[1] _Brutus_, § 316 "(Molon) dedit operam ... ut nimis redundantis nos
et supra fluentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coërceret."
[2] According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister Fabia,
a vestal virgin; also to give evidence against Clodius, being
jealous of his sister Clodia.
[3] Caesar, at one time, offered him a place on the coalition, which
on his refusal became a triumvirate (_Att._ ii. 3. 3; _Prov. Cons._
41), and afterwards a post on his commission for the division of the
Campanian land, or a _legatio libera_.
[4] _Att._ vii. 8. 5 "est enim [Greek: amorphon antipoliteuomenou
chreôpheiletên] esse."
[5] She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom
Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before 56,
since in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Crassipes
(quaestor in Bithynia in 51). It is not known if this marriage
actually took place.
[6] That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
from _Brutus_, § 255: "hanc gloriam ... tuae quidem supplicationi
non, sed triumphis multorum antepono."
[7] _Fam._ xi. 20 "laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum."
[8] With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern times generally
identified with a person named Cornificius, quoted by Quintilian
(iii. 1. 21). This is a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek
sources with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators.
Cicero's juvenile work _de Inventione_ appears to be drawn partly
from this and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras. This is a slight
production and does not require detailed notice. Other minor works
written in later life, such as the _Partitiones Oratoriae_, a
catechism of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to
his son Marcus; the _Topica_, and an introduction to a translation
of the speeches delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and
against Ctesiphon, styled _de optimo genere oratorum_, also need
only be mentioned.
[9] _Orator_, § 214 "patris dictum sapiens temeritas fili
c[=o]mpr[)o]b[=a]v[)i]t--hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis
excitatus est ut admirabile esset. Quaero, nonne id numerus
efficerit? Verborum ordinem immuta, fac sic: 'Comprobavit fili
temeritas' jam nihil erit."
[10] This theory is partly anticipated by Terentianus Maurus (c.
A.D. 290), who says of the cretic (v. 1440 sqq.):--
"Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo
Obtinet sedem beatam, terminet si clausulam
Dactylus spondeus imam, nec trochaeum respuo;
Plenius tractatur istud arte prosa rhetorum."
[11] _Orator_, § 212 "cursum contentiones magis requirunt,
expositiones rerum tarditatem."
[12] Markland and F.A. Wolf first rejected them.
[13] In the speeches generally _L_+_V_=86%. In the _de Domo_ the
proportion is 88 and in the _pro Marcello_ 87%.
[14] Quintil. iv. 1. 68. It is possible that the writer may have
used a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.
[15] Tacitus, _Dial._ 22 "omnis clausulas uno et eodem modo
determinet."
[16] Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.
[17] _Philologus_ (1886), Suppl. Bd. v.
[18] Jaffé, _Bibl. Rer. German._, i. 326.
[19] Delisle, _Cabinet des MSS._, ii 459.
[20] "Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccanianum
et dom. et alios veteres III." He was a grammarian who lived at the
end of the 2nd century.
[21] _Epist._ 69 "Tullianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris
conferri faciam ut ex utrisque, si possit fieri, veritas
exsculpatur."
[22] Nolhac, _Pétrarque et l'humanisme_, pp. 216-223.
[23] Lehmann, _De Ciceronis ad Atticum epp. recensendis_, p. 128.
[24] _Philologus_, 1901, p. 216.
[25] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part ix. (W. Petersen).
[26] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part x. (A.C. Clark).
CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums, galleries, &c,
and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian, historic or
artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from Marcus Tullius
Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence. The _New English
Dictionary_ finds examples of the use earlier in English than Italian,
the earliest quotation being from Addison's _Dialogues on Medals_
(published posthumously 1726). It appears that the word was first
applied to "learned antiquarians who show and explain to foreigners the
antiquities and curiosities of the country" (quotation of 1762 in the
_New English Dictionary_).
CICHLID (_Cichlidae_), a family of Acanthopterygian fishes, related to
the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh and brackish waters
of Central and South America, Africa, Syria, and India and Ceylon. It
has recently assumed special importance through the large number of
genera and species, many of them showing extraordinary modifications of
the dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especially
in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About 180 species are
known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar), 150 from America, and 3
from India and Ceylon. They were formerly known under the inappropriate
name of _Chromides_.
These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits. It was
formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs, and later the
young, by sheltering them in the mouth and pharynx. This may still be
true of some of the American species, but a long series of recent
observations have shown that this most efficacious parental care
devolves invariably on the female in the African and Syrian species. We
are now acquainted with a large number of species in which this
extraordinary habit has been observed, the number having lately been
greatly increased by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and
Victoria.
