societate humani generis in exiguum angustumque concluditur. *54* Nam
cum sit hoc natura commune animantium, ut habeant lubidinem procreandi,
prima societas in ipso coniugio est, proxima in liberis, deinde una
domus, communia omnia; id autem est principium urbis et quasi seminarium
rei publicae. Sequuntur fratrum coniunctiones, post consobrinorum
sobrinorumque, qui cum una domo iam capi non possint, in alias domos
tamquam in colonias exeunt. Sequuntur conubia et affinitates, ex quibus
etiam plures propinqui; quae propagatio et suboles origo est rerum
publicarum. Sanguinis autem coniunctio et benivolentia devincit homines
_et_[48] caritate; *55* magnum est enim eadem habere monumenta maiorum,
eisdem uti sacris, sepulcra habere communia.
Sed omnium societatum nulla praestantior est, nulla firmior, quam cum
viri boni moribus similes sunt familiaritate coniuncti; illud enim
honestum, quod saepe dicimus, etiam si in alio cernimus, [tamen][49] nos
movet atque illi, in quo id inesse videtur, amicos facit. *56* Et
quamquam omnis virtus nos ad se allicit facitque, ut eos diligamus, in
quibus ipsa inesse videatur, tamen iustitia et liberalitas id maxime
efficit. Nihil autem est amabilius nec copulatius quam morum similitudo
bonorum; in quibus enim eadem studia sunt, eaedem voluntates, in iis fit
ut aeque quisque altero delectetur ac se ipso, efficiturque id, quod
Pythagoras vult in amicitia, ut[50] unus fiat ex pluribus.
Magna etiam illa communitas est, quae conficitur ex beneficiis ultro et
citro datis acceptis, quae et mutua et grata dum sunt, inter quos ea
sunt, firma devinciuntur societate.
*57* Sed cum omnia ratione animoque lustraris, omnium societatum nulla
est gravior, nulla carior quam ea, quae cum re publica est uni cuique
nostrum. Cari sunt parentes, cari liberi, propinqui, familiares, sed
omnes omnium caritates patria una complexa est, pro qua quis bonus
dubitet mortem oppetere, si ei sit profuturus? Quo est detestabilior
istorum immanitas, qui lacerarunt omni scelere patriam et in ea funditus
delenda occupati et sunt et fuerunt.
*58* Sed si contentio quaedam et comparatio fiat, quibus plurimum
tribuendum sit officii, principes sint patria et parentes, quorum
beneficiis maximis obligati sumus, proximi liberi totaque domus, quae
spectat in nos solos neque aliud ullum potest habere perfugium, deinceps
bene convenientes propinqui, quibuscum communis etiam fortuna plerumque
est.
Quam ob rem necessaria praesidia vitae debentur iis maxime, quos ante
dixi, vita autem victusque communis, consilia, sermones, cohortationes,
consolationes, interdum etiam obiurgationes in amicitiis vigent maxime,
estque ea iucundissima amicitia, quam similitudo morum coniugavit.
[47] _propior_ A a c (ex corr.), Edd.; _proprior_ B H b.
[48] _et_ Perizonius, Edd.; not in MSS.
[49] _tamen_ MSS., Müller; del. Unger, Bt., Heine.
[50] _efficiturque id quod P. ultimum in amicitia putavit ut_
Nonius (s.v. ultimum) (i.e. Pythagoras's ideal of friendship
is realized).
#Degrees of social relationship:#
#(1) citizenship,#
*53* XVII. Then, too, there are a great many degrees of closeness or
remoteness in human society. To proceed beyond the universal bond of our
common humanity, there is the closer one of belonging to the same
people, tribe, and tongue, by which men are very closely bound together;
it is a still closer relation to be citizens of the same city-state; for
fellow-citizens have much in common--forum, temples, colonnades,
streets, statutes, laws, courts, rights of suffrage, to say nothing of
social and friendly circles and diverse business relations with many.
#(2) kinship,#
But a still closer social union exists between kindred. Starting with
that infinite bond of union of the human race in general, the conception
is now confined to a small and narrow circle. *54* For since the
reproductive instinct is by nature's gift the common possession of all
living creatures, the first bond of union is that between husband and
wife; the next, that between parents and children; then we find one
home, with everything in common. And this is the foundation of civil
government, the nursery, as it were, of the state. Then follow the bonds
between brothers and sisters, and next those of first and then of second
cousins; and when they can no longer be sheltered under one roof, they
go out into other homes, as into colonies. Then follow between these,
in turn, marriages and connections by marriage, and from these again a
new stock of relations; and from this propagation and after-growth
states have their beginnings. The bonds of common blood hold men fast
through good-will and affection; *55* for it means much to share in
common the same family traditions, the same forms of domestic worship,
and the same ancestral tombs.
#(3) friendship,#
But of all the bonds of fellowship, there is none more noble, none more
powerful than when good men of congenial character are joined in
intimate friendship; for really, if we discover in another that moral
goodness on which I dwell so much, it attracts us and makes us friends
to the one in whose character it seems to dwell. *56* And while every
virtue attracts us and makes us love those who seem to possess it, still
justice and generosity do so most of all. Nothing, moreover, is more
conducive to love and intimacy than compatibility of character in good
men; for when two people have the same ideals and the same tastes, it is
a natural consequence that each loves the other as himself; and the
result is, as Pythagoras requires of ideal friendship, that several are
united in one.
Another strong bond of fellowship is effected by mutual interchange of
kind services; and as long as these kindnesses are mutual and
acceptable, those between whom they are interchanged are united by the
ties of an enduring intimacy.
#(4) love of country.#
*57* But when with a rational spirit you have surveyed the whole field,
there is no social relation among them all more close, none more dear
than that which links each one of us with our country. Parents are
dear; dear are children, relatives, friends; but one native land
embraces all our loves; and who that is true would hesitate to give his
life for her, if by his death he could render her a service? So much the
more execrable are those monsters who have torn their fatherland to
pieces with every form of outrage and who are[K] and have been[L]
engaged in compassing her utter destruction.
*58* Now, if a contrast and comparison were to be made to find out where
most of our moral obligation is due, country would come first, and
parents; for their services have laid us under the heaviest obligation;
next come children and the whole family, who look to us alone for
support and can have no other protection; finally, our kinsmen, with
whom we live on good terms and with whom, for the most part, our lot is
one.
All needful material assistance is, therefore, due first of all to those
whom I have named; but intimate relationship of life and living,
counsel, conversation, encouragement, comfort, and sometimes even
reproof flourish best in friendships. And that friendship is sweetest
which is cemented by congeniality of character.
[K] Antony and his associates.
[L] Caesar, Clodius, Catiline.
*59* XVIII. Sed in his omnibus officiis tribuendis videndum erit, quid
cuique maxime necesse sit, et quid quisque vel sine nobis aut possit
consequi aut non possit. Ita non iidem erunt necessitudinum gradus, qui
temporum; suntque officia, quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur; ut
vicinum citius adiuveris in fructibus percipiendis quam aut fratrem aut
familiarem, at, si lis in iudicio sit, propinquum potius et amicum quam
vicinum defenderis. Haec igitur et talia circumspicienda sunt in omni
officio [et consuetudo exercitatioque capienda],[51] ut boni
ratiocinatores officiorum esse possimus et addendo deducendoque[52]
videre, quae reliqui summa fiat, ex quo, quantum cuique debeatur,
intellegas.
*60* Sed ut nec medici nec imperatores nec oratores, quamvis artis
praecepta perceperint, quicquam magna laude dignum sine usu et
exercitatione consequi possunt, sic officii conservandi praecepta
traduntur illa quidem, ut facimus ipsi, sed rei magnitudo usum quoque
exercitationemque desiderat.
Atque ab iis[53] rebus, quae sunt in iure societatis humanae, quem ad
modum ducatur honestum, ex quo aptum est officium, satis fere diximus.
*61* Intelligendum autem est, cum proposita sint genera quattuor, e
quibus honestas officiumque manaret, splendidissimum videri, quod animo
magno elatoque humanasque res despiciente factum sit. Itaque in probris
maxime in promptu est si quid tale dici potest:
#Inc. inc. fab., Ribbeck^2, 210#
"Vós enim,[54] iuvenes, ánimum geritis múliebrem, ílla" virgo
"viri"[55]
et si quid eius modi:
#Enn. Aj., Vahlen^2, 18#
Salmácida, spolia síne sudore et sánguine.
Contraque in laudibus, quae magno animo et fortiter excellenterque gesta
sunt, ea nescio quo modo quasi pleniore ore laudamus. Hinc rhetorum
campus de Marathone, Salamine, Plataeis, Thermopylis, Leuctris, hinc
noster Cocles,[56] hinc Decii, hinc Cn. et P. Scipiones, hinc M.
Marcellus, innumerabiles alii, maximeque ipse populus Romanus animi
magnitudine excellit. Declaratur autem studium bellicae gloriae, quod
statuas quoque videmus ornatu fere militari.
[51] _et ... capienda_ om. Facciolati, Edd.
[52] _deducendoque_ p; _ducendoque_ A B H L a b (superscr.
sec. m. _demendo_); _demendoque_ c.
[53] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ MSS.
[54] _enim_ A B H b c; _etenim_ a.
[55] _illa" virgo "viri"_ Ed.; _illa virgo viri_ MSS.;
_virago_ Orelli.
[56] _Leuctris, hinc noster Cocles_ Baldwin, Edd.; _leutris
stercocles_ A B H a b; _leutrister chodes_ c; _leutris
stercodes_ L.
#Duties may vary under varying circumstances.#
*59* XVIII. But in the performance of all these duties we shall have to
consider what is most needful in each individual case and what each
individual person can or cannot procure without our help. In this way we
shall find that the claims of social relationship, in its various
degrees, are not identical with the dictates of circumstances; for there
are obligations that are due to one individual rather than to another:
for example, one would sooner assist a neighbour in gathering his
harvest than either a brother or a friend; but should it be a case in
court, one would defend a kinsman and a friend rather than a neighbour.
Such questions as these must, therefore, be taken into consideration in
every act of moral duty [and we must acquire the habit and keep it up],
in order to become good calculators of duty, able by adding and
subtracting to strike a balance correctly and find out just how much is
due to each individual.
