settlement. It was taken possession of by the Romans in 15 B.C., and in
A.D. 50 the emperor Claudius raised it to a Roman municipium and named
it _Claudia Celeja_. It soon became one of the most flourishing Roman
colonies, and possessed numerous great buildings, of which the temple of
Mars was famous throughout the whole empire. It was incorporated with
Aquileia, under Constantine; and towards the end of the 6th century was
destroyed by the invading Slavs. It had a period of exceptional
prosperity from the middle of the 14th to the latter half of the 15th
century, under the counts of Cilli, on the extinction of which family it
fell to Austria. In the 16th century it suffered greatly both from
revolts of the peasantry and from the Counter-Reformation, Protestantism
having made many converts in the district, particularly among the
nobles.
See Glantschnigg, _Celeja_ (Cilli, 1892).
CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302), Italian painter, was born in
Florence of a respectable family, which seems to have borne the name of
Gualtieri, as well as that of Cimabue (Bullhead). He took to the arts of
design by natural inclination, and sought the society of men of learning
and accomplishment. Vasari, the historian of Italian painting, zealous
for his own native state of Florence, has left us the generally current
account of Cimabue, which later researches have to a great extent
invalidated. We cannot now accept his assertion that art, extinct in
Italy, was revived solely by Cimabue, after he had received some
training from Greek artists invited by the Florentine government to
paint the chapel of the Gondi in the church of S. Maria Novella; for
native Italian art was not then a nullity, and this church was only
begun when Cimabue was already forty years old; Even Lanzi's qualifying
statement that Greek artists, although they did not paint the chapel of
the Gondi, did execute rude decorations in a chapel below the existing
church, and may thus have inspired Cimabue, makes little difference in
the main facts. What we find as the general upshot is that some Italian
painters preceded Cimabue--particularly Guido of Siena and Giunta of
Pisa; that he worked on much the same principle as they, and to a like
result; but that he was nevertheless the most advanced master of his
time, and, by his own works, and the training which he imparted to his
mighty pupil Giotto, he left the art far more formed and more capable of
growth than he found it (see PAINTING).
The undoubted admiration of his contemporaries would alone demonstrate
the conspicuous position which Cimabue held, and deserved to hold. For
the chapel of the Rucellai in S. Maria Novella he painted in tempera a
colossal "Madonna and Child with Angels," the largest altarpiece
produced up to that date; before its removal from the studio it was
visited with admiration by Charles of Anjou, with a host of eminent men
and gentle ladies, and it was carried to the church in a festive
procession of the people and trumpeters. Cimabue was at this time living
in the Borgo Allegri, then outside the walls of Florence; the legend
that the name Allegri (Joyous) was bestowed on the locality in
consequence of this striking popular display is more attractive than
accurate, for the name existed already. Of this celebrated picture, one
of the great landmarks of modern and sacred art, some details may be
here given, which we condense from the _History of Painting in Italy_ by
Crowe and Cavalcaselle.
"The Virgin in a red tunic and blue mantle, with her feet resting on
an open-worked stool, is sitting on a chair hung with a white drapery
flowered in gold and blue, and carried by six angels kneeling in
threes above each other. A delicately engraved nimbus surrounds her
head, and that of the infant Saviour on her lap, who is dressed in a
white tunic, and purple mantle shot with gold. A dark-coloured frame
surrounds the gabled square of the picture, delicately traced with an
ornament interrupted at intervals by thirty medallions on gold ground,
each of which contains the half-figure of a saint. In the face of the
Madonna is a soft and melancholy expression; in the form of the
infant, a certain freshness, animation and natural proportion; in the
group, affection--but too rare at this period. There is sentiment in
the attitudes of the angels, energetic mien in some prophets,
comparative clearness and soft harmony in the colours. A certain loss
of balance is caused by the overweight of the head in the Virgin as
compared with the slightness of her frame. The features are the old
ones of the 13th century; only softened, as regards the expression of
the eye, by an exaggeration of elliptical form in the iris, and
closeness of the curves of the lids. In the angels the absence of all
true notions of composition may be considered striking; yet their
movements are more natural and pleasing than hitherto. One indeed, to
the spectator's right of the Virgin, combines more tender reverence in
its glance than any that had yet been produced. Cimabue gave to the
flesh-tints a clear and carefully fused colour, and imparted to the
forms some of the rotundity which they had lost. With him vanished the
sharp contrasts of hard lights, half-tones and shadows."
In a general way, it may be said that Cimabue showed himself forcible in
his paintings, as especially in heads of aged or strongly characterized
men; and, if the then existing development of art had allowed of this,
he might have had it in him to express the beautiful as well. He,
according to Vasari, was the first painter who wrote words upon his
paintings,--as, for instance, round the head, of Christ in a picture of
the Crucifixion, the words addressed to Mary, _Mulier ecce filius tuus_.
Other paintings still extant by Cimabue are the following:--In the
academy of Arts in Florence, a "Madonna and Child," with eight angels,
and some prophets in niches,--better than the Rucellai picture in
composition and study of nature, but more archaic in type, and the
colour now spoiled (this work was painted for the Badia of S. Trinita,
Florence); in the National Gallery, London, a "Madonna and Child with
Angels," which came from the Ugo Baldi collection, and had probably once
been in the church of S. Croce, Florence; in the Louvre, a "Madonna and
Child," with twenty-six medallions in the frame, originally in the
church of S. Francesco, Pisa. In the lower church of the Basilica of S.
Francesco at Assisi, Cimabue, succeeding Giunta da Pisa, probably
adorned the south transept,--painting a colossal "Virgin and Child
between four Angels," above the altar of the Conception, and a large
figure of St Francis. In the upper church, north transept, he has the
"Saviour Enthroned and some Angels," and, on the central ceiling of the
transept, the "Four Evangelists with Angels." Many other works in both
the lower and the upper church have been ascribed to Cimabue, but with
very scanty evidence; even the above-named can be assigned to him only
as matter of probability. Numerous others which he indisputably did
paint have perished,--for instance, a series (earlier in date than the
Rucellai picture) in the Carmine church at Padua, which were destroyed
by a fire.
From Assisi Cimabue returned to Florence. In the closing years of his
life he was appointed capomaestro of the mosaics of the cathedral of
Pisa, and was afterwards, hardly a year before his death, joined with
Arnolfo di Cambio as architect for the cathedral of Florence. In Pisa he
executed a Majesty in the apse,--"Christ in glory between the Virgin and
John the Evangelist," a mosaic, now much damaged, which stamps him as
the leading artist of his time in that material. This was probably the
last work that he produced.
The debt which art owes to Cimabue is not limited to his own
performances. He was the master of Giotto, whom (such at least is the
tradition) he found a shepherd boy of ten, in the pastures of
Vespignano, drawing with a coal on a slate the figure of a lamb. Cimabue
took him to Florence, and instructed him in the art; and after his death
Giotto occupied a house which had belonged to his master in the Via del
Cocomero. Another painter with whom Cimabue is said to have been
intimate was Gaddo Gaddi.