L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he believed
he had observed the male take up the eggs after their deposition and
retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after eclosion, in fact until
the young are able to shift for themselves, and this fish he named
_Chromis paterfamilias_. A. Günther had also ascribed the same sex to a
fish from Natal, _Chromis philander_, observed by N. Abraham to have
similar habits. G.A. Boulenger has since had an opportunity to examine
the latter specimen and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing
individuals from various parts of Africa, previously observed by
himself; whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen
with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet as his
_Chromis paterfamilias_ (= _Tilapia simonis_). Further observations by
Pellegrin on _Tilapia galilaea_ and _Pelmatochromis lateralis_, by E.
Schoeller on _Paralilapia multicolor_, have led to the same result.
It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African _Cichlidae_
the buccal "incubation," as it has been called by Pellegrin, devolves on
the male; the instances previously adduced being unsupported by the only
trustworthy evidence--an examination of the genital glands.
The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge of vary very
much according to the species. Thus they may be moderately large and
numerous (100 to 200) in _Tilapia nilotica_ and _galilaea_, larger and
only about 30 in number in _Paratilapia multicolor_, while in _Tropheus
moorii_, a fish measuring only 110 mm., the eggs filling the mouth and
pharynx measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they
being proportionally the largest Teleostome eggs known. In _Paratilapia
pfefferi_, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in the pharynx were
only about a dozen in number, and they measure 2-1/2 mm. in diameter. In
_Tilapia dardennii_, which grows to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs
fills the mouth and pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter,
an enormous size for so small a fish.
Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on _Tilapia galilaea_
that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity the
ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity, so that a fresh
deposition of ova may almost immediately follow the release of the young
fishes from maternal care. (G. A. B.)
CICISBEO (Ital.; of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion of _bel
cece_, "beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. _chiche beau_, with same
meaning), the term in Italy from the 17th century onwards for a dangler
about women. The cicisbeo was the professed gallant of a married woman,
who attended her at all public entertainments, it being considered
unfashionable for the husband to be escort.
CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), Italian archaeologist and writer
on art, was born at Ferrara on the 17th of November 1767. Mathematical
and physical science diverted him a while; but his bent was decided, and
not even the notice of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a
savant of him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting
and the study of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City, was
followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publication, at
Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The island explored, he
betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna and Venice, acquiring a
complete archaeological knowledge of these and other cities. In 1795 he
took up his abode at Modena, and was for twelve years engaged in
politics, becoming a member of the legislative body, a councillor of
state, and minister plenipotentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin.
Napoleon decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made
president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in which he
did good work for a number of years. In 1808 appeared his treatise _Del
bello ragionamenti_, dedicated in glowing terms to Napoleon. This was
followed (1813-1818) by his _magnum opus_, the _Storia delta scultura
dal suo risorgimento in Italia al secolo di Napoleone_, in the
composition of which he had been encouraged and advised by Giordano and
Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845). The book was designed to complete the
works of Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates
in outline. In 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized
by Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the auspices
of that sovereign, his _Fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia_, two superb
folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the Venetians with the
presentation of their gifts to the empress Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara
added to the offering an illustrated catalogue of the objects it
comprised; this book, _Omaggio delle Provincie Venete alla maestà di
Carolina Augusta_, has since become of great value to the bibliophilist.
Reduced to poverty by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara
contrived to alienate the imperial favour by his political opinions. He
left Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 1821 he
published at Pisa a _catalogue raisonné_, rich in bibliographical lore,
of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving labour,
which in 1824 was purchased _en bloc_ by Pope Leo XII., and added to the
Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara are--the _Memorie storiche
de' litterati ed artisti Ferraresi_ (1811); the _Vite de' più insigni
pittori e sculiori Ferraresi_, MS.; the _Memorie spettanti alla storia
della calcografia_ (1831); and a large number of dissertations on
painting, sculpture, engraving and other kindred subjects. (See Papoli,
in No. II of the _Exile_, a print written and published by Italian
refugees.) Cicognara's work in the academy at Venice, of which he became
president in 1808, had important results in the increase in number of
the professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institution
of prizes, and the foundation of a gallery for the reception of Venetian
pictures. He died on the 5th of March 1834.
See Zanetti, _Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1834);
Malmani, _Memorie del conte Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1888).
CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent figure in
her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by myth and fable as
scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant are the deeds ascribed to
him, and so marvellous the attributes with which he has been clothed by
the fond idolatry of his countrymen, that by some he has been classed
with the Amadises and the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The
Jesuit Masdeu stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this
heresy has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter,
however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth of the Canon
in _Don Quixote _: "There is no doubt there was such a man as the Cid,
but much doubt whether he achieved what is attributed to him." The
researches of Professor Dozy, of Leiden, have amply confirmed this
opinion. There is a Cid of history and a Cid of romance, differing very
materially in character, but each filling a large space in the annals of
his country, and exerting a singular influence in the development of the
national genius.
