to wipe off the disgrace which attached to his name. Mexia
was unfortunate, and, being taken prisoner, was almost instantly shot.
Santa Anna appeared again on the stage, in resisting an attack from an
invading French expedition against the town of Vera Cruz.
An insurrection commenced with the federalist party, in the month of
July, 1840, headed by General Urrea and Gomez Farias, and, for a time,
the prospect was favorable for another reform of the constitution.
_Revolution of 1841._--But revolutions were not at an end in Mexico. An
insurrection broke out in the month of August, 1841, the result of which
was, the bombardment of the capital, the downfall of Bustamente, and the
convention of Tacubaya. Santa Anna took a part in this revolution
against the president, and being at the head of the army, he selected
the junta, which, according to the "plan of Tacubaya," was to choose the
president of the republic. The junta repaid the distinction conferred
upon them by selecting him for that high office. The congress, however,
which assembled in June, 1842, proving to be disagreeable to Santa Anna,
he dissolved it by an authoritative act, and, convening an assembly of
notables, they fixed on a new constitution.
_A New Constitution._--This was proclaimed on the 13th of June, 1843,
and conferred almost all the power on the national executive. Santa
Anna himself having been chosen that executive, the new government was
organized by the assembling of congress in January, 1844. There was
little agreement between that body and the dictator, as he might now
be called, and hostility to his administration began to be expressed
throughout the country. Measures were accordingly taken for his
overthrow, in which Paredes, who had commenced the revolution of 1841,
bore a conspicuous part. At the head of a body of troops, he openly
declared against the dictator, and soon carried with him several of
the northern provinces.
_Overthrow of Santa Anna's Government._--The people in the capital
soon arose in arms; the military declared against the dictator, and on
the rëassembling of congress, General Herrera, the leader of the
constitutional party, was appointed provisional president of the
republic, and a new ministry was formed. This was an occasion of
unbounded rejoicing throughout the country. Santa Anna, however, with
the troops still under his command, attempted to rëgain his lost
authority; but meeting with defeat and disappointment, he endeavored
to escape, having first proposed to his opponents terms that were not
accepted. This occurred in January, 1845. He was taken prisoner, and
confined several months in the castle of Perote; after which, congress
passed against him a decree of perpetual banishment from Mexico.
In the mean time, the province of Texas having maintained its
independence during nine years, and having been acknowledged therein
by the United States and several European powers, was, upon its own
application, received into the confederacy of the former, and became a
constituent part of the great American Union. This annexation became
the occasion of the war between Mexico and the United States, of which
an account is given in the history of the latter country.
GUATEMALA.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
[Illustration: Volcanoes. Ruins of Old Guatemala, destroyed by an
Earthquake and Volcanic Eruption, and abandoned by the Inhabitants.]
LOCALITY--Extent--Physical Character--Discovery and
Conquest--Independence of the Country.
Guatemala, or the "Republic of Central America," is the most southern
point or portion of the North American continent, exclusive of the
isthmus. It has an area of one hundred and eighty-five thousand square
miles. It is composed of five states, which are sub-divided into
districts, and of the federal district, which contains the seat of
government.
The soil of the country is in general good, and exhibits the same
variety as in Mexico, with similar productions. In portions of it,
Guatemala is subject to tremendous convulsions of nature. This is the
case mostly in the mountainous regions, of which there is a lofty
chain, traversing the country, and presenting a series of twenty-one
volcanic summits in constant activity. Old Guatemala, the capital of
the state of Guatemala, has been several times destroyed by
earthquakes, as it lies between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego.
_Discovery and Conquest._--Guatemala, like the other portions of the
American continent in this quarter, was discovered by the Spaniards.
It appears never to have formed a part of the empire of Mexico. At the
arrival of the Spaniards, it contained many distinct kingdoms or
principalities. The natives, called _Quiches_, lived in cities, and
some ruins of their works are yet visible. The subjugation of Mexico
by Cortez, struck terror into the inhabitants of Guatemala, and some
of the chiefs sent embassies to the conqueror, offering to submit to
him, and acknowledging themselves vassals of the Spanish king. Cortez
dispatched Pedro de Alvarado, one of his officers who had been most
active in the conquest of Mexico, to take possession of the country.