It had always been supposed that the bodily semblance of Cimabue is
preserved to us in a portrait-figure by Simon Memmi painted in the
Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella,--a thin hooded face in
profile, with small beard, reddish and pointed. This is, however,
extremely dubious. Simone Martini of Siena (commonly called Memmi) was
born in 1283, and would therefore have been about nineteen years of age
when Cimabue died; it is not certain that he painted the work in
question, or that the figure represents Cimabue. The Florentine master
is spoken of by a nearly contemporary commentator on Dante (the
so-called Anonimo, who wrote about 1334) as _arrogante e disdegnoso_; so
"arrogant and scornful" that, if any one, or if he himself, found a
fault in any work of his, however cherished till then, he would abandon
it in disgust. This, however, to a modern mind, looks more like an
aspiring and fastidious desire for perfection than any such form of
"arrogance and scorn" as blemishes a man's character. Giovanni Cimabue
was buried in the cathedral of Florence, S. Maria del Fiore, with an
epitaph written by one of the Nini:--
"Credidit ut Cimabos picturae castra tenere,
Sic tenuit vivens; nunc tenet astra poli."
Here we recognize distinctly a parallel to the first clause in the
famous triplet of Dante:
"Credette Cimabue nella pintura
Tener lo campo; ed ora ha Giotto il grido,
Sì che la fama di colui s' oscura."
Besides Vasari, and Crowe and Cavalcaselle (re-edited by Langton), the
following works may be consulted:--P. Angeli, _Storia della basilica
d' Assisi_; Cole and Stillman, _Old Italian Masters_ (1892); Mrs Ady,
_Painters of Florence_ (1900). (W. M. R.)
CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (1749-1801), Italian musical composer, was born at
Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 17th of December 1749. His
parents were poor, but anxious to give their son a good education; and
after removing to Naples they sent him to a free school connected with
one of the monasteries of that city. The organist of the monastery,
Padre Polcano, was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily
instructed him in the elements of music, as also in the ancient and
modern literature of his country. To his influence Cimarosa owed a free
scholarship at the musical institute of Santa Maria di Loreto, where he
remained for eleven years, studying chiefly the great masters of the old
Italian school. Piccini, Sacchini and other musicians of repute are
mentioned amongst his teachers. At the age of twenty-three Cimarosa
began his career as a composer with a comic opera called _Le Stravaganze
del Conte_, first performed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini at Naples in
1772. The work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by
_Le Pazzie di Stellidanza e di Zoroastro_, a farce full of humour and
eccentricity. This work also was successful, and the fame of the young
composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774 he was invited to Rome
to write an opera for the _stagione_ of that year; and he there produced
another comic opera called _L'Italiana in Londra_.
The next thirteen years of Cimarosa's life are not marked by any event
worth mentioning. He wrote a number of operas for the various theatres
of Italy, living temporarily in Rome, in Naples, or wherever else his
vocation as a conductor of his works happened to call him. From
1784-1787 he lived at Florence, writing exclusively for the theatre of
that city. The productions of this period of his life are very numerous,
consisting of operas, both comic and serious, cantatas, and various
sacred compositions. The following works may be mentioned amongst many
others:--_Caio Mario_; the three biblical operas, _Assalone_, _La
Giuditta_ and _Il Sacrificio d' Abramo_; also _Il Convito di Pietra_;
and _La Ballerina amante_, a pretty comic opera first performed at
Venice with enormous success.
About the year 1788 Cimarosa went to St Petersburg by invitation of the
empress Catherine II. At her court he remained four years and wrote an
enormous number of compositions, mostly of the nature of _piecès
d'occasion_. Of most of these not even the names are on record. In 1792
Cimarosa left St Petersburg, and went to Vienna at the invitation of the
emperor Leopold II. Here he produced his masterpiece, _Il Matrimonio
segreto_, which ranks amongst the highest achievements of light operatic
music. In 1793 Cimarosa returned to Naples, where _Il Matrimonio
segreto_ and other works were received with great applause. Amongst the
works belonging to his last stay in Naples may be mentioned the charming
opera _Le Astuzie feminili_. This period of his life is said to have
been embittered by the intrigues of envious and hostile persons, amongst
whom figured his old rival Paisiello. During the occupation of Naples by
the troops of the French Republic, Cimarosa joined the liberal party,
and on the return of the Bourbons, was, like many of his political
friends, condemned to death. By the intercession of influential admirers
his sentence was commuted into banishment, and he left Naples with the
intention of returning to St Petersburg. But his health was broken, and
after much suffering he died at Venice on the 11th of January 1801, of
inflammation of the intestines. The nature of his disease led to the
rumour of his having been poisoned by his enemies, which, however, a
formal inquest proved to be unfounded. He worked till the last moment of
his life, and one of his operas, _Artemizia_, remained unfinished at his
death.
CIMBRI, a Teutonic tribe who made their first appearance in Roman
history in the year 113 B.C., when they defeated the consul Gnaeus
Papirius Carbo near Noreia in the modern Carinthia. It was the common
belief that they had been driven from their homes on the North Sea by
inundations, but, whatever the cause of their migration, they had been
wandering along the Danube for some years warring with the Celtic tribes
on either bank. After the victory of 113 they passed westwards over the
Rhine, threatening the territory of the Allobroges. Their request for
land was not granted, and in 109 B.C. they defeated the consul Marcus
Junius Silanus in southern Gaul, but did not at once follow up the
victory. In 105 they returned to the attack under their king Boiorix,
and favoured by the dissensions of the Roman commanders Gnaeus Mallius
Maximus and Caepio, defeated them in detail and annihilated their armies
at Arausio (Orange). Again the victorious Cimbri turned away from Italy,
and, after attempting to reduce the Arverni, moved into Spain, where
they failed to overcome the desperate resistance of the Celtiberian
tribes. In 103 they marched back through Gaul, which they overran as far
as the Seine, where the Belgae made a stout resistance. Near Rouen the
Cimbri were reinforced by the Teutoni and two cantons of the Helvetii.
Thereupon the host marched southwards by two routes, the Cimbri moving
on the left towards the passes of the Eastern Alps, while the newly
arrived Teutoni and their allies made for the western gates of Italy. In
102 B.C. the Teutoni and Ambrones were totally defeated at Aquae Sextiae
by Marius, while the Cimbri succeeded in passing the Alps and driving Q.
Lutatius Catulus across the Adige and Po. In 101 Marius overthrew them
on the Raudine Plain near Vercellae. Their king Boiorix was killed and
the whole army destroyed. The Cimbri were the first in the long line of
the Teutonic invaders of Italy.