The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal which the
patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished, is still the
foremost man of the heroical period of Spain--the greatest warrior
produced out of the long struggle between Christian and Moslem, and the
perfect type of the Castilian of the 12th century. Rodrigo Diaz, called
de Bivar, from the place of his birth, better known by the title given
him by the Arabs as the _Cid_ (_El Seid_, the lord), and _El Campeador_,
the champion _par excellence_, was of a noble family, one of whose
members in a former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The
date of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was
probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar he is first
mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year 1064. The legends
which speak of the Cid as accompanying this monarch in his expeditions
to France and Italy must be rejected as purely apocryphal. Ferdinand, a
great and wise prince, under whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first
effectually stemmed, on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories
among his five children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon
to Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his two daughters
Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate and the
dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads into numerous
petty independent states, had taken place some thirty years previously,
so that Castilian and Moslem were once again upon equal terms, the
country being almost equally divided between them. On both sides was
civil war, urged as fiercely as that against the common enemy, in which
the parties sought allies indiscriminately among Christians and
Mahommedans.
No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius of the
Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between Sancho of Castile
and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his name of _Campeador_, by
slaying the enemy's champion in single combat. In the quarrel between
Sancho and his brother Alphonso, Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the
former, and it was he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which
Sancho eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho
having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora,
Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne. One of the
most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary history is that
wherein he is represented as forcing the new king to swear that he had
no part in his brother's death; but there was cause enough without this
for Alphonso's animosity against the man who had helped to despoil him
of his patrimony. For a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain
for his prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and
entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was wedded to
Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and granddaughter, by the
mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original deed of the marriage-contract
is extant. Some time afterwards the Cid was sent on an embassy to
collect tribute from Motamid, the king of Seville, whom he found engaged
in a war with Abdallah, the king of Granada. On Abdallah's side were
many Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordoñez, a prince of the
blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of the disloyalty of
opposing their master's ally. In the battle which ensued under the walls
of Seville, Abdallah and his auxiliaries were routed with great
slaughter, the Cid returning to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich
booty. There fresh proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against
him the rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia
Ordoñez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the tribute
received from Seville, and the king took advantage of the Cid's absence
on a raid against the Moors to banish him from Castile.
Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier of fortune
which has made him famous, sometimes fighting under the Christian
banner, sometimes under Moorish, but always for his own hand. At the
head of a band of 300 free lances he offered his services first to the
count of Barcelona; then, failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of
Saragossa, of the race of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his
successors Moutamin and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight
years, fighting their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not
engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share of their
royal authority. He made more than one attempt to be reconciled with
Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected, he turned his arms against
the enemies of the Beni Houd, extending their dominions at the expense
of the Christian states of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the
border lands of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most
famous was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing
city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian and
Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head of an army of 7000
men, for the greater part Mahommedans. In vain did the Valencians
implore succour from the emir of Cordova, and from their co-religionists
in other parts of the peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to
the relief of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Almoravide, the Cid
took Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the 15th of June
1094--the richest prize which up to that time had been recovered from
the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated--the cadi
Ibn Djahhaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens who had escaped
death by famine slaughtered, and the possessions divided among the
Campeador's companions. In other respects the Cid appears to have used
his victory mildly, ruling his kingdom, which now embraced nearly the
whole of Valencia and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At
length the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched
against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cuenca upon
the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar Fanez. The blow
was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn Campeador, who died of anger
and grief in July 1099. His widow maintained Valencia for three years
longer against the Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the
city, taking with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery
of San Pedro at Cardeña, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here, in the
centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief companions-in-arms, by
Alvar Fanez Minaya, Pero Bermudez, Martin Antolinez and Pelaez the
Asturian, were placed the remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of
Spanish heroes, the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of
the national vices. The bones have since been removed to the town hall
of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized, but Rome objected, and
not without reason.
Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but indifferent
material out of which to make a saint,--a man who battled against
Christian and against Moslem with equal zeal, who burnt churches and
mosques with equal zest, who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a
livelihood as for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth
almost as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his habits and his
character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of the
_guerrilleros_--the perfect type of that sort of warrior in which, from
the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El Empecinado, the soil of
Spain has been most productive.
The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends and dramas,
the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid invoked by good Spaniards
in every national crisis, whose name is a perpetual and ever-present
inspiration to Spanish patriotism, is a very different character from
the historical Rodrigo Diaz--the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter
with the infidels and the enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the
Born in a Happy Hour, "My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the
all-powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of patriotic
duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland and Bayard in one.