*60* But as neither physicians nor generals nor orators can achieve any
signal success without experience and practice, no matter how well they
may understand the theory of their profession, so the rules for the
discharge of duty are formulated, it is true, as I am doing now, but a
matter of such importance requires experience also and practice.
This must close our discussion of the ways in which moral goodness, on
which duty depends, is developed from those principles which hold good
in human society.
#C. Fortitude.#
*61* We must realize, however, that while we have set down four cardinal
virtues from which as sources moral rectitude and moral duty emanate,
that achievement is most glorious in the eyes of the world which is won
with a spirit great, exalted, and superior to the vicissitudes of
earthly life. And so, when we wish to hurl a taunt, the very first to
rise to our lips is, if possible, something like this:
"For ye, young men, show a womanish soul, yon maiden[M] a man's;"
and this:
"Thou son of Salmacis, win spoils that cost nor sweat nor blood."
When, on the other hand, we wish to pay a compliment, we somehow or
other praise in more eloquent strain the brave and noble work of some
great soul. Hence there is an open field for orators on the subjects of
Marathon, Salamis, Plataea, Thermopylae, and Leuctra, and hence our own
Cocles, the Decii, Gnaeus and Publius Scipio, Marcus Marcellus, and
countless others, and, above all, the Roman People as a nation are
celebrated for greatness of spirit. Their passion for military glory,
moreover, is shown in the fact that we see their statues usually in
soldier's garb.
[M] Cloelia (see Index).
*62* XIX. Sed ea animi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis et laboribus,
si iustitia vacat pugnatque non pro salute communi, sed pro suis
commodis, in vitio est; non modo enim id virtutis non est, sed est
potius immanitatis omnem humanitatem repellentis. Itaque probe definitur
a Stoicis fortitudo, cum eam virtutem esse dicunt propugnantem pro
aequitate. Quocirca nemo, qui fortitudinis gloriam consecutus est
insidiis et malitia, laudem est adeptus; nihil enim[57] honestum esse
potest, quod iustitia vacat.
#Menex. 246 E; Laches 197 B#
*63* Praeclarum igitur illud Platonis: "Non," inquit, "solum scientia,
quae est remota ab iustitia, calliditas potius quam sapientia est
appellanda, verum etiam animus paratus ad periculum, si sua cupiditate,
non utilitate communi impellitur, audaciae potius nomen habeat quam
fortitudinis." Itaque viros fortes et[58] magnanimos eosdem bonos et
simplices, veritatis amicos minimeque fallaces esse volumus; quae sunt
ex media laude iustitiae.
*64* Sed illud odiosum est, quod in hac elatione et magnitudine animi
facillime pertinacia et nimia cupiditas principatus innascitur. #Laches
182 E# Ut enim apud Platonem est, omnem morem Lacedaemoniorum
inflammatum esse cupiditate vincendi, sic, ut quisque animi magnitudine
maxime excellet,[59] ita maxime vult princeps omnium vel potius solus
esse. Difficile autem est, cum praestare omnibus concupieris, servare
aequitatem, quae est iustitiae maxime propria. Ex quo fit, ut neque
disceptatione vinci se nec ullo publico ac legitimo iure patiantur,
existuntque in re publica plerumque largitores et factiosi, ut opes quam
maximas consequantur et sint vi[60] potius superiores quam iustitia
pares. Sed quo difficilius, hoc praeclarius; nullum enim est tempus,
quod iustitia vacare debeat.
*65* Fortes igitur et magnanimi sunt habendi, non qui faciunt, sed qui
propulsant iniuriam. Vera autem et sapiens animi magnitudo honestum
illud, quod maxime natura sequitur, in factis positum, non in gloria
iudicat principemque se esse mavult quam videri; etenim qui ex errore
imperitae multitudinis pendet, hic in magnis viris non est habendus.
Facillime autem ad res iniustas impellitur, ut quisque altissimo animo
est, gloriae cupiditate[61]; qui locus est sane lubricus, quod vix
invenitur, qui laboribus susceptis periculisque aditis non quasi
mercedem rerum gestarum desideret gloriam.
[57] _enim_ A C, Edd.; not in A B H L b, Bt^2.
[58] _et_ a, Edd.; not in A B H L b c p.
[59] _excellet_ A B H L b c; _excellit_ a, Bt.
[60] _vi_ a, Edd.; _ut_ A B H b; _utcumque_ L c.
[61] _altissimo animo est, gloriae cupiditate_ Pearce
(confirmed by several MSS.), Edd.; _alt. an. et gloriae
cupiditate_ A B H b p; _est alt. an. et gloria et cupiditate_
L c.
#Fortitude in the light of justice.#
*62* XIX. But if the exaltation of spirit seen in times of danger and
toil is devoid of justice and fights for selfish ends instead of for the
common good, it is a vice; for not only has it no element of virtue, but
its nature is barbarous and revolting to all our finer feelings. The
Stoics, therefore, correctly define courage as "that virtue which
champions the cause of right." Accordingly, no one has attained to true
glory who has gained a reputation for courage by treachery and cunning;
for nothing that lacks justice can be morally right.
*63* This, then, is a fine saying of Plato's: "Not only must all
knowledge that is divorced from justice be called cunning rather than
wisdom," he says, "but even the courage that is prompt to face danger,
if it is inspired not by public spirit, but by its own selfish purposes,
should have the name of effrontery rather than of courage." And so we
demand that men who are courageous and high-souled shall at the same
time be good and straightforward, lovers of truth, and foes to
deception; for these qualities are the centre and soul of justice.
*64* But the mischief is that from this exaltation and greatness of
spirit spring all too readily self-will and excessive lust for power.
For just as Plato tells us that the whole national character of the
Spartans was on fire with passion for victory, so, in the same way, the
more notable a man is for his greatness of spirit, the more ambitious he
is to be the foremost citizen, or, I should say rather, to be sole
ruler. But when one begins to aspire to pre-eminence, it is difficult to
preserve that spirit of fairness which is absolutely essential to
justice. The result is that such men do not allow themselves to be
constrained either by argument or by any public and lawful authority;
but they only too often prove to be bribers and agitators in public
life, seeking to obtain supreme power and to be superiors through force
rather than equals through justice. But the greater the difficulty, the
greater the glory; for no occasion arises that can excuse a man for
being guilty of injustice.
#True greatness of spirit.#
*65* So then, not those who do injury but those who prevent it are to be
considered brave and courageous. Moreover, true and philosophic
greatness of spirit regards the moral goodness to which nature most
aspires as consisting in deeds, not in fame, and prefers to be first in
reality rather than in name. And we must approve this view; for he who
depends upon the caprice of the ignorant rabble cannot be numbered among
the great. Then, too, the higher a man's ambition, the more easily he is
tempted to acts of injustice by his desire for fame. We are now, to be
sure, on very slippery ground; for scarcely can the man be found who has
passed through trials and encountered dangers and does not then wish for
glory as a reward for his achievements.
*66* XX. Omnino fortis animus et magnus duabus rebus maxime cernitur,
quarum una in rerum externarum despicientia ponitur, cum persuasum
est[62] nihil hominem, nisi quod honestum decorumque sit, aut admirari
aut optare aut expetere oportere nullique neque homini neque
perturbationi animi nec fortunae succumbere. Altera est res, ut, cum ita
sis affectus animo, ut supra dixi, res geras magnas illas quidem et
maxime utiles, sed [ut] vehementer arduas plenasque laborum et
periculorum cum vitae, tum multarum rerum, quae ad vitam pertinent.
*67* Harum rerum duarum splendor omnis, amplitudo, addo etiam
utilitatem, in posteriore est, causa autem et ratio efficiens magnos
viros in priore; in eo est enim illud, quod excellentes animos et humana
contemnentes facit. Id autem ipsum cernitur in duobus, si et solum id,
quod honestum sit, bonum iudices et ab omni animi perturbatione liber
sis. Nam et ea, quae eximia plerisque et praeclara videntur, parva
ducere eaque ratione stabili firmaque contemnere fortis animi magnique
ducendum est, et ea, quae videntur acerba, quae multa et varia in
hominum vita fortunaque versantur, ita ferre, ut nihil a statu naturae
discedas, nihil a dignitate sapientis, robusti animi est magnaeque
constantiae. *68* Non est autem consentaneum, qui metu non frangatur,
eum frangi cupiditate nec, qui invictum se a labore praestiterit, vinci
a voluptate. Quam ob rem et haec vitanda[63] et pecuniae fugienda
cupiditas; nihil enim est tam angusti animi tamque parvi quam amare
divitias, nihil honestius magnificentiusque quam pecuniam contemnere, si
non habeas, si habeas, ad beneficentiam liberalitatemque conferre.
Cavenda etiam est gloriae cupiditas, ut supra dixi; eripit enim
libertatem, pro qua magnanimis viris omnis debet esse contentio. Nec
vero imperia expetenda ac potius aut non accipienda interdum aut
deponenda non numquam.
*69* Vacandum autem omni est animi perturbatione, cum cupiditate et
metu, tum etiam aegritudine et voluptate nimia[64] et iracundia, ut
tranquillitas animi et securitas adsit, quae affert cum constantiam, tum
etiam dignitatem. Multi autem et sunt et fuerunt, qui eam, quam dico,
tranquillitatem expetentes a negotiis publicis se removerint ad otiumque
perfugerint; in his et nobilissimi philosophi longeque principes et
quidam homines severi et graves nec populi nec principum mores ferre
potuerunt, vixeruntque non nulli in agris delectati re sua familiari.
*70* His idem propositum fuit, quod regibus, ut ne qua re egerent, ne
cui parerent, libertate uterentur, cuius proprium est sic vivere, ut
velis.
[62] _persuasum est_ Madvig (ad de Fin. p. 448 ff.), Edd.;
_p. sit_ MSS.
[63] _vitanda_ Edd. (cum duobus codd. Guelpherbytanis);
_videnda_ MSS.
[64] _voluptate nimia_ Orelli, Müller; _voluptate animi_ A H
L a b c; _vol. animi et securitas_ (_et iracundia ut tr.
animi_ by a later hand on the margin) B; _voluptate_
[_animi_], Bt., Heine.