The original home of the Cimbri has been much disputed. It is recorded
in the _Monumentum Ancyranum_ that a Roman fleet sailing eastwards from
the mouth of the Rhine (_c._ A.D. 5) received at the farthest point
reached the submission of a people called Cimbri, who sent an embassy to
Augustus. Several early writers agree in saying that the Cimbri occupied
a peninsula, and in the map of Ptolemy Jutland appears as the Cimbric
Chersonese. As Ptolemy seems to have regarded the district north of the
Liimfjord (Limfjord) as a group of islands, the territory of the Cimbri,
the northernmost tribe of the peninsula, would be included in the modern
county (_Amt_) of Aalborg. This was formerly called Himbersyssel or
Himmerland, forms which may very well preserve their name, especially as
the name Charydes, mentioned next to them in the _Monumenlum Ancyranum_,
appears to survive in the modern Hardeland. Possibly also the district
across the Liimfjord formerly called Thythsyssel or Thyland may in the
same way preserve the name of the Teutoni (q.v.). Strabo and other early
writers relate a number of curious facts concerning the customs of the
Cimbri, which are of great interest as the earliest records of the
manner of life of the Teutonic nations.
SOURCES.--Livy, _Epitome_, lxvii., lxviii.; _Monumenlum Ancyranum_;
Pomponius Mela iii. 3; C. Plinius Secundus, _Nat. Hist._ iv. cap. 13
and 14, §§ 95 ff.; Strabo p. 292 ff.; Plutarch, _Marius. passim_;
Florus iii. 3; Ptolemy ii. 11. 11 f. (F. G. M. B.)
CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a small genus of herbaceous plants, of the
natural order Ranunculaceae, which is widely distributed in the north
temperate zone. _C. foetida_, bugbane, is used as a preventive against
vermin; and the root of a North American species, _C. racemosa_, known
as black snake-root, as an emetic.
CIMMERII, an ancient people of the far north or west of Europe, first
spoken of by Homer (_Odyssey_, xi. 12-19), who describes them as living
in perpetual darkness. Herodotus (iv. 11-13), in his account of Scythia,
regards them as the early inhabitants of South Russia (after whom the
Bosporus Cimmerius [q.v.] and other places were named), driven by the
Scyths along by the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained
themselves for a century. But the Cimmerii are often mentioned in
connexion with the Thracian Treres who made their raids across the
Hellespont, and it is quite possible that some Cimmerii took this route,
having been cut off by the Scyths as the Alani (q.v.) were by the Huns.
Certain it is that in the middle of the 7th century B.C., Asia Minor was
ravaged by northern nomads (Herod, iv. 12), one body of whom is called
in Assyrian sources _Gimirrai_ and is represented as coming through the
Caucasus. They were probably Iranian speakers, to judge by the few
proper names preserved. The name has also been identified with the
biblical Gomer, son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3). To the north of the
Euxine their main body was merged in the invading Scyths. Later writers
identified them with the Cimbri of Jutland, who were probably Teutonized
Celts, but this is a mere guess due to the similarity of name. The
Homeric Cimmerii belong to an early part of the _Odyssey_ in which the
hero was conceived as wandering in the Euxine; these adventures were
afterwards translated to the western Mediterranean in accordance with a
wider geographical outlook.
For the Cimmerian invasions described by Herodotus, see SCYTHIA;
LYDIA; GYGES. (E. H. M.)
CIMON [[Greek: Kimon]] (_c_. 507-449), Athenian statesman and general,
was the son of Miltiades (q.v.) and Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian
prince Olorus. Miltiades died in disgrace, leaving unpaid the fine
imposed upon him for his conduct at Paros. Cimon's first task in life,
therefore, was to remove the stain on the family name by paying this
fine (about £12,000). In the second Persian invasion, especially at
Salamis, and in the consolidation of the Delian League, he won a high
reputation for courage and integrity. At first with Aristides, and
afterwards as sole commander, he directed the Athenian contingent of the
fleet; on the disgrace of Pausanias he practically commanded the entire
Greek fleet and drove Pausanias from his retreat in Byzantium. Having
captured Eion (at the mouth of the Strymon), he expelled the Persian
garrisons from the entire seaboard of Thrace with the exception of
Doriscus, and, having defeated the piratical Dolopians of Scyros (470),
confirmed his popularity by transferring thence to Athens the supposed
bones of the Attic hero Theseus. The bones were buried in Athens, and
over the tomb the Theseum (temple) was erected. In 466 Cimon proceeded
to liberate the Greek cities of Lyda and Pamphylia, and at the mouth of
the Eurymedon he defeated the Persians decisively by land and sea.
The Persian danger was now over, and the immediate purpose of the
Delian League was achieved. Already, however, Athens had introduced the
policy of coercion which was to transform the league into an empire, a
policy which, after the ostracism of Themistocles and the death of
Aristides, must be attributed to Cimon, whose fundamental idea was the
union of the Greeks against all outsiders (see DELIAN LEAGUE). Carystus
was compelled to join the league; Naxos (c. 469) and Thasos (465-463),
which had revolted, were compelled to accept the position of tributary
allies. In 464 Sparta was involved in war with her Helots (principally
of Messenian origin) and was in great difficulties. Cimon, then the most
prominent man in Athens, persuaded the Athenians to send assistance, on
the ground that Athens could not "stand without her yoke-fellow" and
leave "Hellas lame." The expedition was a failure, and Cimon was exposed
to the attacks of the democrats led by Ephialtes. The history of this
party struggle is not clear. The ordinary account is that Ephialtes
during Cimon's absence in Messenia destroyed the powers of the Areopagus
(q.v.) and then obtained the ostracism of Cimon, who attempted to
reverse his policy. Without going fully into the question, which is full
of difficulty, it may be pointed out (1) that when the Messenian
expedition started Cimon had twice within the preceding year triumphed
over the opposition of Ephialtes, and (2) that presumably the Cimonian
party was predominant until after the expedition proved a failure. It is
therefore unlikely that, immediately after Cimon's triumph in obtaining
permission to go to Messenia, Ephialtes was able to attack the Areopagus
with success. The probability is that when the expedition failed, Cimon
was ostracized, and that then Ephialtes defeated the Areopagus, and also
made a change in foreign policy by making alliances with Sparta's
enemies, Argos and Thessaly. This hypothesis alone explains the absence
of any account of a third struggle between Cimon and Ephialtes over the
Areopagus. The chronology would thus be: ostracism of Cimon, spring,
461; fall of the Areopagus and reversal of Philo-Laconian policy,
summer, 461.
A more difficult question is involved in the date of Cimon's return from
ostracism. The ordinary account says that he was recalled after the
battle of Tanagra (457) to negotiate the Five Years' Truce (451 or 450).
To ignore the unexplained interval of six or seven years is an
uncritical expedient, which, however, has been adopted by many writers.
Some maintaining that Cimon did return soon after 457, say that the
truce which he arranged was really the four months' truce recorded by
Diodorus (only). To this there are two main objections: (1) if Cimon
returned in 457, why does the evidence of antiquity connect his return
specifically with the truce of 451? and (2) why does he after 457
disappear for six years and return again to negotiate the Five
Years'Truce and to command the expedition to Cyprus? It seems much more
likely that he returned in 451, at the very time when Athens returned to
his old policy of friendship with Sparta and war in the East against
Persia (i.e. the Cyprus expedition). Thus it would appear that from 453
onwards there was a recrudescence of conservative influence, and that
for four years (453-449) Pericles was not master in Athens (see
PERICLES); this theory is corroborated by the fact that Pericles, in the
alarm caused by the Egyptian failure of 454, was induced to remove the
Delian treasury to Athens and to abandon his anti-Spartan policy of land
empire.