In the popular literature of Spain he holds a place such as has no
parallel in other countries. From an almost contemporary period he has
been the subject of song; and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels
in the 12th century has survived to be hymned in revolutionary odes of
the 19th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the
conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we have the bard
testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among his country's heroes:--
"Ipse Rodericus _Mio_ Cid semper vocatus,
De quo cantatur quod ab hostibus haud superatus,
Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostros."
Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become the centre of a
whole system of myths. The _Poema del Cid_, written in the latter half
of the 12th century, has scarcely any trace of a historical character.
Already the Cid had reached his apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could
not consent to degrade him when banished by his sovereign:--
"Dios, que buen vassalo si oviese buen señor!"
cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile on his way.
The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines; written in a
barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude Alexandrine
measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry, and is full of a
noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur, invaluable as a living
picture of the age. The ballads relating to the Cid, of which nearly two
hundred are extant, are greatly inferior in merit, though some of them
are not unworthy to be ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes
the greater part of them to have been written in the 16th century. A few
betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their
natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and a freer national
life. They all take great liberties with history, thus belying the
opinion of Sancho Panza that "the ballads are too old to tell lies."
Such of them as are not genuine relics of the 12th century are either
poetical versions of the leading episodes in the hero's life as
contained in the _Chronicle_, that _Chronicle_ itself having been
doubtless composed out of still earlier legends as sung by the wandering
_juglares_, or pure inventions of a later time, owing their inspiration
to the romances of chivalry. In these last the ballad-mongers, not to
let their native hero be outdone by the Amadises, the Esplandians, and
the Felixmartes, engage him in the most extravagant adventures--making
war upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving embassies
from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome, and performing
other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or the Chronicle. The last
and the worst of the Cid ballads are those which betray by their frigid
conceits and feeble mimicry of the antique the false taste and
essentially unheroic spirit of the age of Philip II. As for the
innumerable other poems, dramas and tales which have been founded on the
legend of the Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to
those of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding
popularity of the national hero in his native land.
The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convent of
San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been written
before 1258; the _Cronica General_, composed by Alphonso X. in the
second half of the 13th century, partly (so far as relates to the Cid)
from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and partly
from tradition; the _Cronica del Cid_, first published in 1512, by
Juan de Velorado, abbot of the monastery of San Pedro at Cardeña,
which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new fictions
due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic manuscripts,
some of contemporary date, which are examined and their claims weighed
in the second volume of Professor Dozy's _Recherches sur l'histoire
politique et littéraire de l'Espagne pendant le moyen âge_ (Leiden,
1849). Huber, Müller, and Ferdinand Wolf are among the leading
authorities in the history and literature of the Cid. M. Damas Hinard
has published the poem, with a literal French translation and notes,
and John Hookham Frere has rendered it into English with extraordinary
spirit and fidelity. The largest collection of the Cid ballads is that
of Durant, in the _Romancero general_, in two volumes, forming part of
Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores españoles_. (H. E. W.)
CIDER, or CYDER (from the Fr. _cidre_, derived from the Lat. _sicera_ or
_cisera_, Gr. [Greek: sikera], Heb. _sh[=e]k[=a]r_, strong drink), an
alcoholic beverage made from apples.
Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears) are liquors
containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or 8%, seldom more, and
rarely as much, produced by the vinous fermentation of the expressed
juice of apples and pears; but cider and perry of prime quality can only
be obtained from vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the
purpose and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples
make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from pears
too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other form. The making
of perry is in England confined, in the main, to the counties of
Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These three counties, together with
Somerset and Devon, constitute, too, the principal cider-making district
of the country; but the industry, which was once more widely spread,
still survives an Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though,
in both these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is
imported from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking
generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its lightness
and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and that of Devonshire
for its lusciousness.
Cider used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry had
almost become extinct until revived by the Department of Agriculture,
which in 1904 erected a cider-making plant at Drogheda, Co. Louth, gave
assistance to private firms at Dungarvan, Co. Waterford, and Fermoy, Co.
Cork, and provided a travelling mill and press to work in the South
Riding of Co. Tipperary. The results have been highly satisfactory, a
large quantity of good cider having been produced.
Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable varieties of
cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee composed of members of
the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers' Association and of the Fruit and
Chrysanthemum Society was appointed in 1899 to make a selection of
vintage apples and pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts
adjoining. The following is the list drawn up by the committee:--
_Apples_.--Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red, Dymock Red,
Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton, Skyrme's Kernel,
Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal
Wilding, Handsome Norman, Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman,
Broad-leaved Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtôt, De Boutville, Fréquin
Audièvre, Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced
from Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of
Herefordshire.
_Pears_.--Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or Malvern Hill,
Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.
No equally authoritative selection has been made for the Somerset and
Devon districts, but the following varieties of cider apples are held in
good repute in those parts:--Kingston Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns,
Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine, Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle
Stopper, Golden Ball, Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and
Cadbury (believed to be identical with the Royal Wilding of
Herefordshire). As a rule the best cider apples are of small size.
