one of the two monarchies of America which, at the invasion of the
Spaniards, had attained to a degree of refinement far above that
savage state in which most of the American Indians lived. It was also
remarkable from the contrast of the character of its civilization to
that of the Mexicans. Instead of the fierce and lofty spirit, the
bloody wars, the uncouth deities, and ferocious rites of the latter,
the Peruvians were united in tranquil subjection to a mild
superstition, which represented their Inca as the child of the sun,
to whom unreserved submission was due. However fable may have been
mixed with the truth in the tale of Manco Capac and his wife Mama
Ocollo--who, according to the traditions of the country, founded the
empire, first appearing among the people about the year 1100, claiming
to be children of the sun--the story of the greatness of the Peruvian
empire has nothing fabulous. It comprehended not only the vast region
now called Peru, but the territory of Quito or Ecuador, which is
covered with the monuments of the Incas. Order was established in this
vast region; the land was carefully cultivated; the rivers were
carefully employed in irrigating the soil; mountains were formed into
terraces to receive the canals constructed for this purpose, and walls
were built to prevent the water from escaping; so that large tracts,
which have now relapsed into deserts, were rendered productive."
[Illustration: Manco Capac and his Wife first appearing to the
Peruvians.]
_Conquest by Pizarro._--Francisco Pizarro, an uneducated Spaniard, is
entitled to the renown, or the infamy, of bringing this rich country
under the dominion of Spain, in the former part of the sixteenth
century. The details are too numerous to be here given; but suffice it
to say, that with two associates and about two hundred soldiers, he
overran this splendid empire, and filled it with rapine and blood. The
gentle and unsuspicious character of the natives rendered them an easy
prey to the artifice, cupidity, and cruelty of these Spanish
cut-throats. Pizarro's associates were Diego de Almagro, a soldier of
fortune, and Fernando de Luques, a mercenary priest.
[Illustration: Valverde addressing Atahualpa.]
Atahualpa, the Peruvian emperor, treated the strangers with great
courtesy, and sent them several valuable presents--fruits, corn,
emeralds, and vases of gold and silver. The sight of the gold and
silver served to render the Spaniards more fierce, and prepare them
for the cruel butcheries that followed. The following morning,
Atahualpa, attended by fifteen thousand men, met Pizarro at a place
previously appointed. He was borne on a throne of gold. As the
procession approached Pizarro, a Dominican friar, by the name of
Valverde, made a long address to the emperor, in which he endeavored
to expound the Christian religion; following which, he proposed to
him a submission to the king of Spain, on the ground that the pope had
made a present to him of Peru.
To this, Atahualpa replied, that he was willing to be the friend of the
king of Spain, but not his vassal. The pope he considered a very
extraordinary personage to make a present of that which did not belong
to him; and as to those whom the friar denominated Christians--"If,"
said he, "they worship a God who died upon a cross, I worship the _Sun_,
who never dies." After further efforts at persuasion, Valverde became
indignant, and called upon the Spaniards to vindicate their holy
religion, and to wreak their just vengeance upon dogs who could thus
trample upon the gospel. Upon this, a signal was given, and the work of
butchery commenced in the emperor's own palace. Pizarro himself advanced
towards Atahualpa, and took him prisoner, while all around the princes
of the race of the Incas, the flower of the nobility, and other great
men of the court, were indiscriminately put to the sword.
The cruelties that were inflicted, from this time forward, upon this
unoffending people, and the riches amassed by these rapacious
adventurers, so abhorred of God and men, are scarcely capable of
enumeration, were it the object of this succinct account to speak of
particulars. While their prince, being a prisoner, was condemned on
some frivolous pretext, and strangled at the stake, they were made to
expiate, by their death, the crime of owning a rich and beautiful
country. Their great city of Cuzco was entered by Pizarro, in 1534,
and plundered of its immense wealth. Indeed, the thirst of blood and
plunder was every where exhibited in the progress of the Spaniards
through the country. Had the latter shown any degree of moderation and
humanity, they would probably have made themselves masters of the
empire without further bloodshed than this commencement of the fearful
tragedy. A people, by constitution and training so mild and
submissive, would have yielded to the yoke without much reluctance.