Cimon died in Cyprus before the walls of Citium (449), and was buried in
Athens. Later Attic orators speak in glowing terms of a "Peace" between
Athens and Persia, which is sometimes connected with the name of Cimon
and sometimes with that of one Callias. If any such peace was concluded,
it cannot have been soon after the battle of the Eurymedon as Plutarch
assumes. It can have been only after Cimon's death and the evacuation of
Cyprus (_i.e. c._ 448). It is only in this form that the view has been
maintained logically in modern times. Apart from the fact that the peace
is ignored by Thucydides and that the earliest reference to it is the
passage in Isocrates (_Paneg._ 118 and 120), there are weighty reasons
which render it improbable that any formal peace can have been concluded
at that period between Athens and Persia (see further Ed. Meyer's
_Forschungen_, ii.).
Cimon's services in connexion with the consolidation of the Empire rank
with those of Themistocles and Aristides. He is described as genial,
brave and generous. He threw open his house and gardens to his
fellow-demesmen, and beautified the city with trees and buildings. But
as a statesman he failed to cope with the new conditions created by the
democracy of Cleisthenes. The one great principle for which he is
memorable is that of the balance of power between Athens and Sparta, as
respectively the naval and military leaders of a united Hellas. It has
been the custom to regard Cimon as a man of little culture and
refinement. It is clear, however, from his desire to adorn the city,
that he was by no means without culture and imagination. The truth is
that, as in politics, so in education and attitude of mind, he
represented the ideals of an age which, in the new atmosphere of
democratic Athens, seemed to savour of rusticity and lack of education.
The lives of Cimon by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos are uncritical; the
conclusions above expressed are derived from a comparison of Plutarch,
_Cimon_, 17, _Pericles_, 10; Theopompus, fragm. 92; Andocides, _de
Pace_, §§ 3, 4; Diodorus xi. 86 (the four months' truce). See
histories of Greece (e.g. Grote, ed. 1907, I vol.); also PERICLES;
DELIAN LEAGUE, with works quoted. (J. M. M.)
CIMON OF CLEONAE, an early Greek painter, who is said to have introduced
great improvements in drawing. He represented "figures out of the
straight, and ways of representing faces looking back, up or down; he
also made the joints of the body clear, emphasized veins, worked out
folds and doublings in garments" (Pliny). All these improvements are
such as may be traced in the drawing of early Greek red-figured vases
(see GREEK ART).
CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees which belong to the
natural order Rubiaceae. Botanically the genus includes trees of varying
size, some reaching an altitude of 80 ft. and upwards, with evergreen
leaves and deciduous stipules. The flowers are arranged in panicles,
white or pinkish in colour, with a pleasant odour, the calyx being
5-toothed superior, and the corolla tubular, 5-lobed and fringed at the
margin. The stamens are 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and
the ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is an ovoid or
subcylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together at
the apex. The numerous seeds are flat and winged all round. About 40
species have been distinguished, but of these not more than about a
dozen have been economically utilized. The plants are natives of the
western mountainous regions of South America, their geographical range
extending from 10° N. to 22° S. lat.; and they flourish generally at an
elevation of from 5000 to 8000 ft. above sea-level, although some have
been noted growing as high up as 11,000 ft., and others have been found
down to 2600 ft.
The trees are valued solely on account of their bark, which long has
been the source of the most valuable febrifuge or antipyretic medicine,
quinine (q.v.), that has ever been discovered. The earliest
well-authenticated instance of the medicinal use of cinchona bark is
found in the year 1638, when the countess of Chinchon (hence the name),
the wife of the governor of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its
administration. The medicine was recommended in her case by the
corregidor of Loxa, who was said himself to have practically experienced
its supreme virtues eight years earlier. A knowledge of the bark was
disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit brotherhood,
whence it also became generally known as Jesuits' bark. According to
another account, this name arose from its value having been first
discovered to a Jesuit missionary who, when prostrate with fever, was
cured by the administration of the bark by a South American Indian. In
each of the above instances the fever was no doubt malaria.
The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada, Ecuador,
Peru and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship to the Indian
_cascarilleros_ or _cascadores_ engaged in the pursuit. The trees grow
isolated or in small clumps, which have to be searched out by the
experienced _cascarillero_, who laboriously cuts his way through the
dense forest ta the spot where he discovers a tree. Having freed the
stem from adhering parasites and twining plants, he proceeds, by beating
and cutting oblong pieces, to detach the stem bark as far as is within
his reach. The tree is then felled, and the entire bark of stem and
branches secured. The bark of the smaller branches, as it dries, curls
up, forming "quills," the thicker masses from the stems constituting the
"flat" bark of commerce. The drying, packing and transport of the bark
are all operations of a laborious description conducted under most
disadvantageous conditions.
The enormous medicinal consumption of these barks, and the wasteful and
reckless manner of procuring them in America long ago, caused serious
and well-grounded apprehension that the native forests would quickly
become exhausted. The attention of European communities was early
directed to the necessity of securing steady and permanent supplies by
introducing the more valuable species into localities likely to be
favourable to their cultivation. The first actual attempt to rear plants
was made in Algeria in 1849; but the effort was not successful. In 1854
the Dutch government seriously undertook the task of introducing the
trees into the island of Java, and an expedition for that purpose was
fitted out on an adequate scale. Several hundreds of young trees were
obtained, of which a small proportion was successfully landed and
planted in Java; and as the result of great attention the cultivation of
cinchona plantations in that island became highly prosperous and
promising. The desirability of introducing cinchonas into the East
Indies was urged in a memorial addressed to the East India Company
between 1838 and 1842 by Sir Robert Christison and backed by Dr Forbes
Royle; but no active step was taken till 1852, when, again on the motion
of Dr Royle, some efforts to obtain plants were made through consular
agents. In the end the question was seriously taken up, and Sir Clements
R. Markham was appointed to head an expedition to obtain young trees
from South America and convey them to India. The transference of the
plants was attended with considerable difficulty, but in 1861 under his
superintendence a consignment of plants was planted in a favourable
situation in the Nilgiri Hills. For several years subsequently
additional supplies of plants of various species were obtained from
different regions of South America, and some were also procured from the
Dutch plantations in Java. Now the culture has spread over a wide area
in southern India, in Ceylon, on the slopes of the Himalayas, and in
British Burma, and has become widely spread through the tropics
generally. The species grown are principally _Cinchona officinalis, C.
Calisaya, C. succirubra, C. pitayensis_, and _C. Pahudiana_, some
agreeing with certain soils and climates better than others, while the
yield of alkaloids and the relative proportions of the different
alkaloids differ in each species.