"Petites pommes, gros cidre," say the French.
Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is impossible
to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the amount of the annual
production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson, the then secretary of the
National Association of English Cider-makers, in his evidence before the
royal commission on agriculture, put it at 55½ million gallons. Since
that date the increased demand for these native wines has given such an
impetus to the industry that this figure might with safety be doubled.
In France official statistics are available, and these show not only
that that country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in
the world, but that the output is yearly increasing. A great proportion,
however, of what passes as cider in France is _boisson_, i.e. cider to
which water has been added in the process of making or at a subsequent
stage; while much of the perry is disposed of to the makers of
champagne. Although some cider is made in sixty-five departments, by far
the largest amount comes from the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In
Germany cider-making is a considerable and growing industry.
Manufactories on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and
Grünberg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main,
Sachsenhausen and the neighbourhood, where there are five large and
twenty-five small factories employing upwards of 1000 hands. Large
quantities of cider fruit are imported from foreign countries, as,
speaking generally, the native-grown fruit used in Germany for
cider-making consists of inferior and undersized table apples not worth
marketing. The bottled cider for export is treated much like champagne,
and is usually fortified and flavoured until, in the words of an
acknowledged French authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between
cider and white wine rather than pure cider.
The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making cider on the
farm from the produce of the home orchards has within the last few years
been to a large extent given up, and, as in Germany and many parts of
France, farmers now sell their fruit to owners of factories where the
making of cider and perry is carried on as a business of itself. In
these hand or horse power is superseded by steam and sometimes by
electricity, as in the factory of E. Seigel in Grünberg, and the
old-fashioned appliances of the farm by modern mills and presses capable
of turning out large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice,
too, which used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the
factories accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of
compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as Lumley's
filter. The actual process of cider and perry making is simple, and
resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is ground or crushed in
machines of various construction, the latest and most powerful being of
American origin. The resulting pomace is pressed for the extraction of
the juice, which is then run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation,
which, converting the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas, turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of
several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from one
variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite
degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties than
in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which the most noted
sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash and the Oldfield, produce
the best perry when unmixed with other varieties. Some fining of an
albuminous nature is generally requisite in order to clear the juice and
facilitate its passage through the filter, but the less used the better.
The simplest and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended
gradually with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many
nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary and
most are harmful.
Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using preservatives
for the purpose of checking fermentation. The principal preservatives
employed are salicylic and boracic acids and formalin. The two former
are ineffective except in quantities likely to prove hurtful to health,
while formalin, in itself a powerful and deleterious drug, though it
stops fermentation, renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other
foreign ingredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar
derivatives--the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist, after
whom it is named--are used by many makers, chiefly for the purpose of
rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider palatable and saleable.
Provided that cider and perry be properly filtered, and attention paid
to perfect cleanliness of vessels and appliances, there is no need of
preservatives or sweeteners, and their use ought to be forbidden by law
in England, as it is in most continental states in the case of liquors
to be consumed within their borders, though not, it is significant to
note, in the case of liquors intended for exportation.
The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and unadulterated
have been recognized by medical men, who recommend them as pleasant and
efficacious remedies in affections of a gouty or rheumatic nature,
maladies which, strange to say, these very liquors were once supposed to
foster, if not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression
the notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea,
colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders of this kind
are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of the country where
rough cider and perry constitute the staple drinks of the
working-classes. This is especially the case in Herefordshire, which is
said also to be the only county in England whence no instance of the
occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever been reported.
The importance which the cider industry has of late attained in England
has been marked by the establishment of the National Fruit and Cider
Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This institute, founded in 1903
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, is supported by grants from
the board, the Bath and West of England Society, the councils of the
cider-producing counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth,
Devon and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of the
institute are the promotion of research into the causes of the changes
which occur in cider and perry during fermentation, with the view of
imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude hitherto unattainable;
the adoption from time to time of improved machinery and methods in
cider-making; the detection of adulteration; the giving of instruction
in the principles and practice of cider-making; the publication of
reports detailing the results of the researches undertaken at the
institute; the testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited
for vintage purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from
neglect to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments in
regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young fruit trees.
Fruit-growers who look to cider-making "as a means of utilizing
windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and dessert varieties
not worth sending to market" should be warned that it is as important to
the cider industry that good cider only should be on sale as it is to
the fruit-growing industry that good fruit only should be sent to
market. The juice of the apple is naturally affected by the condition of
the fruit itself, and if this be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the cider
made from it will be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and
sound fruit. If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither
will the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public.
Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for home
consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But when, as happens from
time to time in fruit-growing districts, there is a glut, and even the
best table fruit is not saleable at a profit, then, indeed, cider-making
is a means of storing in a liquid form what would otherwise be left to
rot on the ground; whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed
therewith, a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider
trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker. (C. W. R. C.)
CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ÁLVAREZ DE (1764-1809), Spanish poet and publicist,
was born at Madrid on the 14th of December 1764. He studied with
distinction at Salamanca, where he met the poet Melendez Valdés. His
poems, published in 1778, immediately attracted attention. He was
successively editor of the _Gaceta_ and _Mercurio_, and was condemned to
death for having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition
of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died at
Orthez early in the following year. His verses are modelled on those of
Melendez Valdés; though not deficient in technique or passion, they are
often disfigured by spurious sentimentality and by the flimsy philosophy
of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed for an unsparing use of both archaisms
and gallicisms. His plays, _Pitaco, Zoraida, La Condesa de Castilla_ and
_Idomeneo_, four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and _Las
Hermanas generosas_, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.
CIENFUEGOS (originally FERNANDINA DE JAGUA), one of the principal cities
of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central portion of the S.
coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 30,100. Cienfuegos is served
by the United railways and by steamers connecting with Santiago,
Batabanó, Trinidad and the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the
sea on a peninsula in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels
drawing 16 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway
about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the loading
and unloading of vessels. The city streets are broad and regularly laid
out. There is a handsome cathedral; and the Tomas Terry theatre (given
to the city by the heirs of one of the millionaire sugar planters of the
jurisdiction), the governor's house (1841-1844), the military and
government hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of
note. In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas), embracing two
city-squares, and shaded--like all the plazas of the island--with
laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic, and two
marble lions given by Queen Isabel II.; elsewhere there are statues of
General Clouet and Marshal Serrano, once captain-general. The city is
lighted by gas and electricity, has an abundant water-supply, and cable
connexion with Europe, the United States, other Antilles and South
America. The surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most
fertile regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches,
beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several of the
largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in the
vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment station
maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and others--most of them
connected with the city by good driveways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the
sugar trade on the south coast; tobacco too is exported.
The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was founded in 1819,
with the aid of the Spanish government, by a Louisianian, General Luis
de Clouet; it was destroyed by a hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many
naturalized foreign Catholics, including Americans, were among the
original settlers. The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand
VII., and later in honour of Captain-General José Cienfuegos Jovellanos.
The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has been declared by
Mahan to be the most important of the Caribbean Sea for strategic
purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortification called Nuestra Señora de los
Angeles was erected at the entrance; it is still standing, on a steep
bluff overlooking the sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old
fortifications of the island. On the 11th of May 1898 a force from two
vessels of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for
Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables here (at
Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for the first time
in the Spanish-American War the American troops were under fire.
CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the
right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid-Cartagena railway.
Pop. (1900) 13,626. Cieza is built in a narrow bend of the Segura
valley, which is enclosed on the north by mountains, and on the south
broadens into a fertile plain, producing grain, wine, olives, raisins,
oranges and esparto grass. In the town itself there are flour and paper
mills, sawmills and brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1900 local
trade and population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means
of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly modern.
CIGAR, the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smoking by being
rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at the end which is
placed in the mouth, the other end, which is lighted, being usually cut
square (see TOBACCO). The Spanish _cigarro_ is of doubtful origin,
possibly connected with _cigarra_, a cicada, from its resemblance to the
body of that insect, or with _cigarral_, a word of Arabic origin meaning
a pleasure garden. The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a
certain species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native word
of the kind is known. The diminutive, _cigarette_, denotes a roll of cut
tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometimes also in
tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian corn.
CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), Italian painter, was born of a noble family
at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo, and afterwards under
Francesco Albani. Though an intimate friend of the latter, and his most
famous disciple, Cignani was yet strongly and deeply influenced by the
genius of Correggio. His greatest work, moreover, the "Assumption of the
Virgin," round the cupola of the church of the Madonna della Fuoca at
Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in some respects one
of the most remarkable works of art of the 17th century, is obviously
inspired from the more renowned fresco of Correggio in the cupola of the
cathedral of Parma. Cignani had some of the defects of his masters; his
elaborate finish, his audacious artificiality in the use of colour and
in composition, mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work
a more intellectual character than either of his models, and is not
without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani was
eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success, however, made
him many enemies; and the envy of some of these is said to have impelled
them to deface certain of his works. He accepted none of the honours
offered him by the duke of Parma and other princes, but lived and died
an artist. On his removal to Forli, where he died, the school he had
founded at Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most
famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited, are--the
"Entry of Paul III. into Bologna"; the "François I. Touching for King's
Evil"; a "Power of Love," painted under a fine ceiling by Agostino
Carracci, on the walls of a room in the ducal palace at Parma; an "Adam
and Eve" (at the Hague); and two of "Joseph and Potiphar's Wife" (at
Dresden and Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo
(1709-1764) were also painters.