But the infinite variety of their calamities stirred up the people to
revenge, and they found agents to give it, for a time, a degree of
effect. But the Spaniards persevered in their efforts to overthrow the
country; large numbers poured into it from abroad, and all resistance
finally ceased. Those of the natives who were most attached to their
liberty, to their government, and to their religion, took refuge at a
distance among inaccessible mountains. The greater part of them,
however, submitted to their conquerors.
[Illustration: Pizarro in Cuzco.]
The fate of these robbers was, at length, as deplorable as that of the
subjects of their rapacity and cruelty. By various causes irritated and
enraged against each other, the leaders fought among themselves, and the
most revolting scenes of revenge and hatred were exhibited in the
result. The original leaders of the enterprise were soon no more, and
others followed in the same path of robbery, blood, and mutual jealousy
and contention. These civil wars continued through a series of years.
Fortunately for this part of the new world, the most seditious of the
conquerors, and of those who followed in their steps, had perished in
these wars. With their departure was connected a degree of tranquillity,
and then only the Catholic kings might with truth style themselves the
sovereigns of the Spaniards settled in Peru.
_Condition of the Country after the Conquest._--The native Peruvians,
after their subjugation, quietly submitted to the Spanish yoke for
more than two centuries. They felt keenly, in many instances, the
wrongs inflicted on them, but they had no power of resistance against
a disciplined European force. They were loaded with insupportable
burdens, yet it was useless to complain. The exactions of their
conquerors were most unreasonable and cruel, and they passed their
days in sorrow, groaning under the severest bondage. It would seem
that all memory of their ancient independence, and the glories of the
empire of Manco Capac, was lost from among them. Under their
oppressions, their spirit and resolution appeared wholly to depart;
but events proved that they were capable of being aroused--if by
nothing better, at least by despair.
_Insurrection in the latter part of the Eighteenth Century._--The
sufferings of the natives became so extreme, that they wanted nothing
but a leader to induce them to rise upon their oppressors, and attempt
the overthrow of the Spanish power. Such a leader was found in Tupac
Amaru, a descendant, on the mother's side, from an Inca of that name.
He was well fitted, in many respects, to head an insurrection, having
a commanding figure and intrepidity of spirit. He animated his
countrymen to many heroic deeds, and, in the course of the rebellion,
several successful battles were fought, and many Spaniards killed in
the encounters, and many massacred in the progress of the Indian arms;
but these were, on the whole, unsuccessful; their irregularities
were, perhaps, more than retaliated by the Spaniards. Amaru was
captured in the course of the war, and drawn into pieces by wild
horses, as the punishment of his attempt to free his countrymen from
oppression. Several other leaders were likewise taken, and shared the
same cruel fate.
The principal leaders of the insurrection being no more, the great body
of the Indian population quietly returned to vassalage, and bowed again
under the galling yoke. Such was the issue of an attempt for freedom,
which filled Peru with bloodshed and misery for the space of two years,
and of a war, in which, it is asserted, one-third of the population of
Peru perished by the hand of violence. It produced no permanent or
important change in the condition of the Indians. They were rigidly
prohibited the use of arms. The tribute pressed more heavily afterwards,
and was more strictly levied, and that unfortunate people were treated
more contemptuously, in revenge of their unsuccessful rebellion.
_Revolutionary Movements in the early part of the Present
Century._--Previously to the French invasion of Spain, and the confusion
into which the mother-country was thrown by that event, and the
consequent facilities and inducements which were furnished to the
colonies in respect to their independence, an attempt had been made in
Peru, having that object in view, as early as the year 1805. It was
undertaken by Ubalde, an eminent jurist of Cuzco; but it proved to be a
failure, and its author paid his life as the forfeiture of his rashness.
In 1809, a popular movement took place, and provisional juntas were
established at Quito and La Paz. This revolutionary design, however, was
at once defeated by the viceroys of Peru, Buenos Ayres, and New Grenada,
whose armies dissolved the juntas. After this second abortive attempt,
Peru remained tranquil for ten years, while the neighboring provinces
were engaged in the war of their independence. At length, the people of
Chili having defeated the Spanish army in the decisive battle of Maypu,
in 1818, conceived the project of securing their independence by
expelling the Spaniards from Peru. A naval armament and a land army both
were fitted out for this object; the one in 1819, and the other in 1820.