The official "bark" of the British Pharmacopoeia is that of _Cinchona
succirubra_ or red bark. It is imported in the form of quills or
recurved pieces, with a rough brown outer surface and a deep red inner
surface, forming a reddish brown odourless powder, which has a bitter,
astringent taste. The British Pharmacopoeia directs that the bark, when
used to make the various medicinal preparations, shall contain not less
than 5 nor more than 6% of total alkaloids, of which at least one-half
is to be constituted by quinine and cinchonidine. The preparations of
this bark are four: a liquid extract, standardized to contain 5% of
total alkaloids; an acid infusion; a tincture standardized to contain 1%
of total alkaloids; and a compound tincture which must possess one-half
the alkaloidal strength of the last. The only purpose for which these
preparations of cinchona bark should be used is as tonics; and even when
this is the desired action there are many reasons why the alkaloid
should be preferred, even though the recent introduction of
standardization removes one of the chief objections to their use.
The pharmacology of red bark, dependent as it is almost entirely upon
the contained quinine, will not here be discussed (see QUININE). But
the composition of cinchona bark is a matter of importance and
interest. The bark contains, in the first place, five alkaloids, of
which all but quinine may here be dealt with. Quinidine, C20H24N2O2,
is isomeric with quinine, from which it differs in crystallizing in
prisms instead of needles, in being dextro- and not laevo-rotatory,
and in being insoluble in ammonia except in much excess. Cinchonine
has the formula C19H22N2O, quinine being methoxy cinchonine, i.e.
C19H21(OCH3)N2O. It occurs in inodorous, bitter, colourless prisms;
unlike the two alkaloids already named, does not yield a green colour
with chlorine water and ammonia; is dextro-rotatory; not fluorescent,
and practically insoluble in ammonia and in ether. A fourth alkaloid,
cinchonidine, is isomeric with cinchonine, which yields it when boiled
with amyl alcoholic potash, but is laevo-rotatory, slightly soluble in
ether, and faintly fluorescent. When red bark is extracted with dilute
hydrochloric acid, the product filtered, and excess of sodium hydrate
added thereto, quinine and quinidine are precipitated: on
concentrating the mother liquor, cinchonine falls down, and on further
concentration with addition of still more alkali, cinchonidine is
thrown out. Yellow bark, which is not official, yields 3% of quinine,
and pale bark about 10% of total alkaloids, of which hardly any is
quinine, cinchonine and quinidine being its chief constituents. The
various forms of bark also yield a very small quantity of an
unimportant alkaloid, _conquinamine_. In addition to the above, red
bark contains _quinic acid_, C7H12O6, which is closely allied to
benzoic acid and is excreted in the urine as hippuric acid. There also
occurs _chinovic acid_, derived from a glucoside _chinovin_, which
occurs as such in the bark. Besides a trace of volatile oil which
gives the bark its characteristic odour, and cinchona red (the bark
pigment), there occurs about 2% of _cincho-tannic acid_, closely
allied to tannic acid and giving the bark its astringent property.
Cinchona is never used, however, in order to obtain an astringent
action.
The importance of recognizing the complex and inconstant composition
of cinchona bark lies, as in so many other instances, in this--that
the physician who employs it can have only a very imperfect knowledge
of the drug he is using. The latest work on the action of these
alkaloids has shown that cinchonine has a tendency to produce
convulsions in certain patients, and that this action is a still more
marked feature of cinchonidine and cinchonamine. Even small doses
administered to epileptics increase the number of their attacks. They
will probably be classified later among the convulsive poisons. The
use of cinchona bark and its preparations, now that definite active
principles can be readily obtained and precisely studied, is almost
entirely to be deprecated. Quinidine is almost as powerful an antidote
to malaria as quinine; cinchonidine has about two-thirds the power of
quinine, and cinchonine less than one-half.
CINCINNATI, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the Licking, about 100 m. S.W.
of Columbus, about 305 m. by rail S.E. of Chicago, and about 760 m. (by
rail) W.S.W. of New York. Through the city flows Mill Creek, which
empties into the Ohio. Pop. (1890[1]) 296,908; (1900) 325,902, of whom
197,896 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either their fathers or mothers
or both were foreign-born), 57,961 were foreign-born, and 14,482 were
negroes; (1910) 363,591. The German is by far the most important of the
foreign elements. In addition to the large number of inhabitants of
German descent, there were, in 1900, 107,152 of German parentage, and of
the foreign-born 38,219 came from Germany.
Cincinnati is situated on the N. side of the river upon two terraces or
plateaus--the first about 60 ft., the second from 100 to 150 ft., above
low water--and upon hills which enclose these terraces on three sides in
the form of an amphitheatre, rising to a height of about 400 ft. on the
E. and of about 460 ft. on the W., and commanding magnificent views of
the river, the valley, the numerous suburbs, and the more distant wooded
hills. About half of the hill-enclosed plain lies S. of the river, and
it is upon this southern half that Covington, Newport, Dayton, Ludlow
and other Kentucky suburbs of Cincinnati are situated. Cincinnati has a
river-frontage of about 14 m., extends back about 6 m. on the W. side in
the valley of Mill Creek, and occupies a total area of about 44 sq. m.
Since 1867 it has been connected with Covington by a wire suspension
bridge designed by John A. Roebling, and rebuilt and enlarged in 1897.
This bridge is 1057 ft. long between towers (or, including the
approaches, 2252 ft. long), with a height of 101 ft. above low water,
and has a double wagon road and two ways for pedestrians. By two bridges
there is direct communication with Newport; by one, that of the
Cincinnati Southern railway, with Ludlow; and by one (Chesapeake & Ohio;
see vol. v., p. 109) with West Covington. On the terraces the streets
generally intersect at right angles, but on the hills their directions
are irregular. To the "bottoms" (which have suffered much from
floods[2]) between Third Street and the river the manufacturing and
wholesale districts are for the most part confined, although many of
these interests are now on the higher levels or in the suburbs; the
principal retail houses are on the higher levels N. of Third Street, and
the handsomest residences are on the picturesque hills before mentioned,
in those parts of the city, formerly separate villages, known as
Avondale, Mt. Auburn, Clifton, Price Hill, Walnut Hills and Mt. Lookout.
The main part of the city is connected with these residential districts
by electric street railways, whose routes include four inclined-plane
railways, namely, Mt. Adams (268 ft. elevation), Bellevue (300 ft.),
Fairview (210 ft.) and Price Hill (350 ft.), from each of which an
excellent panoramic view of the city and suburbs may be obtained. There
are various suburbs, chiefly residential, in the Mill Creek valley,
among them being Carthage, Hartwell, Wyoming, Lockland and Glendale.
Other populous and attractive suburbs N. of the Ohio river are Norwood
and College Hill.