#Characteristics of Fortitude:#
*66* XX. The soul that is altogether courageous and great is marked
above all by two characteristics: one of these is indifference to
outward circumstances; for such a person cherishes the conviction that
nothing but moral goodness and propriety deserves to be either admired
or wished for or striven after, and that he ought not to be subject to
any man or any passion or any accident of fortune. The second
characteristic is that, when the soul is disciplined in the way above
mentioned, one should do deeds not only great and in the highest degree
useful, but extremely arduous and laborious and fraught with danger both
to life and to many things that make life worth living.
#(1) Moral courage.#
*67* All the glory and greatness and, I may add, all the usefulness of
these two characteristics of courage are centred in the latter; the
rational cause that makes men great, in the former. #Indifference to
outward fortunes.# For it is the former that contains the element that
makes souls pre-eminent and indifferent to worldly fortune. And this
quality is distinguished by two criteria: (1) if one account moral
rectitude as the only good; and (2) if one be free from all passion. For
we must agree that it takes a brave and heroic soul to hold as slight
what most people think grand and glorious, and to disregard it from
fixed and settled principles. And it requires strength of character and
great singleness of purpose to bear what seems painful, as it comes to
pass in many and various forms in human life, and to bear it so
unflinchingly as not to be shaken in the least from one's natural state
of the dignity of a philosopher. *68* Moreover, it would be inconsistent
for the man who is not overcome by fear to be overcome by desire, or for
the man who has shown himself invincible to toil to be conquered by
pleasure. We must, therefore, not only avoid the latter, but also
beware of ambition for wealth; for there is nothing so characteristic of
narrowness and littleness of soul as the love of riches; and there is
nothing more honourable and noble than to be indifferent to money, if
one does not possess it, and to devote it to beneficence and liberality,
if one does possess it.
As I said before, we must also beware of ambition for glory; for it robs
us of liberty, and in defence of liberty a high-souled man should stake
everything. And one ought not to seek military authority; nay, rather it
ought sometimes to be declined,[N] sometimes to be resigned.[O]
#(3) Freedom from passion.#
*69* Again, we must keep ourselves free from every disturbing emotion,
not only from desire and fear, but also from excessive pain and
pleasure, and from anger, so that we may enjoy that calm of soul and
freedom from care which bring both moral stability and dignity of
character. #The retired life.# But there have been many and still are
many who, while pursuing that calm of soul of which I speak, have
withdrawn from civic duty and taken refuge in retirement. Among such
have been found the most famous and by far the foremost philosophers[P]
and certain other[Q] earnest, thoughtful men who could not endure the
conduct of either the people or their leaders; some of them, too, lived
in the country and found their pleasure in the management of their
private estates. *70* Such men have had the same aims as kings--to
suffer no want, to be subject to no authority, to enjoy their liberty,
that is, in its essence, to live just as they please.
[N] As Cicero did at the expiration of his consulship.
[O] As Sulla did in his dictatorship. The contrast to Caesar
is the more striking for Cicero's not mentioning it.
[P] e.g. Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras.
[Q] Such as Cicero's friend, Atticus, and Marcus Piso.
XXI. Quare cum hoc commune sit potentiae cupidorum cum iis, quos dixi,
otiosis, alteri se adipisci id posse arbitrantur, si opes magnas
habeant, alteri, si contenti sint et suo et parvo. In quo neutrorum
omnino contemnenda sententia est, sed et facilior et tutior et minus
aliis gravis aut molesta vita est otiosorum, fructuosior autem hominum
generi et ad claritatem amplitudinemque aptior eorum, qui se ad rem
publicam et ad magnas res gerendas accommodaverunt.
*71* Quapropter et iis forsitan concedendum sit rem publicam non
capessentibus, qui excellenti ingenio doctrinae sese dediderunt, et iis,
qui aut valetudinis imbecillitate aut aliqua graviore causa impediti a
re publica recesserunt, cum eius administrandae potestatem aliis
laudemque concederent. Quibus autem talis nulla sit causa, si despicere
se dicant ea, quae plerique mirentur, imperia et magistratus, iis non
modo non laudi, verum etiam vitio dandum puto; quorum iudicium in eo,
quod gloriam contemnant et pro nihilo putent, difficile factu est non
probare; sed videntur labores et molestias, tum offensionum et
repulsarum quasi quandam ignominiam timere et infamiam. Sunt enim, qui
in rebus contrariis parum sibi constent, voluptatem severissime
contemnant, in dolore sint molliores, gloriam neglegant, frangantur
infamia, atque ea quidem non satis constanter.
*72* Sed iis, qui habent a natura adiumenta rerum gerendarum, abiecta
omni cunctatione adipiscendi magistrates et gerenda res publica est; nec
enim aliter aut regi civitas aut declarari animi magnitudo potest.
Capessentibus autem rem publicam nihilo[65] minus quam philosophis, haud
scio an magis etiam et magnificentia et despicientia adhibenda est[66]
rerum humanarum, quam saepe dico, et tranquillitas animi atque
securitas, siquidem nec anxii futuri sunt et cum gravitate constantiaque
victuri. *73* Quae faciliora sunt philosophis, quo minus multa patent in
eorum vita, quae fortuna feriat, et quo minus multis rebus egent, et
quia, si quid adversi eveniat, tam graviter cadere non possunt. Quocirca
non sine causa maiores motus animorum concitantur maioraque studia
efficiendi[67] rem publicam gerentibus quam quietis, quo magis iis et
magnitudo est animi adhibenda et vacuitas ab angoribus.
Ad rem gerendam autem qui accedit, caveat, ne id modo consideret, quam
illa res honesta sit, sed etiam ut habeat efficiendi facultatem; in quo
ipso considerandum est, ne aut temere desperet propter ignaviam aut
nimis confidat propter cupiditatem. In omnibus autem negotiis, prius
quam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens.
[65] _nihilo_ Wesenberg, Edd.; _nihil_ MSS.
[66] _est_ Manutius, Edd.; _sit_ MSS.
[67] _maioraque studia efficiendi_ Unger, Müller; _maioraque
efficiendi_ A^1 B H L b c; _maiorque cura efficiendi_ a, Bt.,
Heine; _maioraque efficienda_ A^2 p.
#The life of public service _vs._ the life of retirement.#
XXI. So, while this desire is common to men of political ambitions and
men of retirement, of whom I have just spoken, the one class think they
can attain their end if they secure large means; the other, if they are
content with the little they have. And in this matter, neither way of
thinking is altogether to be condemned; but the life of retirement is
easier and safer and at the same time less burdensome or troublesome to
others, while the career of those who apply themselves to statecraft and
to conducting great enterprises is more profitable to mankind and
contributes more to their own greatness and renown.
*71* So perhaps those men of extraordinary genius who have devoted
themselves to learning must be excused for not taking part in public
affairs; likewise, those who from ill-health or for some still more
valid reason have retired from the service of the state and left to
others the opportunity and the glory of its administration. But if those
who have no such excuse profess a scorn for civil and military offices,
which most people admire, I think that this should be set down not to
their credit but to their discredit; for in so far as they care little,
as they say, for glory and count it as naught, it is difficult not to
sympathize with their attitude; in reality, however, they seem to dread
the toil and trouble and also, perhaps, the discredit and humiliation of
political failure and defeat. For there are people who in opposite
circumstances do not act consistently: they have the utmost contempt for
pleasure, but in pain they are too sensitive; they are indifferent to
glory, but they are crushed by disgrace; and even in their inconsistency
they show no great consistency.
#Public service a duty.#
*72* But those whom Nature has endowed with the capacity for
administering public affairs should put aside all hesitation, enter the
race for public office, and take a hand in directing the government; for
in no other way can a government be administered or greatness of spirit
be made manifest. Statesmen, too, no less than philosophers--perhaps
even more so--should carry with them that greatness of spirit and
indifference to outward circumstances to which I so often refer,
together with calm of soul and freedom from care, if they are to be free
from worries and lead a dignified and self-consistent life. *73* This is
easier for the philosophers; as their life is less exposed to the
assaults of fortune, their wants are fewer; and if any misfortune
overtakes them, their fall is not so disastrous. Not without reason,
therefore, are stronger emotions aroused in those who engage in public
life than in those who live in retirement, and greater is their ambition
for success; the more, therefore, do they need to enjoy greatness of
spirit and freedom from annoying cares.
If anyone is entering public life, let him beware of thinking only of
the honour that it brings; but let him be sure also that he has the
ability to succeed. At the same time, let him take care not to lose
heart too readily through discouragement nor yet to be over-confident
through ambition. In a word, before undertaking any enterprise, careful
preparation must be made.
*74* XXII. Sed cum plerique arbitrentur res bellicas maiores esse quam
urbanas, minuenda est haec opinio. Multi enim bella saepe quaesiverunt
propter gloriae cupiditatem, atque id in magnis animis ingeniisque
plerumque contingit, eoque magis, si sunt ad rem militarem apti et
cupidi bellorum gerendorum; vere autem si volumus iudicare, multae res
exstiterunt urbanae maiores clarioresque quam bellicae.
*75* Quamvis enim Themistocles iure laudetur et sit eius nomen quam
Solonis illustrius citeturque Salamis clarissimae testis victoriae, quae
anteponatur consilio Solonis ei, quo primum constituit Areopagitas, non
minus praeclarum hoc quam illud iudicandum est; illud enim semel
profuit, hoc semper proderit civitati; hoc consilio leges Atheniensium,
hoc maiorum instituta servantur; et Themistocles quidem nihil dixerit,
in quo ipse Areopagum adiuverit, at ille vere a[68] se adiutum
Themistoclem; est enim bellum gestum consilio senatus eius, qui a Solone
erat constitutus.
*76* Licet eadem de Pausania Lysandroque dicere, quorum rebus gestis
quamquam imperium Lacedaemoniis partum[69] putatur, tamen ne minima
quidem ex parte Lycurgi legibus et disciplinae conferendi sunt; quin
etiam ob has ipsas causas et parentiores habuerunt exercitus et
fortiores. Mihi quidem neque pueris nobis M. Scaurus C. Mario neque, cum
versaremur in re publica, Q. Catulus Cn. Pompeio cedere videbatur; parvi
enim sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi; nec plus Africanus,
singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae
profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum
interemit; quamquam haec quidem res non solum ex domestica est ratione
(attingit etiam bellicam, quoniam vi manuque confecta est), sed tamen id
ipsum est gestum consilio urbano sine exercitu.
