Cortez--Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital--Abdication of
Montezuma--Retreat of Cortez, and Return--Fall of the City and
Empire--Fate of Cortez--Extent of New Spain--Introduction of the
Catholic Religion--Native Spanish Population under the Colonial
Government--Classes of the Inhabitants--Causes of the First
Mexican Revolution--Commencement of the Revolution--Continuation
of the War by the Patriot Chiefs--Decline of the
Revolution--Invasion by Mina--Revolution under
Iturbide--Adoption of the Federal Constitution--Prosperity of
the years 1825 and 1826--Election of President in
1828--Usurpation of Bustamente--Defence of the Federal
Constitution--Santa Anna's Proceedings--Establishment of a
Central Republic--Attempts against the Central
Government--Revolution of 1841--Overthrow of Santa Anna's
Government.
The northern coast of Yucatan was first visited and explored in 1517 by
Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, who sailed from Cuba in three small
vessels, with a company of adventurers. He here found a race of men
much bolder and more warlike than the inhabitants of the islands, who
resisted the intruders with a most determined spirit. Many of the latter
perished in the contests they were engaged in and Cordova himself
received a wound, of which he died soon after his return to Cuba.
The prospect of booty which the region presented, stimulated the
Spaniards to secure their prize at any hazard. Another expedition was
planned the following year, under Grijalva, consisting of four ships
and two hundred and forty men. They commenced by verifying the reports
of the preceding adventurers; they then continued their voyage as far
as the River Panuco, and were met every where with the marks of a good
degree of civilization. Landing frequently, they were sometimes
suspected, and warmly attacked; at other times, they were received
with the reverence due to superior natures.
_Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest._--The most ancient Mexican
nation, according to tradition, was the Toltecas. It would appear that,
at a period corresponding with that of 472 of the Christian era, they
were expelled from their own country, called Tollan, somewhere north of
Mexico, whence becoming migratory for many years, they at length built a
city, called Tolton, fifty miles east from Mexico.
In 667, the Toltecas were chiefly cut off by famine and pestilence.
About a hundred years after this, their country was occupied by the
Checkemecas, who likewise emigrated from some northern section of the
continent. They mingled and intermarried with the remnant of the
Toltecas. In 1160, the Aztecs, who dwelt north of the Gulf of
California, abandoned their country, and, for a series of years, led a
wandering life. They originally consisted of six tribes, but eventually
the Mexican tribes separated from the rest, and continued their journey
alone. In 1325, they reached a spot on which they commenced a city, and
which they called Mexico, after Mexitli, their god of war. Here, for
two hundred years, down to the time of their conquest by the Spaniards,
they flourished. They increased in power and wealth. They were joined by
the other Aztec tribes from whom they had separated. They were a
superior people--well instructed in the art of war. They excelled in
sculpture, and, at the time of the invasion, had made considerable
progress in architecture, agriculture, &c. Their capital contained not
less than one hundred thousand inhabitants. Their government was an
elective monarchy. Montezuma was on the Mexican throne, and had
surrounded himself with the highest regal splendor, and exercised the
most despotic power. Such, in brief, was the condition of the Mexicans
when their conquest was attempted by the Spaniards.
_Invasion by Cortez._--The reports which had been brought home by
several, especially Grijalva, of the fertility and wealth of Mexico,
determined Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to attempt its conquest.
The expedition was intrusted to Fernando Cortez, a man peculiarly well
calculated by his courage, his perseverance, and other qualities, for
an enterprise like this, full of danger and difficulty. The expedition
consisted of eleven vessels and six hundred and seventeen men. The
object was to make war upon a monarch whose dominions were more
extensive than all the kingdoms subject to the Spanish crown. Arriving
at the island of Cozumel, Cortez had there the good fortune to redeem
Aguilar, a Spaniard, who had been eight years a prisoner among the
Indians, and who proved extremely useful as an interpreter. In March,
1519, Cortez landed in Tabasco, a southern province of Mexico, where,
though the Indians met him with extraordinary courage, they were
routed with great slaughter, in several successive engagements.
Continuing his course to the westward, he landed at San Juan d'Ulloa.