The naval force was commanded by Lord Cochrane, an English adventurer,
and the land force was commanded by General San Martin.
Some obstacles were interposed to the immediate success of the
undertaking; partly from negotiation, and partly from the insufficiency
of the invading forces--the liberating army of San Martin being only
about five thousand strong, and Cochrane being able only to blockade the
Peruvian ports. The city of Lima appeared to be too powerful for an
attack by the army of the general; but having, at length, resolved on
the enterprise of advancing upon this city, the pusillanimity of the
viceroy made way for a success which force might not have achieved. The
viceroy fled, to secure his personal safety, while a deputation of
citizens invited San Martin to enter the city as a liberator.
_Declaration of Independence._--It was on the 12th of July, 1821, that
San Martin made his entry into Lima, where he was received with
acclamations, and, on the 28th, the independence of Peru was formally
declared. San Martin took the title of Protector of Peru, with supreme
power, both civil and military. A provisional government was
organized, and measures were adopted to establish the affairs of the
country on a permanent basis. But the new state of things was
fluctuating. It was not until the 20th of September, 1822, that the
first Peruvian congress convened. At this congress, an executive junta
was appointed, of three persons, to administer the government. San
Martin declined the office of commander-in-chief of the Peruvian
armies, and returned to Chili.
From this period, there was little promise of stability for the new
republic. Discontent and dissensions followed among the people, and
every thing was thrown into confusion. It was not until the great
liberator, Bolivar, had come among them, by invitation of a portion of
the people, and after three sanguinary battles had with the royalist
forces, that the Spanish power was prostrated in Peru. On the 10th of
December, 1824, the Peruvian congress was again installed. Bolivar was
then declared the political and military head of the republic, as he
had been once before, and a gift of a million of dollars was tendered
him for his services, which he saw fit to refuse. Lower Peru was thus
liberated, and, as early as January, 1826, Upper Peru experienced the
same deliverance, through the arms of the patriot General Sucre.
_Condition of the Country after the Expulsion of the
Spaniards._--Bolivar's influence was great, and a constitution of
government was adopted, which harmonized with his views; but the
people were still dissatisfied, and they seized an occasion, when
Bolivar was absent in Columbia, of rising in insurrection, and
effected a complete revolution in the beginning of the year 1827. A
new form of government was adopted, combining the properties of a
federal and a central system, with a president, chosen for four years,
a national congress, and a separate provisional government.
The republic, however, did not become settled by this latter change;
for the constitution of 1827, like that which preceded it, has proved
to be too little congenial to the taste and capacities of the people.
As late as 1835, four chiefs, in arms, were striving for the
supremacy; and one year later, a spurious president, General
Salaverry, having been defeated in battle, was condemned to death by a
court martial, and shot, with his adherents, in the month of February,
1836. In 1837, Peru was placed under the protection of Santa Cruz,
president of Bolivia. Both Chili and Buenos Ayres were at war with
Peru, a few years since.
V. BOLIVIA.
[Illustration]
NAME, Extent, and Physical Character--Overthrow of the Spanish
Power--Proclamation of Independence--Choice of Rulers under
the New Constitution--Present Condition.
_Name, Extent, &c._--This country, originally called Upper Peru, and
once forming a portion of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, or La
Plata, dates from the battle of Ayacucho, December 9th, 1828, in which
the republicans, under Sucre, completely defeated the royalists. The
name, Bolivia, given to it, was in compliment to Bolivar.
The republic has a length of one thousand one hundred and forty-two
miles, and an area of four hundred and ten thousand square miles. In
its physical features, it is marked by several lofty peaks of the
Andes. Some of them exceed twenty thousand feet in height. The
inequality of the surface gives it a great variety as to temperature
and climate. In the central portion of it, the soil has great
agricultural capabilities. The mineral wealth of the country is very
considerable--the famous mine of Potosi, which has heretofore been
particularly noticed, now belongs to Bolivia.