#Cic., de temp. suis, iii#
*77* Illud autem optimum est, in quod invadi solere ab improbis et
invidis audio:
"Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi."
Ut enim alios omittam, nobis rem publicam gubernantibus nonne togae arma
cesserunt? neque enim periculum in re publica fuit gravius umquam nec
maius otium. Ita consiliis diligentiaque nostra celeriter de manibus
audacissimorum civium delapsa arma ipsa ceciderunt. Quae res igitur
gesta umquam in bello tanta? *78* qui triumphus conferendus? licet enim
mihi, M. fili, apud te gloriari, ad quem et hereditas huius gloriae et
factorum imitatio pertinet. Mihi quidem certe vir abundans bellicis
laudibus, Cn. Pompeius, multis audientibus hoc tribuit, ut diceret
frustra se triumphum tertium deportaturum fuisse, nisi meo in rem
publicam beneficio, ubi triumpharet, esset habiturus.
Sunt igitur domesticae fortitudines non inferiores militaribus; in
quibus plus etiam quam in his operae studiique ponendum est.
[68] _a_ Edd.; not in MSS.; _se adiutum_ A B H b, Edd.;
_adiuvit_ L^1 c p; _se adiutum ab illo dixerit (?)
Themistocles_ L^2.
[69] _L. partum_ Lambinus, Müller; _partum L._, Bt.; om.
_partum_ A^1 B H L^1 a b; _L. dilatatum_ A^2; _dilatatum L._
L^2 c.
#Victories of war _vs._ victories of peace.#
*74* XXII. Most people think that the achievements of war are more
important than those of peace; but this opinion needs to be corrected.
For many men have sought occasions for war from the mere ambition for
fame. This is notably the case with men of great spirit and natural
ability, and it is the more likely to happen, if they are adapted to a
soldier's life and fond of warfare. But if we will face the facts, we
shall find that there have been many instances of achievement in peace
more important and no less renowned than in war.
#Themistocles _vs._ Solon.#
*75* However highly Themistocles, for example, may be extolled--and
deservedly--and however much more illustrious his name may be than
Solon's, and however much Salamis may be cited as witness of his most
glorious victory--a victory glorified above Solon's statesmanship in
instituting the Areopagus--yet Solon's achievement is not to be
accounted less illustrious than his. For Themistocles's victory served
the state once and only once; while Solon's work will be of service for
ever. For through his legislation the laws of the Athenians and the
institutions of their fathers are maintained. And while Themistocles
could not readily point to any instance in which he himself had rendered
assistance to the Areopagus, the Areopagus might with justice assert
that Themistocles had received assistance from it; for the war was
directed by the counsels of that senate which Solon had created.
#Pausanias and Lysander _vs._ Lycurgus.#
*76* The same may be said of Pausanias and Lysander. Although it is
thought that it was by their achievements that Sparta gained her
supremacy, yet these are not even remotely to be compared with the
legislation and discipline of Lycurgus. Nay, rather, it was due to these
that Pausanias and Lysander had armies so brave and so well disciplined.
For my own part, I do not consider that Marcus Scaurus was inferior to
Gaius Marius, when I was a lad, or Quintus Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey,
when I was engaged in public life. For arms are of little value in the
field unless there is wise counsel at home. So, too, Africanus, though
a great man and a soldier of extraordinary ability, did no greater
service to the state by destroying Numantia than was done at the same
time by Publius Nasica, though not then clothed with official authority,
by removing Tiberius Gracchus. This deed does not, to be sure, belong
wholly to the domain of civil affairs; it partakes of the nature of war
also since it was effected by violence; but it was, for all that,
executed as a political measure without the help of an army.
#Cicero's great victory.#
*77* The whole truth, however, is in this verse, against which, I am
told, the malicious and envious are wont to rail:
"Yield, ye arms, to the toga; to civic praises,[R] ye laurels."[S]
Not to mention other instances, did not arms yield to the toga, when I
was at the helm of state? For never was the republic in more serious
peril, never was peace more profound. Thus, as the result of my counsels
and my vigilance, their weapons slipped suddenly from the hands of the
most desperate traitors--dropped to the ground of their own accord! What
achievement in war, then, was ever so great? *78* What triumph can be
compared with that? For I may boast to you, my son Marcus; for to you
belong the inheritance of that glory of mine and the duty of imitating
my deeds. And it was to me, too, that Gnaeus Pompey, a hero crowned with
the honours of war, paid this tribute in the hearing of many, when he
said that his third triumph would have been gained in vain, if he were
not to have through my services to the state a place in which to
celebrate it.
There are, therefore, instances of civic courage that are not inferior
to the courage of the soldier. Nay, the former calls for even greater
energy and greater devotion than the latter.
[R] The praises of Cicero for his overthrow of the conspiracy
of Catiline.
[S] The laurels of the triumphant general.
*79* XXIII. Omnino illud honestum, quod ex animo excelso magnificoque
quaerimus, animi efficitur, non corporis viribus. Exercendum tamen
corpus et ita afficiendum est, ut oboedire consilio rationique possit in
exsequendis negotiis et in labore tolerando. Honestum autem id, quod
exquirimus, totum est positum in animi cura et cogitatione; in quo non
minorem utilitatem afferunt, qui togati rei publicae praesunt, quam qui
bellum gerunt. Itaque eorum consilio saepe aut non suscepta aut confecta
bella sunt, non numquam etiam illata, ut M. Catonis bellum tertium
Punicum, in quo etiam mortui valuit auctoritas. *80* Quare expetenda
quidem magis est decernendi ratio quam decertandi fortitudo, sed
cavendum, ne id bellandi magis fuga quam utilitatis ratione faciamus.
Bellum autem ita suscipiatur, ut nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita videatur.
Fortis vero animi et constantis est non perturbari in rebus asperis nec
tumultuantem de gradu deici, ut dicitur, sed praesenti animo uti et
consilio nec a ratione discedere.
*81* Quamquam hoc animi, illud etiam ingenii magni est, praecipere
cogitatione futura et aliquanto[70] ante constituere, quid accidere
possit in utramque partem, et quid agendum sit, cum quid evenerit, nec
committere, ut aliquando dicendum sit: "Non putaram."
Haec sunt opera magni animi et excelsi et prudentia consilioque
fidentis; temere autem in acie versari et manu cum hoste confligere
immane quiddam et beluarum simile est; sed cum tempus necessitasque
postulat, decertandum manu est et mors servituti turpitudinique
anteponenda.
[70] _aliquanto_ Edd.; _aliquando_ MSS.
#(2) Physical courage.#
*79* XXIII. That moral goodness which we look for in a lofty,
high-minded spirit is secured, of course, by moral, not by physical,
strength. And yet the body must be trained and so disciplined that it
can obey the dictates of judgment and reason in attending to business
and in enduring toil. But that moral goodness which is our theme depends
wholly upon the thought and attention given to it by the mind. And in
this way, the men who in a civil capacity direct the affairs of the
nation render no less important service than they who conduct its wars:
by their statesmanship oftentimes wars are either averted or terminated;
sometimes also they are declared. Upon Marcus Cato's counsel, for
example, the Third Punic War was undertaken, and in its conduct his
influence was dominant, even after he was dead. *80* And so diplomacy in
the friendly settlement of controversies is more desirable than courage
in settling them on the battlefield; but we must be careful not to take
that course merely for the sake of avoiding war rather than for the sake
of public expediency. War, however, should be undertaken in such a way
as to make it evident that it has no other object than to secure peace.
But it takes a brave and resolute spirit not to be disconcerted in
times of difficulty or ruffled and thrown off one's feet, as the saying
is, but to keep one's presence of mind and one's self-possession and not
to swerve from the path of reason.
#Courage and discretion.#
*81* Now all this requires great personal courage; but it calls also
for great intellectual ability by reflection to anticipate the future,
to discover some time in advance what may happen whether for good or for
ill, and what must be done in any possible event, and never to be
reduced to having to say "I had not thought of that."
These are the activities that mark a spirit, strong, high, and
self-reliant in its prudence and wisdom. But to mix rashly in the fray
and to fight hand to hand with the enemy is but a barbarous and brutish
kind of business. Yet when the stress of circumstances demands it, we
must gird on the sword and prefer death to slavery and disgrace.
#Ch. XXII#
*82* XXIV. De evertendis autem diripiendisque urbibus valde
considerandum est ne quid temere, ne quid crudeliter. Idque est magni
viri, rebus agitatis punire sontes, multitudinem conservare, in omni
fortuna recta atque honesta retinere. Ut enim sunt, quem ad modum supra
dixi, qui urbanis rebus bellicas anteponant, sic reperias multos, quibus
periculosa et calida[71] consilia quietis et cogitatis[72] splendidiora
et maiora videantur.
*83* Nunquam omnino periculi fuga committendum est, ut imbelles
timidique videamur, sed fugiendum illud etiam, ne offeramus nos
periculis sine causa, quo esse nihil potest stultius. Quapropter in
adeundis periculis consuetudo imitanda medicorum est, qui leviter
aegrotantes leniter curant, gravioribus autem morbis periculosas
curationes et ancipites adhibere coguntur. Quare in tranquillo
tempestatem adversam optare dementis est, subvenire autem tempestati
quavis ratione sapientis, eoque magis, si plus adipiscare re explicata
boni quam addubitata mali.
Periculosae autem rerum actiones partim iis[73] sunt, qui eas
suscipiunt, partim rei publicae. Itemque alii de vita, alii de gloria et
benivolentia civium in discrimen vocantur. Promptiores igitur debemus
esse ad nostra pericula quam ad communia dimicareque paratius de honore
et gloria quam de ceteris commodis.
*84* Inventi autem multi sunt, qui non modo pecuniam, sed etiam vitam
profundere pro patria parati essent, iidem gloriae iacturam ne minimam
quidem facere vellent, ne re publica quidem postulante; ut
Callicratidas, qui, cum Lacedaemoniorum dux fuisset Peloponnesiaco bello
multaque fecisset egregie, vertit ad extremum omnia, cum consilio non
paruit eorum, qui classem ab Arginusis removendam nec cum Atheniensibus
dimicandum putabant; quibus ille respondit Lacedaemonios classe illa
amissa aliam parare posse, se fugere sine suo dedecore non posse. Atque
haec quidem Lacedaemoniis[74] plaga mediocris, illa pestifera, qua, cum
Cleombrotus invidiam timens temere cum Epaminonda conflixisset
Lacedaemoniorum opes corruerunt.