Here he was most respectfully addressed by a deputation on board of his
ship, but in a language altogether unknown to him, and even to Aguilar.
Fortunately, one of his female slaves, received at Tabasco, well
understood the Mexican language, and explained what had been said in the
Yucatan tongue, with which Aguilar was unacquainted. This woman, who was
known afterwards by the name of Donna Marina, informed him that the
persons who addressed him were the officers of a great monarch, whom
they called Montezuma, and that they were sent to inquire what his
intentions were in visiting their coast, and to offer any assistance he
might need in order to continue his voyage. Cortez, having thus learned
the purport of the message, assured the officers that he approached
their country with the most friendly sentiments, and came to propose
matters of great moment to their prince, which should soon be more fully
unfolded. Next morning he landed his men, horses, and artillery, by the
assistance of the natives, who unconsciously were admitting among them
the instruments of their own destruction.
[Illustration: Marina interpreting the Address of the Mexican
Deputation.]
On the 26th of March, Cortez commenced his march towards the Mexican
capital, having first destroyed his vessels, that his soldiers,
deprived of the means of retreat, might rely solely on their valor. On
his way thither, by consummate address, he alienated from Montezuma
several of the petty states with their caziques. Others he compelled,
by force of arms, to join him. By degrees, he marched into the
country, and, with the addition of the natives, he found himself at
the head of an army consisting of several thousand persons.
[Illustration: Cortez burning his Ships.]
_Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital._--As Cortez approached the
Mexican capital, a great retinue of persons came to meet him, adorned
with plumes and clad in mantles of fine cotton. Each of these saluted
Cortez in the most respectful manner. They announced the approach of
Montezuma himself; and soon after, the harbingers, two hundred in
number, in a uniform dress, appeared in sight. These were followed by a
company of higher rank, in splendid apparel, in the midst of whom was
Montezuma, carried in a litter richly ornamented with gold and feathers
of various colors. The king and Cortez met, and the most respectful
salutations passed between them. Montezuma conducted Cortez to the
quarters that had been prepared for his reception, and took leave of
him, saying, "You are now with your brothers in your own house; refresh
yourselves after your fatigue, and be happy until I return."
[Illustration: Meeting of Montezuma and Cortez.]
The first care of Cortez, however, was to take precautions for his
security, by planting the artillery so as to command the different
avenues which led to the place allotted for his reception.
In the evening, Montezuma returned to visit his guests, and again made
them magnificent presents. Various conferences passed between them;
and the next day Cortez and some of his principal attendants were
admitted to an audience of the emperor.
While these events were happening, Cortez formed a plan no less
extraordinary than daring. This was to seize Montezuma in his palace,
and to carry him prisoner to the Spanish quarters. He communicated his
plan to his principal officers, and almost instantly put it into
execution.
[Illustration: Montezuma on his Throne.]
_The Abdication of Montezuma._--Although Montezuma was permitted to
exercise the functions of royalty, yet he was guarded with the utmost
vigilance by the Spaniards. The king's brave son, with several of the
principal officers, on the slightest pretext, was burned alive by the
command of Cortez. The monarch himself was, at length, bound with
fetters. Having both the monarch and his subjects under this temporary
authority, Cortez availed himself of it to the utmost. He appointed
commissioners to survey the empire, and to prepare the minds of the
people for submitting to the Spaniards; and, in the end, he persuaded
Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal to the Spanish crown, and to
pay an annual tribute. The fallen prince, at the instance of Cortez,
accompanied this profession of fealty and homage, with a magnificent
present to the king of Spain, and, after his example, his subjects
brought in liberal contributions.
_War, and the Death of Montezuma._--About this time Velasquez, piqued
by the success of his subaltern, had sent a force into Mexico to take
him and his principal officers prisoners; but the good fortune of
Cortez triumphed again; for overcoming his enemies in battle, he
induced the greater part of them to join his standard; and when he had
least of all expected it, he was placed at the head of a thousand
Spaniards, ready to aid him, at any hazard, in his enterprises.
This additional force had but just time to enroll themselves under
their new leader, before the Mexicans attacked them in all directions.