_Buildings, &c._--Brick, blue limestone, and a greyish buff freestone
are the most common building materials, and the city has various
buildings of much architectural merit. The chamber of commerce
(completed 1889), designed by H.H. Richardson, is one of the finest
public buildings in the United States. Its walls are of undressed
granite, and it occupies a ground area of 100 by 150 ft. The United
States government building (designed by A.B. Mullet, and built of Maine
and Missouri granite) is a fine structure in classic style, 360 ft. long
and 160 ft. wide, and 4-1/2 storeys high; its outer walls are faced with
sawn freestone. It was erected in 1874-1885 and cost (including the
land) $5,250,000. The city hall (332 ft. by 203 ft.), with walls of red
granite and brown sandstone, is a massive and handsome building erected
at a cost of $1,600,000. The county court house (rebuilt in 1887) is in
the Romanesque style, and with the gaol attached occupies an entire
square. The Cincinnati hospital (completed 1869), comprising eight
buildings grouped about a central court and connected by corridors,
occupies a square of four acres. A new public hospital for the suburbs
was projected in 1907. St Peter's (Roman Catholic) cathedral (begun
1839, consecrated 1844), Grecian in style, is a fine structure, with a
graceful stone spire 224 ft. in height and a chime of 13 bells; it has
as an altar-piece Murillo's "St Peter Liberated by an Angel." The church
of St Francis de Sales (in Walnut Hills), built in 1888, has a bell,
cast in Cincinnati, weighing fifteen tons, and said to be the largest
swinging bell in the world. Several of the Protestant churches, such as
the First Presbyterian (built 1835; steeple, including spire, 285 ft.
high), Second Presbyterian (1872), Central Christian (1869), St Paul's
Methodist Episcopal (1870), and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal
pro-cathedral (1851), are also worthy of mention, and in the residential
suburbs there are many fine churches. Cincinnati is the seat of a Roman
Catholic archbishopric and a Protestant Episcopal and Methodist
Episcopal bishopric. The Masonic temple (195 ft. long and 100 ft. wide),
in the Byzantine style, is four storeys high, and has two towers of 140
ft.; the building was completed in 1860 and has subsequently been
remodelled. Among other prominent buildings are the Oddfellows' temple
(completed 1894), the public library, the art museum (1886), a Jewish
synagogue (in Avondale), and the (Jewish) Plum Street temple (1866),
Moorish in architecture. The Soldiers', Sailors' and Pioneers' building
(1907) is a beautiful structure, classic in design. The business houses
are of stone or brick, and many of them are attractive architecturally;
there are a number of modern office buildings from 15 to 20 storeys in
height. There are also several large hotels and ten theatres (besides
halls and auditoriums for concerts and public gatherings), the most
notable being Springer music hall.
One of the most noted pieces of monumental art in the United States is
the beautiful Tyler Davidson bronze fountain in Fountain Square (Fifth
Street, between Walnut and Vine streets), the business centre of the
city, by which (or within one block of which) all car lines run. The
fountain was unveiled in 1871 and was presented to the city by Henry
Probasco (1820-1902), a wealthy citizen, who named it in honour of his
deceased brother-in-law and business partner, Mr Tyler Davidson. The
design, by August von Kreling (1819-1876), embraces fifteen bronze
figures, all cast at the royal bronze foundry in Munich, the chief being
a female figure with outstretched arms, from whose fingers the water
falls in a fine spray. This figure reaches a height of 45 ft. above the
ground. The city has, besides, monuments to the memory of Presidents
Harrison and Garfield (both in Garfield Place, the former an equestrian
statue by Louis T. Rebisso, and the latter by Charles H. Niehaus); also,
in Spring Grove cemetery, a monument to the memory of the Ohio
volunteers who lost their lives in the Civil War. The art museum, in
Eden Park, contains paintings by celebrated European and American
artists, statuary, engravings, etchings, metal work, wood carving,
textile fabrics, pottery, and an excellent collection in American
ethnology and archaeology. The Cincinnati Society of Natural History
(incorporated 1870) has a large library and a museum containing a
valuable palaeontological collection, and bones and implements from the
prehistoric cemetery of the mound-builders, at Madisonville, Ohio.
_Parks._--In 1908 Cincinnati had parks covering about 540 acres; there
are numerous pleasant driveways both within the city limits and in the
suburban districts, and several attractive resorts are within easy
reach. Eden Park, of 214 acres, on Mount Adams, about 1 m. E. of the
business centre and near the river, is noted for its natural beauty,
greatly supplemented by the landscape-gardener's skill, and for its
commanding views. The ground was originally the property of Nicholas
Longworth (1782-1863), a wealthy citizen and well-known horticulturist,
who here grew the grapes from which the Catawba wine, introduced by him
in 1828, was made. The park contains the art museum and the art academy.
Its gateway, Elsinore, is a medieval reproduction; other prominent
features are the reservoirs, which resemble natural lakes, and a high
water tower, from which there is a delightful view. In Burnet Woods
Park, lying to the N.E. of Eden and containing about 163 acres, are the
buildings and grounds of the University of Cincinnati, and a lake for
boating and skating. The zoological gardens occupy 60 acres and contain
a notable collection of animals and birds. Other pleasure resorts are
the Lagoon on the Kentucky side (in Ludlow, Ky.), Chester Park, about 6
m. N. of the business centre, and Coney Island, about 10 m. up the river
on the Ohio side. Washington (5.6 acres), Lincoln (10 acres), Garfield
and Hopkins are small parks in the city. In 1907 an extensive system of
new parks, parkways and boulevards was projected. Spring Grove cemetery,
about 6 m. N.W. of Fountain Square, contains 600 acres picturesquely
laid out on the park plan. It contains many handsome monuments and
private mausoleums, and a beautiful mortuary chapel in the Norman style.
_Water-Supply._--A new and greatly improved water-supply system for the
city was virtually completed in 1907. This provides for taking water
from the Ohio river at a point on the Kentucky side opposite the village
of California, Ohio, and several miles above the discharge of the city
sewers; for the carrying of the water by a gravity tunnel under the
river to the Ohio side, the water being thence elevated by four great
pumping engines, each having a daily capacity of 30,000,000 gallons, to
settling basins, being then passed through filters of the American or
mechanical type, and flowing thence by a gravity tunnel more than 4 m.
long to the main pumping station, on the bank of the river, within the
city; and for the pumping of the water thence, a part directly into the
distributing pipes and a part to the principal storage reservoir in Eden
Park.
_Education._--Cincinnati is an important educational centre. The
University of Cincinnati, originally endowed by Charles M'Micken (d.