#Ann. xii, Vahlen^2, 370-372#
Quanto Q. Maximus melius! de quo Ennius:
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem.
Noenum rumores ponebat[75] ante salutem.
Ergo postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret.
Quod genus peccandi vitandum est etiam in rebus urbanis. Sunt enim, qui,
quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant[76]
dicere.
[71] _calida_ Nonius, Edd.; _callida_ MSS.
[72] _consilia quietis et cogitatis_ Edd.; _consilia et
quietis et cogitationis_ A B H a b; _consilia et quietis
cogitationibus_ c p.
[73] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ MSS.
[74] _quidem Lacedaemoniis_ Edd., _quidem de Lacedaemoniis_
MSS.
[75] _Noenum rumores ponebat_ Lachmann (ad Lucr. III, 198);
_Non enim rumores ponebat_ MSS.; _Non ponebat enim_ alii.
[76] _audeant_ Ernesti; _audent_ MSS., Bt.^1, Heine.
*82* XXIV. As to destroying and plundering cities, let me say that great
care should be taken that nothing be done in reckless cruelty or
wantonness. And it is a great man's duty in troublous times to single
out the guilty for punishment, to spare the many, and in every turn of
fortune to hold to a true and honourable course. For whereas there are
many, as I have said before, who place the achievements of war above
those of peace, so one may find many to whom adventurous, hot-headed
counsels seem more brilliant and more impressive than calm and
well-considered measures.
#Courage in times of doubt and danger.#
*83* We must, of course, never be guilty of seeming cowardly and craven
in our avoidance of danger; but we must also beware of exposing
ourselves to danger needlessly. Nothing can be more foolhardy than that.
Accordingly, in encountering danger we should do as doctors do in their
practice: in light cases of illness they give mild treatment; in cases
of dangerous sickness they are compelled to apply hazardous and even
desperate remedies. It is, therefore, only a madman who, in a calm,
would pray for a storm; a wise man's way is, when the storm does come,
to withstand it with all the means at his command, and especially, when
the advantages to be expected in case of a successful issue are greater
than the hazards of the struggle.
#Patriotism and self-sacrifice.#
The dangers attending great affairs of state fall sometimes upon those
who undertake them, sometimes upon the state. In carrying out such
enterprises, some run the risk of losing their lives, others their
reputation and the good-will of their fellow-citizens. It is our duty,
then, to be more ready to endanger our own than the public welfare and
to hazard honour and glory more readily than other advantages.[T]
*84* Many, on the other hand, have been found who were ready to pour
out not only their money but their lives for their country and yet would
not consent to make even the slightest sacrifice of personal glory--even
though the interests of their country demanded it. For example, when
Callicratidas, as Spartan admiral in the Peloponnesian War, had won many
signal successes, he spoiled everything at the end by refusing to listen
to the proposal of those who thought he ought to withdraw his fleet from
the Arginusae and not to risk an engagement with the Athenians. His
answer to them was that "the Spartans could build another fleet, if they
lost that one, but he could not retreat without dishonour to himself."
And yet what he did dealt only a slight blow to Sparta; there was
another which proved disastrous, when Cleombrotus in fear of criticism
recklessly went into battle against Epaminondas. In consequence of that,
the Spartan power fell.
How much better was the conduct of Quintus Maximus! Of him Ennius says:
"One man--and he alone--restored our state by delaying.
Not in the least did fame with him take precedence of safety;
Therefore now does his glory shine bright, and it grows ever
brighter."
This sort of offence[U] must be avoided no less in political life. For
there are men who for fear of giving offence do not dare to express
their honest opinion, no matter how excellent.
[T] Such as the esteem and good-will of fellow-citizens;
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; the existence of
the state and all the advantages it brings.
[U] Sacrificing public interests to personal glory.
*85* XXV. Omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt, duo Platonis
praecepta teneant, #Rep. i. 342 E# unum, ut utilitatem civium sic
tueantur, ut, quaecumque agunt, ad eam referant obliti commodorum
suorum, #Rep. iv, 420 B# alterum, ut totum corpus rei publicae curent,
ne, dum partem aliquam tuentur, reliquas deserant. Ut enim tutela, sic
procuratio rei publicae ad eorum utilitatem, qui commissi sunt, non ad
eorum, quibus commissa est, gerenda est. Qui autem parti civium
consulunt, partem neglegunt, rem perniciosissimam in civitatem inducunt,
seditionem atque discordiam; ex quo evenit, ut alii populares, alii
studiosi optimi cuiusque videantur, pauci universorum.
*86* Hinc apud Atheniensis magnae discordiae, in nostra re publica non
solum seditiones, sed etiam pestifera bella civilia; quae gravis et
fortis civis et in re publica dignus principatu fugiet atque oderit
tradetque se totum rei publicae neque opes aut potentiam consectabitur
totamque eam sic tuebitur, ut omnibus consulat; nec vero criminibus
falsis in odium aut invidiam quemquam vocabit omninoque ita iustitiae
honestatique adhaerescet, ut, dum ea conservet, quamvis graviter
offendat mortemque oppetat potius quam deserat illa, quae dixi.
#Rep. vi, 488 B; 489 C#
*87* Miserrima omnino est ambitio honorumque contentio, de qua praeclare
apud eundem est Platonem, "similiter facere eos, qui inter se
contenderent, uter potius rem publicam administraret, ut si nautae
certarent, quis eorum potissimum gubernaret." #Rep. viii, 567 C; Leg.
ix, 856 B# Idemque praecipit, ut "eos adversarios existimemus, qui arma
contra ferant, non eos, qui suo iudicio tueri rem publicam velint,"
qualis fuit inter P. Africanum et Q. Metellum sine acerbitate dissensio.
*88* Nec vero audiendi, qui graviter inimicis irascendum putabunt idque
magnanimi et fortis viri esse censebunt; nihil enim laudabilius, nihil
magno et praeclaro viro dignius placabilitate atque clementia. In
liberis vero populis et in iuris aequabilitate exercenda etiam est
facilitas et altitudo animi, quae dicitur, ne, si irascamur aut
intempestive accedentibus aut impudenter rogantibus, in morositatem
inutilem et odiosam incidamus. Et tamen ita probanda est mansuetudo
atque clementia, ut adhibeatur rei publicae causa severitas, sine qua
administrari civitas non potest. Omnis autem et animadversio et
castigatio contumelia vacare debet neque ad eius, qui punitur[77]
aliquem aut verbis castigat,[78] sed ad rei publicae utilitatem referri.
*89* Cavendum est etiam, ne maior poena quam culpa sit, et ne isdem de
causis alii plectantur, alii ne appellentur quidem. Prohibenda autem
maxime est ira in puniendo; numquam enim, iratus qui accedet ad poenam,
mediocritatem illam tenebit, quae est inter nimium et parum, quae placet
Peripateticis, et recte placet, modo ne laudarent iracundiam et dicerent
utiliter a natura datam. Illa vero omnibus in rebus repudianda est
optandumque, ut ii, qui praesunt rei publicae, legum similes sint, quae
ad puniendum non iracundia, sed aequitate dicuntur.
[77] _punitur_ Nonius, Edd.; _punit_ a; _puniet_ A B H b c.
[78] _castigat_ MSS.; _fatigat_ Nonius, Orelli.
#Public administration must be free from#
*85* XXV. Those who propose to take charge of the affairs of government
should not fail to remember two of Plato's rules: first, to keep the
good of the people so clearly in view that regardless of their own
interests they will make their every action conform to that; second, to
care for the welfare of the whole body politic and not in serving the
interests of some one party to betray the rest. #(1) partisanship,# For
the administration of the government, like the office of a trustee, must
be conducted for the benefit of those entrusted to one's care, not of
those to whom it is entrusted. Now, those who care for the interests of
a part of the citizens and neglect another part, introduce into the
civil service a dangerous element--dissension and party strife. The
result is that some are found to be loyal supporters of the democratic,
others of the aristocratic party, and few of the nation as a whole.
*86* As a result of this party spirit bitter strife arose at Athens,[V]
and in our own country not only dissensions[W] but also disastrous civil
wars[X] broke out. All this the citizen who is patriotic, brave, and
worthy of a leading place in the state will shun with abhorrence; he
will dedicate himself unreservedly to his country, without aiming at
influence or power for himself; and he will devote himself to the state
in its entirety in such a way as to further the interests of all.
Besides, he will not expose anyone to hatred or disrepute by groundless
charges, but he will surely cleave to justice and honour so closely that
he will submit to any loss, however heavy, rather than be untrue to
them, and will face death itself rather than renounce them.
#(2) self-seeking,#
*87* A most wretched custom, assuredly, is our electioneering and
scrambling for office. Concerning this also we find a fine thought in
Plato: "Those who compete against one another," he says, "to see which
of two candidates shall administer the government, are like sailors
quarrelling as to which one of them shall do the steering." And he
likewise lays down the rule that we should regard only those as
adversaries who take up arms against the state, not those who strive to
have the government administered according to their convictions. This
was the spirit of the disagreement between Publius Africanus and Quintus
Metellus: there was in it no trace of rancour.
#(3) vindictiveness,#
*88* Neither must we listen to those who think that one should indulge
in violent anger against one's political enemies and imagine that such
is the attitude of a great-spirited, brave man. For nothing is more
commendable, nothing more becoming in a pre-eminently great man than
courtesy and forbearance. Indeed, in a free people, where all enjoy
equal rights before the law, we must school ourselves to affability and
what is called "mental poise"[Y]; for if we are irritated when people
intrude upon us at unseasonable hours or make unreasonable requests, we
shall develop a sour, churlish temper, prejudicial to ourselves and
offensive to others. And yet gentleness of spirit and forbearance are to
be commended only with the understanding that strictness may be
exercised for the good of the state; for without that, the government
cannot be well administered. On the other hand, if punishment or
correction must be administered, it need not be insulting; it ought to
have regard to the welfare of the state, not to the personal
satisfaction of the man who administers the punishment or reproof.