[Illustration: Death of Montezuma.]
Cortez now found himself environed with the most imminent dangers. The
only resource which remained to him was to try what effect the
interposition of Montezuma might have upon his enraged subjects. When,
the next morning, they approached to renew the assault, that
unfortunate prince was compelled to advance to the battlements, and
exhort his people to discontinue hostilities. But the fury of the
multitude could not be repressed, and it was now directed momentarily
against their prince. Flights of arrows and volleys of stones poured
in so violently upon the ramparts, that before the Spanish soldiers
had time to lift their shields for Montezuma's defence, two arrows
wounded the unhappy monarch, and a blow of a stone on his temple
struck him to the ground.
Most bitterly did these poor men lament the consequences of their
displeasure, as they witnessed the fate of their sovereign. As for
Montezuma, in a paroxysm of rage he tore the bandage from his wounds,
and so obstinately refused to take any nourishment, that he soon ended
his days, rejecting with disdain all the urgency of the Spaniards that
he should embrace the Christian faith.
_Retreat and Return of Cortez._--The death of Montezuma filled the
Mexicans with surprise and terror; but added to, rather than
diminished, their hostility. They determined to reduce by famine a foe
which they could not subdue by force. This coming to the knowledge of
Cortez, he perceived, situated as he was, that his safety lay in
instant retreat from the city. Preparations were accordingly made to
march out of Mexico that very night. Each soldier took such booty as
he was able; yet a large quantity of silver was left behind. At
midnight, the troops abandoned their quarters, and proceeded in
silence along the causeway that led to Tacubaya.
The Mexicans were watching the retreating foe. At length, the latter
reached a breach which had been made in the causeway, when in an
instant they were astounded by a tremendous roar of martial
instruments. Clouds of arrows were showered upon them. Yet they
struggled on to a second breach, where they were obliged to wade
through the mud and water. All was darkness, confusion, dismay. Many
were so heavily laden with spoils, that they sunk to rise no more. The
carnage was dreadful. It was a night of blood--or what is known in the
Mexican history as the _Noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez lost
some five or six hundred Spaniards, and of his allies, the
Tlascalans, above two thousand. Only a small portion of the pillaged
treasures was saved--horses, ammunition, baggage, nearly all were
gone. In the morning, although his troops needed rest and his wounded
care, Cortez pursued his march towards Tlascala, where he was received
with kindness by his allies.
[Illustration: Noche Triste.]
Some interval of tranquillity was now absolutely necessary, not only
that the Spaniards might give attention to the cure of their wounds,
but in order to recruit their strength, exhausted by a long succession
of fatigues and hardships. When these objects had been attained, and
his forces were considerably augmented, on the 28th of December, 1520,
Cortez commenced his return towards Mexico.
In his progress towards it, he took possession of Tezcuco, the second
town in the empire, situated on the lake about twenty miles from the
capital. He had already prepared the materials for building several
brigantines, so that they might be carried thither in pieces ready to
be put together, and launched when they were needed. Here he
established his head-quarters, as it was the most suitable place to
launch the brigantines. With the launching of these, all was in
readiness for the great enterprise.
[Illustration: Cortez building Brigantines on the Lakes.]
Nor were the Mexicans unprepared. Upon the death of Montezuma, his
brother, Quetlavaca, a man distinguished for his courage and capacity,
was raised to the throne. But in the midst of his preparations to meet
the invaders, he was fatally attacked by the small-pox, a scourge
which had been introduced into the country by the Spaniards.
Gautimozin, nephew and son-in-law of Montezuma, was next chosen
emperor, nor could the choice have fallen on a more deserving man.
Great bravery was displayed by the Mexicans during the siege. Cortez
found it necessary to proceed with caution in all his measures. His
chief prospect of success lay in cutting off supplies from the city;
at length, in that, he succeeded, so that the public stores were
exhausted, and the sufferings in the city became extreme.
_Fall of the City and Empire._--At this crisis, Gautimozin, in an
attempt to escape to the provinces, with a view to arouse his people
more effectually for his defence, was captured and conducted to Cortez.