1858) and opened in 1873, occupies a number of handsome buildings
erected since 1895 on a campus of 43 acres in Burnet Woods Park, has an
astronomical observatory on the highest point of Mt. Lookout, and is the
only strictly municipal university in the United States. The institution
embraces a college of liberal arts, a college of engineering, a college
of law (united in 1897 with the law school of Cincinnati College, then
the only surviving department of that college, which was founded as
Lancaster Seminary in 1815 and was chartered as Cincinnati College in
1819), a college of medicine (from 1819 to 1896 the Medical College of
Ohio; the college occupies the site of the old M'Micken homestead), a
college for teachers, a graduate school, and a technical school (founded
in 1886 and transferred to the university in 1901); while closely
affiliated with it are the Clinical and Pathological School of
Cincinnati and the Ohio College of Dentistry. With the exception of
small fees charged for incidental expenses, the university is free to
all students who are residents of the city; others pay $75 a year for
tuition. It is maintained in part by the city, through public taxation,
and in part by the income from endowment funds given by Charles
M'Micken, Matthew Thoms, David Sinton and others. The government of the
university is entrusted mainly to a board of nine directors appointed by
the mayor. In 1909 it had a faculty of 144 and 1364 students. Lane
Theological Seminary is situated in Walnut Hills, in the north-eastern
part of the city; it was endowed by Ebenezer Lane and the Kemper family;
was founded in 1829 for the training of Presbyterian ministers; had for
its first president (1832-1852) Lyman Beecher; and in 1834 was the scene
of a bitter contest between abolitionists in the faculty and among the
students, led by Theodore Dwight Weld, and the board of trustees, who
forbade the discussion of slavery in the seminary and so caused about
four-fifths of the students to leave, most of them going to Oberlin
College. The city has also Saint Francis Navier College (Roman Catholic,
established in 1831 and until 1840 known as the Athenaeum); Saint Joseph
College (Roman Catholic, 1873); Mount St Mary's of the West Seminary
(Roman Catholic, theological, 1848, at Cedar Point, Ohio); Hebrew Union
College (1875), the leading institution in the United States for
educating rabbis; the largely attended Ohio Mechanics' Institute
(founded 1828), a private corporation not conducted for profit, its
object being the education of skilled workmen, the training of
industrial leaders, and the advancement of the mechanic arts (in 1907
there were in all departments 1421 students, a large majority of whom
were in the evening classes); an excellent art academy, modelled after
that of South Kensington; the College of Music and the Conservatory of
Music (mentioned below); the Miami Medical College (opened in 1852); the
Pulte Medical College (homeopathic; coeducational; opened 1872); the
Eclectic Medical Institute (chartered 1845); two women's medical
colleges, two colleges of dental surgery, a college of pharmacy, and
several business colleges. The public, district, and high schools of the
city are excellent. The City (or public) library contained in 1906
301,380 vols. and 57,562 pamphlets; the University library (including
medical, law and astronomical branches), 80,000 vols. (including the
Robert Clarke collection, rich in Americana, and the library--about 5000
vols.--of the American Association for the Advancement of Science); the
Young Men's Mercantile library, 70,000 vols.; and the Law library,
35,000 vols.; in addition, the Lloyd library and museum of botany and
pharmacy, and the library of the Historical and Philosophical Society of
Ohio (1831), which contains a valuable collection of rare books,
pamphlets and manuscripts, are worthy of mention.
_Art, &c._--The large German population makes the city noteworthy for
its music. The first Sängerfest was held in Cincinnati in 1849, and it
met here again in 1870, when a new hall was built for its accommodation.
Under the leadership of Theodore Thomas (1835-1905), the Cincinnati
Musical Festival Association was incorporated, and the first of its
biennial May festivals was held in 1873. In 1875-1878 was built the
large Springer music hall, named in honour of Reuben R. Springer
(1800-1884), its greatest benefactor, who endowed the Cincinnati College
of Music (incorporated in 1878), of which Thomas was director in
1878-1881. Until his death Thomas was director of the May festivals
also. The grounds for the music hall were given by the city and are
perpetually exempt from taxation. The great organ in the music hall was
dedicated at the third of the May festivals in 1878. The Sängerfest met
in Cincinnati for the third time in 1879, and its jubilee was held here
in 1899. By 1880 the May festival chorus had become a permanent
organization. The city has several other musical societies--the Apollo
and Orpheus clubs (1881 and 1893), a Liederkranz (1886), and a United
Singing Society (1896) being among the more prominent; and there are two
schools of music--the Conservatory of Music and the College of Music.
The city has large publishing interests, and various religious
(Methodist Episcopal and Roman Catholic) and fraternal periodicals, and
several technical journals and trade papers are published here. The
principal daily newspapers are the _Enquirer_, a Democratic journal,
established in 1842 and conducted for many years after 1852 by
Washington McLean (1816-1890), and then by his son, John Roll McLean (b.
1848); the _Commercial Tribune_ (Republican; previously the
_Commercial-Gazette_ and still earlier the _Commercial_, founded in
1793, _The Tribune_ being merged with it in 1896), the _Times-Star_ (the
_Times_ established in 1836), and the _Post_, established in 1881 (both
evening papers); and several influential German journals, including the
_Volksblatt_ (Republican; established 1836), and the _Volksfreund_
(Democratic; established 1850).
Among the social clubs of the city are the Queen City Club, organized in
1874; the Phoenix Club, organized in 1856 and the leading Jewish club in
the city; the Cuvier Club, organized in 1871 and originally an
association of hunters and anglers for the preservation of game and
fish; the Cincinnati Club, the Business Men's Club, the University Club,
the Art Club, and the Literary Club, of the last of which many prominent
men, including President Hayes, have been members. This club dates from
1849, and is said to be the oldest literary club in the country. There
are various commercial and trade organizations, the oldest and most
influential being the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce and Merchants'
Exchange, which dates from 1839.
_Administration._--The city is governed under the municipal code enacted
by the state legislature in 1902, for the provisions of which see OHIO.
Among the institutions are the City infirmary (at Hartwell, a suburb),
which, besides supporting pauper inmates, affords relief to outdoor
poor; the Cincinnati hospital, which is supported by taxation and treats
without charge all who are unable to pay; twenty other hospitals, some
of which are charitable institutions; a United States marine hospital;
the Longview hospital for the insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city,
and belonging to Hamilton county, whose population consists largely of
the inhabitants of Cincinnati; an insane asylum for negroes; six orphan
asylums--the Cincinnati, two Protestant, two Roman Catholic, and one for
negroes; a home for incurables; a day nursery; a fresh-air home and farm
for poor children; the Franciscan Brothers' Protectory for boys; a
children's home; two widows' homes; two old men's homes; several homes
for indigent and friendless women; a foundling asylum; the rescue
mission and home for erring women; a social settlement conducted by the
University of Cincinnati; the house of refuge (1850) for "the
reformation and education of homeless and incorrigible children under 16
years of age"; and a workhouse for adults convicted of minor offences.
_Communications._--Cincinnati is a railway centre of great importance
and has an extensive commerce both by rail and by river. It is served by
the following railways: the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
(Pennsylvania system), the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
(New York Central system), the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the
Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific (the lessee of the Cincinnati
Southern railway,[3] connecting Cincinnati and Chattanooga, Tenn., its
line forming part of the so-called Queen & Crescent Route to New
Orleans), the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (Baltimore & Ohio
system), the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk & Western, the Louisville &
Nashville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern
(New York Central system), the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley
(Pennsylvania system), and the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern
(Pennsylvania system). Most of these railways use the Union Station; the
Pennsylvania and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, have separate
stations. The city's river commerce, though of less relative importance
since the advent of railways, is large and brings to its wharves much
bulky freight, such as coal, iron and lumber; it also helps to
distribute the products of the city's factories; and the National
government has done much to sustain this commerce by deepening and
lighting the channel. Formerly there was considerable commerce with Lake
Erie by way of the Miami & Erie Canal to Toledo; the canal was completed
in 1830 and has never been entirely abandoned.