CIGOLI (or CIVOLI), LODOVICO CARDI DA(1559-1613), Italian painter,
architect and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany. Educated under
Alessandro Allori and Santi di Tito, he formed a peculiar style by the
study at Florence of Michelangelo, Correggio, Andrea del Sarto and
Pontormo. Assimilating more of the second of these masters than of all
the others, he laboured for some years with success; but the attacks of
his enemies, and intense application to the production of a wax model of
certain anatomical preparations, induced an alienation of mind which
affected him for three years. At the end of this period he visited
Lombardy, whence he returned to Florence. There he painted an "Ecce
Homo," in competition with Passignani and Caravaggio, which gained the
prize. This work was afterwards taken by Bonaparte to the Louvre, and
was restored to Florence in 1815. Other important pictures are--a "St
Peter Healing the Lame Man," in St Peter's at Rome; a "Conversion of St
Paul," in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, and a "Story of
Psyche," in fresco, at the Villa Borghese; a "Martyrdom of Stephen,"
which earned him the name of the Florentine Correggio, a "Venus and
Satyr," a "Sacrifice of Isaac," a "Stigmata of St Francis," at Florence.
Cigoli, who was made a knight of Malta at the request of Pope Paul III.,
was a good and solid draughtsman and the possessor of a rich and
harmonious palette. He died, it is said, of grief at the failure of his
last fresco (in the Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore), which is
rendered ridiculous by an abuse of perspective.
CILIA (plural of Lat. _cilium_, eyelash), in biology, the thread-like
processes by the vibration of which many lowly organisms, or the male
reproductive cells of higher organisms, move through water.
CILIATA (M. Pertz), one of the two divisions of Infusoria, characterized
by the permanent possession of cilia or organs derived from these
(cirrhi, membranelles, &c.), and possessing a single mouth (except in
the _Opalinopsidae_, all parasitic). They are the most highly
differentiated among the Protozoa.
CILICIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, extending along
the south coast from the Alara Su, which separated it from Pamphylia, to
the Giaour Dagh (Mt. Amanus), which parted it from Syria. Its northern
limit was the crest of Mt. Taurus. It was naturally divided into Cilicia
Trachea, W. of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, E. of that river.
Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the spurs of
Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered
harbours,--a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a resort
of pirates, and, in the middle ages, led to its occupation by Genoese
and Venetian traders. The district is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus
and its tributaries), and is covered to a large extent by forests, which
still, as of old, supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several
towns but no large trade centres. In the interior were Coropissus (Da
Bazar), Olba (Uzunjaburj), and, in the valley of the Calycadnus,
Claudiopolis (Mut) and Germanicopolis (Ermenek). On or near the coast
were Coracesium (Alaya), Selinus-Trajanopolis (Selinti), Anemourium
(Anamur), Kelenderis (Kilindria), Seleucia ad Calycadnum (Selefkeh),
Corycus (Korghoz) and Elaeusa-Sebaste (Ayash). Roads connected Laranda,
north of the Taurus, with Kelenderis and Seleucia.
Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large plain,
which consists, in great part, of a rich stoneless loam. Its eastern
half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are crowned with the
ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by the low hills that border
the plain of Issus. The plain is watered by the Cydnus (Tarsus Chai),
the Sarus (Sihun) and the Pyramus (Jihun), each of which brings down
much silt. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but
there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus,
and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such
appears to have been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia. The
plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated. Through it
ran the great highway, between the east and the west, on which stood
Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the
Pyramus. North of the road between the two last places were
Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Anazarbus (Anazarba) and Hierapolis-Kastabala
(Budrum); and on the coast were Soli-Pompeiopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash),
Aegae (Ayash), Issus, Baiae (Piyas) and Alexandria ad Issum
(Alexandretta). The great highway from the west, on its long rough
descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a narrow pass
between walls of rock called the Cilician Gate, Ghulek Boghaz. After
crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry
(Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that
plain one road ran southward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to
Alexandretta, and thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan
Pass, to Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a masonry
(Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed Mt. Amanus by the
Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to North Syria and the Euphrates. By the
last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the
mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy,
and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria
rather than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision
with Cocysus and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported the
goats'-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made.