He appeared with singular composure and self-respect, requesting of
Cortez, that no insult should be offered to the empress or his
children. "I have done," said he to his conqueror, "what became a
monarch. I have defended my people to the last extremity. Nothing now
remains but to die. Take this dagger," (laying hold of one which
Cortez wore,) "plant it in my heart, and put an end to a life which
can be no longer useful to my country." Before he left the city, he
had been careful to disappoint the expectations of the Spaniards, by
throwing all his treasures into the lake.
When the fate of their sovereign was known, the Mexicans laid down their
arms, and Cortez took possession of that small part of the capital which
yet remained, three-fourths of it having been reduced to ashes during
the conflict. In this manner terminated the memorable siege of Mexico.
The fate of the capital decided that, also, of the empire. The
provinces submitted, one after another, to the conquerors. Small
parties of Spaniards, marching through them without interruption,
penetrated in different quarters to the Pacific ocean. Thus a great
and rich empire was secured to Spain, through the almost incredible
efforts of a single man at the head of a small band of adventurers.
_Fate of Cortez._--As a reward for his bold and surprising achievements,
Cortez was warmly eulogized by his countrymen at home, and the Emperor
Charles V. appointed him captain-general and governor of New Spain, with
other tokens of favor. But a bitter cup was at last pressed to his lips.
After returning to America, and continuing there for a time in his
command, he came back, in 1540, to his native country. But in
consequence of his ambition and usurpations, his reception at home was
ill-suited to the character of his heroic deeds. "The emperor behaved to
him with cold civility, his ministers treated him sometimes with
neglect, sometimes with insolence. His grievances received no redress;
his claims were urged without effect; and, after several years spent in
fruitless application to ministers and judges, he ended his days on the
2d of December, in the sixty-second year of his age."
_Extent of New Spain._--This country, under the Spaniards, embraced a
more extensive region than the empire of Mexico, or the dominions of
Montezuma and his predecessors. It included, in addition to the Mexican
empire proper, New Navarre, a vast territory, extending to the north and
west; the provinces of California, as also the peninsula of California;
and, moreover, the provinces of Yucatan and Honduras, stretching from
the Bay of Campeachy to beyond Cape Gracias a Dios. At an early period,
most of these countries had been visited and subjugated by Spanish
adventurers. The peninsula of California, which had been discovered by
Cortez in 1536, began to be explored by the Jesuits towards the close of
the seventeenth century. Here they established an important mission,
but, after a time, were expelled from the country.
_Introduction of the Catholic Religion._--The conquerors of New Spain
carried with them the Catholic faith, which became the established
religion; and, indeed, was the only religion that was tolerated, until
the revolution in the beginning of the present century. The
establishment was instituted as an auxiliary branch of the government,
on a similar model to that in Spain. In attempts to convert the
natives, they made use of the same unjustifiable means that have been
resorted to by the Jesuits. But notwithstanding all that was done,
their spiritual character and condition were unchanged. Of real
Christianity, they remained wholly ignorant, and retained all their
veneration for their ancient superstitions. This mixture of
Christianity with their own heathenish rites and notions, was
transmitted to their posterity, and has never been eradicated. That
device of the infernal pit, the Inquisition, was established in
America by the bigoted zeal of Philip II., in the year 1570. This
measure completed the ecclesiastical apparatus for fastening
Catholicism on the new world.
[Illustration: Introduction of Christianity.]
_Native Spanish Population under the Colonial Government._--For nearly
three centuries, down to the year 1810, Mexico was governed by viceroys,
appointed by the court of Spain, all of whom, with one exception, were
European Spaniards. Every situation in the gift of the crown was
bestowed upon a European, nor is there an instance, for many years
before the revolution, either in the church, the army, or the law, in
which the door of preferment was opened to a Spaniard, Mexican-born.
Through this policy, a privileged _caste_ arose, distinct from the
Mexican Spaniards in feelings, habits, and interests--the paid agents of
a government whose only aim was to enrich itself, without any regard to
the abuses perpetrated under its authority.