_Industries._--Although the second city in population in the state,
Cincinnati ranked first in 1900 as a manufacturing centre, but lost this
pre-eminence to Cleveland in 1905, when the value of Cincinnati's
factory product was $166,059,050, an increase of 17.2% over the figures
for 1900. In the manufacture of vehicles, harness, leather, hardwood
lumber, wood-working machinery, machine tools, printing ink, soap,
pig-iron, malt liquors, whisky, shoes, clothing, cigars and tobacco,
furniture, cooperage goods, iron and steel safes and vaults, and pianos,
also in the packing of meat, especially pork,[4] it ranks very high
among the cities of the Union. The well-known and beautiful Rookwood
ware has been made in Cincinnati since 1880, at the Rookwood Pottery (on
Mt. Adams), founded by Mrs Bellamy (Maria Longworth) Storer, named from
her father's home near the city, the first American pottery to devote
exclusive attention to art ware. The earlier wares were yellow, brown
and red; then came deep greens and blues, followed by mat glazes and by
"vellum" ware (first exhibited in 1904), a lustreless pottery,
resembling old parchment, with its decoration painted or modelled or
both. The clays used are exclusively American, much being obtained in
Missouri. Among the more important manufactures of the city in 1905 were
the following, with the value of the product for that year: clothing
($16,972,484), slaughtering and meat-packing products ($13,446,202),
foundry and machine-shop products ($11,528,768), boots and shoes
($10,596,928), distilled liquors ($9,609,826), malt liquors
($7,702,693), and carriages and wagons ($6,323,803).[5]
_History._--Cincinnati was founded by some of the first settlers in that
part of the North-West Territory which afterwards became the state of
Ohio. It lies on part of the land purchased for himself and others by
John Cleves Symmes (1742-1814) from the United States government in
1788, and the settlement was established near the close of the same year
by immigrants chiefly from New Jersey and Kentucky. When the town was
laid out early in 1789, John Filson, one of the founders, named it
Losantiville (L for Licking; _os_, Latin for mouth; _anti_, Greek for
opposite; and _ville_, French for town), but early in the next year
Symmes caused the present name to be substituted in honour of the Order
of the Cincinnati, General Arthur St Clair, the governor of the
North-West Territory, being then president of the Pennsylvania State
Society of the Cincinnati. St Clair arrived about the time the change in
name was made, immediately erected Hamilton County, and made Cincinnati
its seat of government; the territorial legislature also held its
sessions here from the time of its first organization in 1799 until
1801, when it removed to Chillicothe. During the early years the Indians
threatened the life of the settlement, and in 1789 Fort Washington, a
log building for protection against the Indians, was built in the city;
General Josiah Harmar, in 1790, and General St Clair, in 1791, made
unsuccessful expeditions against them, and the alarm increased until
1794, when General Wayne won a decisive victory over the savages at
Maumee Rapids in the battle of Fallen Timbers, after which he secured
their consent to the terms of the treaty of Greenville (1795).
Cincinnati was incorporated as a village in 1802, received a second
charter in 1815, was chartered as a city in 1819, and received its
second city charter in 1827 and its third in 1832; since 1851 it has
been governed nominally by general laws of the state, although by the
state's method of classifying cities many acts for its government have
been in reality special. When first incorporated its limits were
confined to an area of 3 sq. m., but by annexations in 1849 and 1850
this area was doubled; in 1854 another square mile was added; in 1869
and 1870 large additions were made, which included the villages of
Sedamsville, Price Hill, Walnut Hills, Mount Auburn, Clintonville,
Corryville, Vernon, Mount Harrison, Barrsville, Fairmount, West
Fairmount, St Peters, Lick Run and Clifton Heights; in 1872 Columbia,
which was settled a short time before Cincinnati, was added; in 1873
Cumminsville and Woodburn; in 1895 Avondale, Riverside, Clifton, Linwood
and Westwood; in 1903 Bond Hill, Winton Place, Hyde Park and Evanston;
in 1904 portions of Mill Creek township, and in 1905 a small tract in
Mill Creek Valley.
In 1829 Mrs Frances Trollope established in Cincinnati, where she lived
for a part of two years, a "Bazar," which as the principal means of
carrying out her plan to benefit the town was entirely unsuccessful; a
vivid but scarcely unbiassed picture of Cincinnati in the early thirties
is to be found in her _Domestic Manners of the Americans_ (1831). In
1845 began the marked influx of Germans, which lasted in large degree up
to 1860; they first limited themselves to the district "Over the Rhine"
(the Rhine being the Miami & Erie Canal), in the angle north-east of the
junction of Canal and Sycamore streets, but gradually spread throughout
the city, although this "Over the Rhine" is still most typically German.
For more than ten years preceding the Civil War the city was much
disturbed by slavery dissension--the industrial interests were largely
with the South, but abolitionists were numerous and active, and the city
was an important station on the "Underground Railroad," of which Dr
Norton S. Townshend (1815-95) was conductor, and one of the stations was
the home of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, who lived in Cincinnati from
1832 to 1850, and gathered there much material embodied in _Uncle Tom's
Cabin_. In 1834 came the Lane Seminary controversies over slavery
previously referred to. In 1835 James G. Birney established here his
anti-slavery journal, _The Philanthropist_, but his printing shops were
repeatedly mobbed and his presses destroyed, and in January of 1836 his
bold speech before a mob gathered at the court-house was the only thing
that saved him from personal violence, as the city authorities had
warned him that they had not sufficient force to protect him.
At the time of the Civil War the city was strongly in sympathy with the
North. In September 1862 the city was threatened by a Confederate force
under General Kirby Smith, who led the advance of General Bragg's army
(see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR). On the 28th of March 1884 many of the citizens
met at Music Hall to protest against the lax way in which the law was
enforced, notably in the case of a recent murder, when the confessed
criminal had been found guilty of manslaughter only. An attack was made
on the gaol by the lawless element outside the hall, but was
futile,--the murderer having been removed by the authorities to
Columbus. In its efforts to break into the gaol and court-house the mob
was confronted by the militia, and bloodshed and loss of life resulted;
during the rioting the courthouse was fired by the mob and practically
destroyed, and many valuable records were burned. Various important
political conventions have met in Cincinnati, including the national
Democratic convention of 1856, the national Liberal-Republican
convention of 1872, the national Republican convention of 1876, and the
national Democratic convention of 1880,--by which, respectively, James
Buchanan, Horace Greeley, R.B. Hayes and Winfield Scott Hancock were
nominated for the presidency.
See C.T. Greve, _Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative
Citizens_ (Chicago, 1904), the official municipal documents, the
Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, &c.