#(4) anger.#
*89* We should take care also that the punishment shall not be out of
proportion to the offence, and that some shall not be chastised for the
same fault for which others are not even called to account. In
administering punishment it is above all necessary to allow no trace of
anger. For if anyone proceeds in a passion to inflict punishment, he
will never observe that happy mean which lies between excess and defect.
This doctrine of the mean is approved by the Peripatetics--and wisely
approved, if only they did not speak in praise of anger and tell us that
it is a gift bestowed on us by Nature for a good purpose. But in
reality, anger is in every circumstance to be eradicated; and it is to
be desired that they who administer the government should be like the
laws, which are led to inflict punishment not by wrath but by justice.
[V] From the death of Pericles on.
[W] Such as the conspiracy of Catiline.
[X] The civil wars of Marius and Sulla, Caesar and Pompey.
[Y] The quality elsewhere expressed by Cicero with
βαθύτης--'depth,' 'reserve,' the art of concealing and
controlling one's feelings under an outward serenity of
manner.
*90* XXVI. Atque etiam in rebus prosperis et ad voluntatem nostram
fluentibus superbiam magnopere, fastidium arrogantiamque fugiamus. Nam
ut adversas res, sic secundas immoderate ferre levitatis est,
praeclaraque est aequabilitas in omni vita et idem semper vultus
eademque frons, ut de Socrate itemque[79] de C. Laelio accepimus.[80]
Philippum quidem, Macedonum regem, rebus gestis et gloria superatum a
filio, facilitate et humanitate video superiorem fuisse; itaque alter
semper magnus, alter saepe turpissimus; ut recte praecipere videantur,
qui monent, ut, quanto superiores simus, tanto nos geramus summissius.
Panaetius quidem Africanum, auditorem et familiarem suum, solitum ait
dicere, "ut equos propter crebras contentiones proeliorum ferocitate
exsultantes domitoribus tradere soleant, ut iis[81] facilioribus possint
uti, sic homines secundis rebus effrenatos sibique praefidentes tamquam
in gyrum rationis et doctrinae duci oportere, ut perspicerent rerum
humanarum imbecillitatem varietatemque fortunae."
*91* Atque etiam in secundissimis rebus maxime est utendum consilio
amicorum iisque maior etiam quam ante tribuenda auctoritas. Isdemque
temporibus cavendum est, ne assentatoribus patefaciamus auris neve[82]
adulari nos sinamus, in quo falli facile est; tales enim nos esse
putamus, ut iure laudemur; ex quo nascuntur innumerabilia peccata, cum
homines inflati opinionibus turpiter irridentur et in maximis versantur
erroribus.
Sed haec quidem hactenus.
*92* Illud autem sic est iudicandum, maximas geri res et maximi animi ab
iis,[83] qui res publicas regant, quod earum administratio latissime
pateat ad plurimosque pertineat; esse autem magni animi et fuisse multos
etiam in vita otiosa, qui aut investigarent aut conarentur magna quaedam
seseque suarum rerum finibus continerent aut interiecti inter
philosophos et eos, qui rem publicam administrarent, delectarentur re
sua familiari non eam quidem omni ratione exaggerantes neque excludentes
ab eius usu suos potiusque et amicis impertientes et rei publicae, si
quando usus esset. Quae primum bene parta[84] sit nullo neque turpi
quaestu neque odioso, deinde augeatur ratione, diligentia,
parsimonia,[85] tum quam plurimis, modo dignis, se utilem praebeat nec
libidini potius luxuriaeque quam liberalitati et beneficentiae pareat.
Haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice, graviter animoseque vivere
atque etiam simpliciter, fideliter,† vere hominum amice.
[79] _itemque_ H^2 a, Edd.; _idemque_ A B H^1 L b c.
[80] _accepimus_ B^2 a c, Edd.; _accipimus_ A B^1 H b.
[81] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ MSS.
[82] _neve_ Nonius, Edd.; _nec_ MSS.
[83] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ MSS.
[84] _parta_ B^1, Edd.; _parata_ A B^2 H L a b c.
[85] _deinde ... parsimonia_ Edd., after Unger, transpose; in
MSS. it follows _tum ... pareat_.
#Fortitude in prosperity.#
*90* XXVI. Again, when fortune smiles and the stream of life flows
according to our wishes, let us diligently avoid all arrogance,
haughtiness, and pride. For it is as much a sign of weakness to give way
to one's feelings in success as it is in adversity. But it is a fine
thing to keep an unruffled temper, an unchanging mien, and the same cast
of countenance in every condition of life; this, history tells us, was
characteristic of Socrates and no less of Gaius Laelius. Philip, king of
Macedon, I observe, however surpassed by his son in achievements and
fame, was superior to him in affability and refinement. Philip,
accordingly, was always great; Alexander, often infamously bad.
#Humility.# There seems to be sound advice, therefore, in this word of
warning: "The higher we are placed, the more humbly should we walk."
Panaetius tells us that Africanus, his pupil and friend, used to say:
"As, when horses have become mettlesome and unmanageable on account of
their frequent participation in battles, their owners put them in the
hands of trainers to make them more tractable; so men, who through
prosperity have become restive and over self-confident, ought to be put
into the training-ring, so to speak, of reason and learning, that they
may be brought to comprehend the frailty of human affairs and the
fickleness of fortune."
*91* The greater our prosperity, moreover, the more should we seek the
counsel of friends, and the greater the heed that should be given to
their advice. Under such circumstances also we must beware of lending an
ear to sycophants or allowing them to impose upon us with their
flattery. For it is easy in this way to deceive ourselves, since we thus
come to think ourselves duly entitled to praise; and to this frame of
mind a thousand delusions may be traced, when men are puffed up with
conceit and expose themselves to ignominy and ridicule by committing the
most egregious blunders.
So much for this subject.
#Greatness of mind in public and in private life.#
*92* To revert to the original question[Z]--we must decide that the most
important activities, those most indicative of a great spirit, are
performed by the men who direct the affairs of nations; for such public
activities have the widest scope and touch the lives of the most people.
But even in the life of retirement there are and there have been many
high-souled men who have been engaged in important inquiries or embarked
on most important enterprises and yet kept themselves within the limits
of their own affairs; or, taking a middle course between philosophers on
the one hand and statesmen on the other, they were content with managing
their own property--not increasing it by any and every means nor
debarring their kindred from the enjoyment of it, but rather, if ever
there were need, sharing it with their friends and with the state. Only
let it, in the first place, be honestly acquired, by the use of no
dishonest or fraudulent means; let it, in the second place, increase by
wisdom, industry, and thrift; and, finally, let it be made available for
the use of as many as possible (if only they are worthy) and be at the
service of generosity and beneficence rather than of sensuality and
excess.
By observing these rules, one may live in magnificence, dignity, and
independence, and yet in honour, truth and charity toward all.
[Z] § 70.
*93* XXVII. Sequitur, ut de una reliqua parte honestatis dicendum sit,
in qua verecundia et quasi quidam ornatus vitae, temperantia et
modestia omnisque sedatio perturbationum animi et rerum modus cernitur.
Hoc loco continetur id, quod dici Latine decorum potest; Graece enim
πρέπον dicitur. Huius[86] vis ea est, ut ab honesto non queat separari;
*94* nam et, quod decet, honestum est et, quod honestum est, decet;
qualis autem differentia sit honesti et decori, facilius intellegi quam
explanari potest. Quicquid est enim, quod deceat, id tum apparet, cum
antegressa est honestas. Itaque non solum in hac parte honestatis, de
qua hoc loco disserendum est, sed etiam in tribus superioribus quid
deceat apparet. Nam et ratione uti atque oratione prudenter et agere,
quod agas, considerate omnique in re quid sit veri videre et tueri
decet, contraque falli, errare, labi, decipi tam dedecet quam delirare
et mente esse captum; et iusta omnia decora sunt, iniusta contra, ut
turpia, sic indecora.
Similis est ratio fortitudinis. Quod enim viriliter animoque magno fit,
id dignum viro et decorum videtur, quod contra, id ut turpe, sic
indecorum.
*95* Quare pertinet quidem ad omnem honestatem hoc, quod dico, decorum,
et ita pertinet, ut non recondita quadam ratione cernatur, sed sit in
promptu. Est enim quiddam, idque intellegitur in omni virtute, quod
deceat; quod cogitatione magis a virtute potest quam re separari. Ut
venustas et pulchritudo corporis secerni non potest a valetudine, sic
hoc, de quo loquimur, decorum totum illud quidem est cum virtute
confusum, sed mente et cogitatione distinguitur.
*96* Est autem eius discriptio[87] duplex; nam et generale quoddam
decorum intellegimus, quod in omni honestate versatur, et aliud huic
subiectum, quod pertinet ad singulas partes honestatis. Atque illud
superius sic fere definiri solet: decorum id esse, quod consentaneum sit
hominis excellentiae in eo, in quo natura eius a reliquis animantibus
differat. Quae autem pars subiecta generi est, eam sic definiunt, ut id
decorum velint esse, quod ita naturae consentaneum sit, ut in eo
moderatio et temperantia appareat cum specie quadam liberali.
[86] _dicitur. Huius_ Edd.; _dicitur decorum. huius_ MSS.
[87] _discriptio_ b, Edd.; _descriptio_ A B H a; _distinctio_
L c.
#D. Temperance.#
*93* XXVII. We have next to discuss the one remaining division of moral
rectitude. That is the one in which we find considerateness and
self-control, which give, as it were, a sort of polish to life; it
embraces also temperance, complete subjection of all the passions, and
moderation in all things. #Propriety.# Under this head is further
included what, in Latin, may be called _decorum_[AA] (propriety); for in
Greek it is called πρέπον.[AA] Such is its essential nature, that it is
inseparable from moral goodness; *94* for what is proper is morally
right, and what is morally right is proper. The nature of the difference
between morality and propriety can be more easily felt than expressed.
For whatever propriety may be, it is manifested only when there is
pre-existing moral rectitude. And so, not only in this division of moral
rectitude which we have now to discuss but also in the three preceding
divisions, it is clearly brought out what propriety is. #Propriety and
the Cardinal Virtues.# For to employ reason and speech rationally, to do
with careful consideration whatever one does, and in everything to
discern the truth and to uphold it--that is proper. To be mistaken, on
the other hand, to miss the truth, to fall into error, to be led
astray--that is as improper as to be deranged and lose one's mind. And
all things just are proper; all things unjust, like all things immoral,
are improper.