_Classes of the Inhabitants._--Anterior to the revolution in 1810, the
population of Mexico was divided into distinct castes, as follows: 1,
The old Spaniards, born in Spain, designated _Chapetones_. 2,
_Creoles_ or Whites, of pure European race, born in America, and
regarded by the first class as natives. 3, The _Indians_, or
indigenous copper-colored race. 4, The _Mestizos_, or mongrel breeds
of Whites and Indians, in the purer descent approaching to the
Creoles. 5, _Mulattoes_, or descendants of Whites and Negroes. 6, The
_Zambos_, descendants of Negroes and Indians. And 7, The _African
Negroes_, whether manumitted or slaves.
The pure races were the old Spaniards, Creoles, Indians, and Negroes,
and gave rise, in their various combinations or divisions, to the
others. The remaining three races were impure or mixed, and were
sub-divided, without any assigned limits. Upon the breaking out of the
revolution, the distinctions of caste were all absorbed in the name of
Americans and Europeans.
_Causes of the First Mexican Revolution._--For more than a century,
Spain had been on the decline, when, in 1808, the Emperor Napoleon
gave a finishing stroke to her degradation, by seizing upon the royal
family, and placing his brother Jerome upon the throne. To this
revolution, the Spanish chiefs, who were assured of their places, were
disposed to yield, excepting the viceroy of Mexico. But the _people_,
indignant at the foul treatment which their sovereign had received,
were determined not to submit to it. A general revolt against the
authority of Buonaparte, soon disclosed itself in old Spain,
intelligence of which reaching Mexico on the 29th of July, 1808, the
feelings of the people were excited to the highest pitch of
enthusiasm. At this time, the Cabildo, or municipality of Mexico,
presented a petition to Iturrigaray the viceroy, to assemble a junta,
or representatives of the province, for self-government. The viceroy,
however, hesitated, fearing the Spanish population, who opposed the
measure. Apprised of his inclination to gratify the people, the
Spaniards seized the viceroy, and delivered him over to the prison of
the Inquisition. The conspirators were principally Spanish merchants
in Mexico, and were secretly favored in their designs by the court of
the Audiciencia, the highest judicial tribunal of Mexico.
The European Spaniards, both in the capital and in the interior, now
formed patriotic associations for the defence of what they termed
their rights, and armed themselves against the Creoles, who had
favored the project of assembling the junta. The latter, though by far
the most numerous, were unused to arms, and submitted for the moment;
but their spirit was aroused, and it became an absorbing question
whether themselves or the small clique of Europeans should possess the
right of administering the government during the captivity of their
king. A general impatience to shake off the yoke of foreign
domination, began to seize the minds of all. There was wanting only a
leader to make the occasion and to strike the blow.
_Commencement of the Revolution._--The person was soon found, in Don
Miguel Hidalgo Castilla, a clergyman, distinguished for his talents,
learning, and liberality of sentiment. Perceiving the general
disaffection of the people, and the prevailing animosities against the
Spaniards, as also having private motives of discontent, Hidalgo
conceived the plan of a general insurrection for the subversion of the
colonial government.
Allende, a friend of Hidalgo, was the first to raise the standard of
revolt in the little town of Dolores, on the 16th of September, 1810,
where he seized and imprisoned seven Europeans, whose property he
distributed among his followers. The Indians, under Hidalgo, now flew
to arms; and being rëinforced by disaffected troops belonging to the
government, Hidalgo marched to Guanaxuato, a wealthy town of eighty
thousand inhabitants, of which, after a strenuous contest, he received
the submission. This was an acquisition of signal importance, as he
found in the treasury an amount of five millions of silver.
From this period, the insurrection spread rapidly, notwithstanding the
efforts of Venegas, the new viceroy, to allay it. Many towns declared
in favor of Hidalgo, who proceeded from Guanaxuato to Valladolid,
where he was joyfully received as a deliverer. His pecuniary resources
were increased by the donation of one million two hundred thousand
dollars from the public authorities. His next step was to march
towards the capital. He had made a great acquisition in having
Morelos, a warlike priest, and highly celebrated in the revolution,
come to his aid.