_Overthrow of the Spanish Power._--The provinces of Upper Peru having
been wrested from the Spaniards, as above stated, General Sucre soon
cleared the country of the royalist forces. As he advanced into the
territory, not only was he received with universal joy by the
inhabitants, but the royal corps, in various places, spontaneously
declared for the independence of the country. Sucre reached Potosi in
April, 1825, where Olaneta, the Spanish general, made what resistance
he was able, but was himself slain, and the royal troops in Upper Peru
surrendered to the conquerors.
_Proclamation of Independence._--The upper territories being thus
emancipated, a general congress of delegates was convened to decide on
the political destiny of the intendencies; whether they would unite with
Lower Peru, or the United Provinces, or form a separate and independent
nation. The latter was chosen; and, on the 6th of August, 1825, a solemn
declaration of the independence of Upper Peru was published. The
congress, which assembled at Chiquisaca, gave the new republic its name,
and determined to call the capital _Sucre_, the name of the general
whose exploits have so often been spoken of. Having solicited Bolivar to
prepare a constitution, the congress dissolved itself on the 6th of
October. The constitution which was proposed by Bolivar, and adopted by
the congress in 1826, vested the executive power in a president chosen
for life, with the privilege of naming his successor, and the
legislative power in three bodies: a senate, tribune, and censors. But
this constitution was soon abolished.
_Choice of Rulers under the New Constitution._--Sucre, at the time of
the adoption of the Bolivarian constitution, resigned his
discretionary power, and was elected president; but he sent in his
resignation to the congress which assembled on the 3d of August,
1828, and returned to Columbia, and, in June, 1830, he was
assassinated near Pasto. On the retirement of Sucre, General Velasco
filled the office of president, till the meeting of the convention, on
the 16th of December. This body displaced Velasco, and elected General
Blanco president. A revolution soon followed, which resulted in the
deposition and death of Blanco, January 1st, 1829. A temporary
government was established, with Velasco at the head, till a new
president could be elected, and Santa Cruz was chosen. Generals
Velasco and Ballivian have since been elected presidents of the
republic; the latter is still in office.
_Present Condition._--The most recent accounts represent Bolivia as
being in a state of civil war. The antagonists of President Ballivian
have proclaimed the constitution of 1839, and constituted a
provisional government, backed by a powerful military organization.
The revolution is headed by General Belza, minister of war, who has
violated his oath of office, disgraced his country, and outraged
constitution and laws, for the purpose of gaining the presidency.
[Illustration]
VI. CHILI.
[Illustration: View of Valparaiso.]
EXTENT, Physical Features, Climate--Conquest by
Almagro--Revolution in the beginning of the Present
Century--Final Establishment of Independence--Subsequent
Condition.
_Extent, Physical Features, Climate, &c._--Chili, lying on the shore
of the Pacific, from the twenty-fourth to the forty-fifth degrees of
south latitude, its length being one thousand two hundred and sixty
miles, and its breadth three hundred miles, possesses many natural
advantages and attractions. The immense chain of the Andes traverses
the country from north to south. In the vicinity of these mountains,
earthquakes are common, and these seem to be the only drawbacks to the
paradise which nature has formed in this part of the South American
continent. Chili, it is believed, is blessed with the most salubrious
and delightful climate on the globe.
Though there are some sterile tracts, the soil, in general, is
remarkably fertile, and the products are rich and varied. Medicinal,
dyeing, and aromatic plants abound, and there are several plants
peculiar to the country. All kinds of metal abound in Chili. Gold,
however, is the most copious, and in some districts there is scarcely
a hill which does not contain it. Chili is supposed to be the only
American state, formerly subject to Spain, whose commerce has been
increased since the separation from the mother-country.
[Illustration: Almagro marching against Chili.]
_Conquest by Almagro._--After the principal provinces of Peru were
brought into subjection, the Spanish conquerors turned their attention
to the conquest of Chili. In the early part of 1535, Almagro set out for
Cuzco, in the prosecution of this enterprise, with a considerable force.