The relation of propriety to fortitude is similar. What is done in a
manly and courageous spirit seems becoming to a man and proper; what is
done in a contrary fashion is at once immoral and improper.
*95* This propriety, therefore, of which I am speaking belongs to each
division of moral rectitude; and its relation to the cardinal virtues is
so close, that it is perfectly self-evident and does not require any
abstruse process of reasoning to see it. For there is a certain element
of propriety perceptible in every act of moral rectitude; and this can
be separated from virtue theoretically better than it can be
practically. As comeliness and beauty of person are inseparable from the
notion of health, so this propriety of which we are speaking, while in
fact completely blended with virtue, is mentally and theoretically
distinguishable from it.
#Propriety defined.#
*96* The classification of propriety, moreover, is twofold: (1) we
assume a general sort of propriety, which is found in moral goodness as
a whole; then (2) there is another propriety, subordinate to this, which
belongs to the several divisions of moral goodness. The former is
usually defined somewhat as follows: "Propriety is that which harmonizes
with man's superiority in those respects in which his nature differs
from that of the rest of the animal creation." And they so define the
special type of propriety which is subordinate to the general notion,
that they represent it to be that propriety which harmonizes with
nature, in the sense that it manifestly embraces temperance and
self-control, together with a certain deportment such as becomes a
gentleman.
[AA] _Decorum_ Cicero's attempt to translate πρέπον, means an
appreciation of the fitness of things, propriety in inward
feeling or outward appearance, in speech, behaviour, dress,
etc. _Decorum_ is as difficult to translate into English as
πρέπον is to reproduce in Latin; as an adjective, it is here
rendered by 'proper,' as a noun, by 'propriety.'
#Cic., Or. xxii, 71#
*97* XXVIII. Haec ita intellegi possumus existimare ex eo decoro, quod
poëtae sequuntur; de quo alio loco plura dici solent. Sed tum[88]
servare illud poëtas, quod deceat, dicimus, cum id, quod quaque persona
dignum est, et fit et dicitur; ut, si Aeacus aut Minos diceret:
#Attius, Atreus, Ribbeck^2, 203#
óderint, dum métuant,
aut:
#Ibid., 226#
natís sepulchro ipse ést parens,
indecorum videretur, quod eos fuisse iustos accepimus; at Atreo dicente
plausus excitantur; est enim digna persona oratio. Sed poëtae, quid
quemque deceat, ex persona iudicabunt; nobis autem personam imposuit
ipsa natura magna cum excellentia praestantiaque animantium
reliquarum.[89]
*98* Quocirca poëtae in magna varietate personarum, etiam vitiosis quid
conveniat et quid deceat, videbunt, nobis autem cum a natura
constantiae, moderationis, temperantiae, verecundiae partes datae sint,
cumque eadem natura doceat non neglegere, quem ad modum nos adversus
homines geramus, efficitur, ut et illud, quod ad omnem honestatem
pertinet, decorum quam late fusum sit, appareat et hoc, quod spectatur
in uno quoque genere virtutis. Ut enim pulchritudo corporis apta
compositione membrorum movet oculos et delectat hoc ipso, quod inter se
omnes partes cum quodam lepore consentiunt, sic hoc decorum, quod elucet
in vita, movet approbationem eorum, quibuscum vivitur, ordine et
constantia et moderatione dictorum omnium atque factorum.
*99* Adhibenda est igitur quaedam reverentia adversus homines et optimi
cuiusque et reliquorum. Nam neglegere, quid de se quisque sentiat, non
solum arrogantis est, sed etiam omnino dissoluti. Est autem, quod
differat in hominum ratione habenda inter iustitiam et verecundiam.
Iustitiae partes sunt non violare homines, verecundiae non offendere; in
quo maxime vis perspicitur decori.
His igitur expositis, quale sit id, quod decere dicimus, intellectum
puto.
*100* Officium autem, quod ab eo ducitur, hanc primum habet viam, quae
deducit ad convenientiam conservationemque naturae; quam si sequemur
ducem, numquam aberrabimus sequemurque et id, quod acutum et perspicax
natura est, et id, quod ad hominum consociationem accommodatum, et id,
quod vehemens atque forte. Sed maxima vis decori in hac inest parte, de
qua disputamus; neque enim solum corporis, qui ad naturam apti sunt, sed
multo etiam magis animi motus probandi, qui item ad naturam accommodati
sunt.
*101* Duplex est enim vis animorum atque natura;[90] una pars in
appetitu posita est, quae est ὁρμή Graece, quae hominem huc et illuc
rapit, altera in ratione, quae docet et[91] explanat, quid faciendum
fugiendumque[92] sit. Ita fit, ut ratio praesit, appetitus obtemperet.
[88] _Sed tum_ L c, Edd.; _sed ut tum_ A B H b.
[89] _reliquarum_ A^1 B^1 H a b; _reliquorum_ A^2 B^2 c.
[90] _natura_ Edd.; _naturae_ MSS.
[91] _et_ L c, Edd.; not in A B H b.
[92] _fugiendumque_ A B H a b; _fugiendumve_ L c p.
#Poetic propriety.#
*97* XXVIII. That this is the common acceptation of propriety we may
infer from that propriety which poets aim to secure. Concerning that, I
have occasion to say more in another connection. Now, we say that the
poets observe propriety, when every word or action is in accord with
each individual character. For example, if Aeacus or Minos said:
"Let them hate, if only they fear,"
or:
"The father is himself his children's tomb,"
that would seem improper, because we are told that they were just men.
But when Atreus speaks those lines, they call forth applause; for the
sentiment is in keeping with the character. But it will rest with the
poets to decide, according to the individual characters, what is proper
for each; but to us Nature herself has assigned a character of
surpassing excellence, far superior to that of all other living
creatures, and in accordance with that we shall have to decide what
propriety requires.
*98* The poets will observe, therefore, amid a great variety of
characters, what is suitable and proper for all--even for the bad.
#Moral propriety.# But to us Nature has assigned the rôles of
steadfastness, temperance, self-control, and considerateness of others;
Nature also teaches us not to be careless in our behaviour towards our
fellow-men. Hence we may clearly see how wide is the application not
only of that propriety which is essential to moral rectitude in general,
but also of the special propriety which is displayed in each particular
subdivision of virtue. For, as physical beauty with harmonious symmetry
of the limbs engages the attention and delights the eye, for the very
reason that all the parts combine in harmony and grace, so this
propriety, which shines out in our conduct, engages the approbation of
our fellow-men by the order, consistency, and self-control it imposes
upon every word and deed.
#Considerateness.#
*99* We should, therefore, in our dealings with people show what I may
almost call reverence toward all men--not only toward the men who are
the best, but toward others as well. For indifference to public opinion
implies not merely self-sufficiency, but even total lack of principle.
There is, too, a difference between justice and considerateness in one's
relations to one's fellow-men. It is the function of justice not to do
wrong to one's fellow-men; of considerateness, not to wound their
feelings; and in this the essence of propriety is best seen.
With the foregoing exposition, I think it is clear what the nature is of
what we term propriety.
#Duties prescribed by propriety:#
*100* Further, as to the duty which has its source in propriety, the
first road on which it conducts us leads to harmony with Nature and the
faithful observance of her laws. #(1) Follow Nature,# If we follow
Nature as our guide, we shall never go astray, but we shall be pursuing
that which is in its nature clear-sighted and penetrating (Wisdom), that
which is adapted to promote and strengthen society (Justice), and that
which is strong and courageous (Fortitude). But the very essence of
propriety is found in the division of virtue which is now under
discussion (Temperance). For it is only when they agree with Nature's
laws that we should give our approval to the movements not only of the
body, but still more of the spirit.
#(2) subject appetite to reason.#
*101* Now we find that the essential activity of the spirit is twofold:
one force is appetite (that is, ὁρμή, in Greek), which impels a man this
way and that; the other is reason, which teaches and explains what
should be done and what should be left undone. The result is that reason
commands, appetite obeys.
XXIX. Omnis autem actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia nec vero
agere quicquam, cuius non possit causam probabilem reddere; haec est
enim fere discriptio[93] officii.
*102* Efficiendum autem est, ut appetitus rationi oboediant eamque neque
praecurrant nec propter pigritiam aut ignaviam deserant sintque
tranquilli atque omni animi perturbatione careant; ex quo elucebit omnis
constantia omnisque moderatio. Nam qui appetitus longius evagantur et
tamquam exsultantes sive cupiendo sive fugiendo non satis a ratione
retinentur, ii[94] sine dubio finem et modum transeunt; relinquunt enim
et abiciunt oboedientiam nec rationi parent, cui sunt subiecti lege
naturae; a quibus non modo animi perturbantur, sed etiam corpora. Licet
ora ipsa cernere iratorum aut eorum, qui aut libidine aliqua aut metu
commoti sunt aut voluptate nimia gestiunt; quorum omnium voltus, voces,
motus statusque mutantur.
*103* Ex quibus illud intellegitur, ut ad officii formam revertamur,
appetitus omnes contrahendos sedandosque esse excitandamque
animadversionem et diligentiam, ut ne quid temere ac fortuito,
inconsiderate neglegenterque agamus. Neque enim ita generati a natura
sumus, ut ad ludum et iocum facti esse videamur, ad severitatem potius
et ad quaedam studia graviora atque maiora. Ludo autem et ioco uti illo
quidem licet, sed sicut somno et quietibus ceteris tum, cum gravibus
seriisque rebus satis fecerimus. Ipsumque genus iocandi non profusum nec
immodestum, sed ingenuum et facetum esse debet. Ut enim pueris non omnem
ludendi licentiam damus, sed eam, quae ab honestatis actionibus non sit
aliena, sic in ipso ioco aliquod probi ingenii lumen eluceat. *104*
Duplex omnino est iocandi genus, unum illiberale, petulans, flagitiosum,
obscenum, alterum elegans, urbanum, ingeniosum, facetum. Quo genere non
modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia, sed etiam
philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt, multaque multorum facete
dicta, ut ea, quae a sene Catone collecta sunt, quae vocant ἀποφθέγματα.