From the nature of the route, he met with great difficulties, and lost
many of his men; but he at length accomplished his design, and was
received with tokens of submission on the part of the inhabitants. The
natives, however, at length, recovering from their astonishment at the
sight of so superior a race of men as the Spaniards, began to think of
regaining their liberty. Hence, a war arose, which lasted ten years, in
which, though the natives were sometimes successful, they were
generally and in the end defeated. For a long course of years, the
possession of the country by the Spaniards continued to be disputed, and
fatal hostilities occurred from time to time, as they attempted to
extend their empire in Chili. Their object, however, was effected by
degrees, as in all the other American colonies.
_Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century._--The occasion of
the revolution in Chili, and its subsequent independence, was the same
as in the other Spanish states in America, viz: the disturbances in
Spain in consequence of the French invasion in 1809. The
captain-general of the province was compelled to resign, and by the
popular voice the Count de la Conquista was elevated to his place. The
count immediately took measures for instituting a new government. A
general congress was determined on, and at length chosen, after some
attempts made by the royalists at a counter-revolution. The congress,
upon their organization, passed a decree, permitting all persons who
were dissatisfied with the changes in the government, to leave the
country with their effects, within six months. The children of slaves,
born in future, were declared free, and many other acts were passed,
with a view to reform the abuses of the ancient government.
Discontent, however, with the new order of things, soon arose, and
there was the usual amount of plots and counter-plots, menace and
fighting, between the friends and the enemies of the changes in the
government, which has constituted a principal feature of Spanish
American history in modern times. After various military movements and
internal struggles, the revolutionary power was overthrown, and, in
1814, the Spanish authority was completely rëestablished in Chili.
_Final Establishment of Independence._--This state of things continued
for more than two years. But it was destined to pass away, after some
severe fighting. The government of Buenos Ayres dispatched an army,
under San Martin, for the purpose of liberating Chili. After
incredible exertions and fatigue, he crossed the lofty chain of the
Andes, and arrived in Chili with very little loss. At Chacabuco, the
royal troops were defeated, and put to the rout, on the 12th of
February, 1817. At Santiago, the liberator was received with
acclamations by the inhabitants, and made supreme director. He,
however, declined the office, and bestowed it upon O'Higgins, who had
commanded a division of his army. Chili was delivered by means of San
Martin's successes, ending in the great victory of Maypu, April 5th,
1818, in which the whole Spanish army was destroyed, with the
exception of their commander, Osorio, and a few horsemen. This victory
set the seal on the independence of Chili, and the patriots were soon
enabled to carry the war into the enemy's country by the invasion of
Peru, as narrated in the history of the latter.
_Condition subsequently to the Establishment of Independence._--The fact
of securing her independence has given little repose to Chili. The
outward forms of a republic have been preserved in her government, while
parties have struggled for the ascendancy, and filled the country with
turbulence. For several years, the southern frontiers were disturbed by
the depredations of an outlaw, named Benavides, a Spaniard, who put
himself at the head of the Araucanian Indians, and desolated the country
with fire and sword, and the commission of bloody atrocities unsurpassed
in the history of savage warfare. His success, and the authority he had
acquired over the Indians, induced him to think himself a powerful
monarch, and he attempted to establish a navy. He captured several
American and English vessels, which touched on the coasts of Chili for
refreshments, and made himself master of a large amount of property,
arms, and military stores. The Spaniards encouraged him in his piracies
and murders, and furnished him with troops and artillery. But his bloody
career was cut short by the Chilians, who dispatched an expedition
against him in October, 1821. Arauco, his capital, was taken, his forces
defeated, and Benavides compelled to flee. He was taken prisoner in
February, 1822, tried and executed.
In January, 1823, O'Higgins was compelled to resign, and was succeeded
by Ramon Freire, as supreme director. In July, 1826, Freire resigned his
office, and Admiral Manuel Blanco was appointed in his place; but before
the expiration of two months, he retired from office. In 1827, the form
of the government was changed; but the public tranquillity has not been
secured by the change. Of the two vice-presidents, who were chosen from
1827 to 1831, one was expelled and the other assassinated. Chili, for
many years, has been agitated by the dissensions of two parties; the one
desiring to establish a central government, and the other, a government
like that of the United States.