Facilis igitur est distinctio ingenui et illiberalis ioci. Alter est, si
tempore fit, ut si remisso animo, _gravissimo_ homine dignus,[95] alter
ne libero quidem, si rerum turpitudini adhibetur verborum[96]
obscenitas.
Ludendi etiam est quidam modus retinendus, ut ne nimis omnia profundamus
elatique voluptate in aliquam turpitudinem delabamur. Suppeditant autem
et campus noster et studia venandi honesta exempla ludendi.
[93] _discriptio_ B H, Bt.^1; _descriptio_ A L a b c, Bt.^2,
Müller, Heine.
[94] _ii_ Edd.; _hi_ a; _hii_ H; _hij_ c.
[95] _fit, ut si remisso animo, gravissimo homine dignus_
Ed.; _fit, ut_ (_et_ c) _remisso animo homine dignus_ MSS.;
_fit aut si rem. an. magno homine_ Madvig; _fit, ut sit
remissio animo, homine dignus_ Unger.
[96] _turpitudini adhibetur verborum_ A B H a b, Edd.;
_turpitudo adhibetur et verborum_ L c.
XXIX. Again, every action ought to be free from undue haste or
carelessness; neither ought we to do anything for which we cannot assign
a reasonable motive; for in these words we have practically a definition
of duty.
*102* The appetites, moreover, must be made to obey the reins of reason
and neither allowed to run ahead of it nor from listlessness or
indolence to lag behind; but people should enjoy calm of soul and be
free from every sort of passion. #Self-control in# #(1) passions,# As a
result strength of character and self-control will shine forth in all
their lustre. For when appetites overstep their bounds and galloping
away, so to speak, whether in desire or aversion, are not well held in
hand by reason, they clearly overleap all bound and measure; for they
throw obedience off and leave it behind and refuse to obey the reins of
reason, to which they are subject by Nature's laws. And not only minds
but bodies as well are disordered by such appetites. We need only to
look at the faces of men in a rage or under the influence of some
passion or fear or beside themselves with extravagant joy: in every
instance their features, voices, motions, attitudes undergo a change.
*103* From all this--to return to our sketch of duty--we see that all
the appetites must be controlled and calmed and that we must take
infinite pains not to do anything from mere impulse or at random,
without due consideration and care. #(2) amusements,# For Nature has not
brought us into the world to act as if we were created for play or jest,
but rather for earnestness and for some more serious and important
pursuits. We may, of course, indulge in sport and jest, but in the same
way as we enjoy sleep or other relaxations, and only when we have
satisfied the claims of our earnest, serious tasks. #(3) raillery,#
Further than that, the manner of jesting itself ought not to be
extravagant or immoderate, but refined and witty. For as we do not grant
our children unlimited licence to play, but only such freedom as is not
incompatible with good conduct, so even in our jesting let the light of
a pure character shine forth. *104* There are, generally speaking, two
sorts of jest: the one, coarse, rude, vicious, indecent; the other,
refined, polite, clever, witty. With this latter sort not only our own
Plautus and the Old Comedy of Athens, but also the books of Socratic
philosophy abound; and we have many witty sayings of many men--like
those collected by old Cato under the title of _Bons Mots_ (or
Apophthegms). So the distinction between the elegant and the vulgar jest
is an easy matter: the one kind, if well timed (for instance, in hours
of mental relaxation), is becoming to the most dignified person; the
other is unfit for any gentleman, if the subject is indecent and the
words obscene.
Then, too, certain bounds must be observed in our amusements and we must
be careful not to carry things too far and, swept away by our passions,
lapse into some shameful excess. Our Campus, however, and the amusements
of the chase are examples of wholesome recreation.
*105* XXX. Sed pertinet ad omnem officii quaestionem semper in promptu
habere, quantum natura hominis pecudibus reliquisque beluis antecedat;
illae nihil sentiunt nisi voluptatem ad eamque feruntur omni impetu,
hominis autem mens discendo alitur et cogitando, semper aliquid aut
anquirit aut agit videndique et audiendi delectatione ducitur. Quin
etiam, si quis est paulo ad voluptates propensior, modo ne sit ex
pecudum genere (sunt enim quidam homines non re, sed nomine), sed si
quis est paulo erectior, quamvis voluptate capiatur, occultat et
dissimulat appetitum voluptatis propter verecundiam.
*106* Ex quo intellegitur corporis voluptatem non satis esse dignam
hominis praestantia, eamque contemni et reici oportere; sin sit
quispiam, qui aliquid tribuat voluptati, diligenter ei tenendum esse
eius fruendae modum. Itaque victus cultusque corporis ad valetudinem
referatur et ad vires, non ad voluptatem. Atque etiam si considerare
volumus,[97] quae sit in natura excellentia et dignitas, intellegemus,
quam sit turpe diffluere luxuria et delicate ac molliter vivere quamque
honestum parce, continenter, severe, sobrie.
*107* Intellegendum etiam est duabus quasi nos a natura indutos esse
personis; quarum una communis est ex eo, quod omnes participes sumus
rationis praestantiaeque eius, qua antecellimus bestiis, a qua omne
honestum decorumque trahitur, et ex qua ratio inveniendi officii
exquiritur, altera autem, quae proprie singulis est tributa. Ut enim in
corporibus magnae dissimilitudines sunt (alios videmus velocitate ad
cursum, alios viribus ad luctandum valere, itemque in formis aliis
dignitatem inesse, aliis venustatem), sic in animis exsistunt maiores
etiam varietates. *108* Erat in L. Crasso, in L. Philippo multus lepos,
maior etiam magisque de industria in C. Caesare L. filio; at isdem
temporibus in M. Scauro et in M. Druso adulescente singularis severitas,
in C. Laelio multa hilaritas, in eius familiari Scipione ambitio maior,
vita tristior. De Graecis autem dulcem et facetum festivique sermonis
atque in omni oratione simulatorem, quem εἴρωνα Graeci[98] nominarunt,
Socratem accepimus, contra Pythagoram et Periclem summam auctoritatem
consecutos sine ulla hilaritate. Callidum Hannibalem ex Poenorum, ex
nostris ducibus Q. Maximum accepimus, facile celare, tacere,
dissimulare, insidiari, praeripere hostium consilia. In quo genere
Graeci Themistoclem et Pheraeum Iasonem ceteris anteponunt; in primisque
versutum et callidum factum Solonis, qui, quo et tutior eius vita esset
et plus aliquanto rei publicae prodesset, furere se simulavit.
*109* Sunt his alii multum dispares, simplices et aperti, qui nihil ex
occulto, nihil de insidiis agendum putant, veritatis cultores, fraudis
inimici, itemque alii, qui[99] quidvis perpetiantur, cuivis deserviant,
dum, quod velint, consequantur, ut Sullam et M. Crassum videbamus. Quo
in genere versutissimum et patientissimum Lacedaemonium Lysandrum
accepimus, contraque Callicratidam, qui praefectus classis proximus post
Lysandrum fuit; itemque in sermonibus alium [quemque], quamvis[100]
praepotens sit, efficere, ut unus de multis esse videatur; quod in
Catulo, et in patre et in filio, itemque in Q. Mucio† Mancia[101]
vidimus. Audivi ex maioribus natu hoc idem fuisse in P. Scipione Nasica,
contraque patrem eius, illum qui Ti. Gracchi conatus perditos
vindicavit, nullam comitatem habuisse sermonis [ne Xenocratem quidem,
severissimum philosophorum,][102] ob eamque rem ipsam magnum et clarum
fuisse.
Innumerabiles aliae dissimilitudines sunt naturae morumque, minime tamen
vituperandorum.
[97] _volumus_ A B^1 H^1 b; _volemus_ B^2 H^2, Bt., Heine;
_velimus_ L; _vellemus_ c.
[98] εἴρωνα _Graeci_ Edd.; _ironia graeci_ A B H b; _ironian
graeci_ a; _greci mironian_ c.
[99] _qui_ A L c; _si_ B H a b.
[100] _alium_ [_quemque_] _quamvis_ Ed.; _alium quemque
quamvis_ MSS.; _quemque alium quamvis_ p; _aliquem, quamvis_
Pearce, Bt.; _alium quamvis_, Facciolati, Heine.
[101] _et in patre et in filio_ A B b, Edd.; _et in patre et
filio_ H a; _et patre et filio_ L c. _itemque_ B H^2, Bt.^1,
Müller; _idemque_ A H^1 L a b c, Bt.^2, Heine. _in Q
Mucio_† _Mancia_ Heine, Bt.^2; _in q. mucio mantia_ B; _in
q. mutio mancia_ H L c; _in q. mutio mantia_ a; _inque mucio
mantia_ b; _inque mutio mantia_ A; _in q. muntio mantia_ p;
_in Q. Mucio, Mancia_ Müller.
[102] _ne_ (_nec_ c) _Xenocratem_ (_-n_ L c) ...
_philosophorum_ MSS.; bracketed by Heumann, Edd.
*105* XXX. But it is essential to every inquiry about duty that we keep
before our eyes how far superior man is by nature to cattle and other
beasts: they have no thought except for sensual pleasure and this they
are impelled by every instinct to seek; but man's mind is nurtured by
study and meditation; he is always either investigating or doing, and he
is captivated by the pleasure of seeing and hearing. #(4) pleasure.#
Nay, even if a man is more than ordinarily inclined to sensual
pleasures, provided, of course, that he be not quite on a level with the
beasts of the field (for some people are men only in name, not in
fact)--if, I say, he is a little too susceptible to the attractions of
pleasure, he hides the fact, however much he may be caught in its toils,
and for very shame conceals his appetite.
*106* From this we see that sensual pleasure is quite unworthy of the
dignity of man and that we ought to despise it and cast it from us; but
if some one should be found who sets some value upon sensual
gratification, he must keep strictly within the limits of moderate
indulgence. One's physical comforts and wants, therefore, should be
ordered according to the demands of health and strength, not according
to the calls of pleasure. And if we will only bear in mind the
superiority and dignity of our nature, we shall realize how wrong it is
to abandon ourselves to excess and to live in luxury and voluptuousness,
and how right it is to live in thrift, self-denial, simplicity, and
sobriety.
#The universal and the individual nature of man.#