The Cilicians appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the
early part of the first millennium B.C. were one of the four chief
powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that they had previously
been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian empire; but, up to 1909 at all
events, "Hittite" monuments had not been found in Cilicia; and we must
infer that the "Hittite" civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia
and N. Syria, communicated with each other by passes E. of Amanus and
not by the Cilician Gates. Under the Persian empire Cilicia was
apparently governed by tributary native kings, who bore a name or title
graecized as Syennesis; but it was officially included in the fourth
satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a queen in power, and no opposition
was offered to the march of Cyrus. Similarly Alexander found the Gates
open, when he came down from the plateau in 333 B.C.; and from these
facts it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct
Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready to turn
against its suzerain. After Alexander's death it was long a battle
ground of rival marshals and kings, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic
dominion, but finally under that of the Seleucids, who, however, never
held effectually more than the eastern half. Cilicia Trachea became the
haunt of pirates, who were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became
Roman territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64
B.C., into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included
part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Caesar, 47 B.C., and about 27
B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-Phoenice. At first the
western district was left independent under native kings or
priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarkondimotus, was left in
the east; but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian,
A.D. 74. Under Diocletian (circa 297), Cilicia, with the Syrian and
Egyptian provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis. In the 7th century it
was invaded by the Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied
by Nicephorus II. in 965.
The Seljuk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of Armenians
southwards, and in 1080 Rhupen, a relative of the last king of Ani,
founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality, which
gradually expanded into the kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian
kingdom--situated in the midst of Moslem states, hostile to the
Byzantines, giving valuable support to the crusaders, and trading with
the great commercial cities of Italy---had a stormy existence of about
300 years. Gosdantin I. (1095-1100) assisted the crusaders on their
march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I.
(1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged
successful war against Byzantines and Seljuks. Levond (Leo) II., "the
Great" (1185-1219), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and
established the capital at Sis. He assisted the crusaders, was crowned
king by the archbishop of Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of
Cyprus. Haithon I. (1224-1269) made an alliance with the Mongols, who,
before their adoption of Islam, protected his kingdom from the Mamelukes
of Egypt. When Levond V. died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king
as Gosdantin IV.; but he and his successors alienated the Armenians by
attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all
posts of honour to Latins, and at last the kingdom, a prey to internal
dissensions, succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptians. Cilicia
Trachea was occupied by the Osmanlis in the 15th century, but Cilicia
Pedias was only added to the empire in 1515.
From 1833 to 1840 Cilicia formed part of the territories administered by
Mehemet Ali of Cairo, who was compelled to evacuate it by the allied
powers. Since that date it has formed the vilayet of Adana (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Beside the general authorities for ASIA MINOR,
see:--W.B. Barker, _Lares and Penates_ (1853); V. Langlois, _Voyage
dans la Cilicie_ (1861); F. Beaufort, _Karamania_ (1817); W.F.
Ainsworth, _Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888), and
_Travels in Asia Minor_ (1842); R. Heberdey and A. Wilhelm, _Reisen in
Kilikien_ (1896); D.G. Hogarth and J.A.R. Munro, _Mod. and Anc. Roads
in E. Asia Minor_ (R.G.S. Supp. Papers, iii.) (1893); D.G. Hogarth, _A
Wandering Scholar_ (1896); G.L. Schlumberger, _Un Empereur byzantin_
(1890); T. Kotschy, _Reise in dem cilicschen Taurus_ (1858); H.C.
Barkley, _Ride through Asia Minor and Armenia_ (1891); E.J. Davis,
_Life in Asiatic Turkey_ (1879); J. Marquardt, _Röm.
Staatsverwaltung_, i. (1874); J.R.S. Sterrett, _Wolfe Expedition_
(1888). See also authorities under ARMENIA and MEHEMET ALI.
(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
CILLI, ULRICH, COUNT OF (1406-1456), son of Frederick II., count of
Cilli, and Elizabeth Frangepan. Of his youth we know nothing certain.
About 1432 he married Catherine, daughter of George Brankovich, despot
of Servia.
His influence in the troubled affairs of Hungary and the Empire early
overshadowed that of his father, together with whom he was made a prince
of the Empire by the emperor Sigismund (1436). Hence feuds with the
Habsburgs, wounded in their rights as overlords of Cilli, ending,
however, in an alliance with the Habsburg king Albert II., who made
Ulrich for a short while his lieutenant in Bohemia. After Albert's death
(1439) Ulrich took up the cause of his widow Elizabeth, and presided at
the coronation of her infant son Ladislaus V. Posthumus (1440). A feud
with the Hunyadis followed, embittered by John Hunyadi's attack on
George Brankovich of Servia (1444) and his refusal to recognize Ulrich's
claim to Bosnia on the death of Stephen Tvrtko (1443). In 1446 Hunyadi,
now governor of Hungary, harried the Cilli territories in
Croatia-Slavonia; but his power was broken at Kossovo (1448), and Count
Ulrich was able to lead a successful crusade, nominally in the Habsburg
interest, into Hungary (1450). In 1452 he forced the emperor Frederick
III. to hand over the boy king Ladislaus V. to his keeping, and became
thus practically ruler of Hungary. In 1454 his power was increased by
his succession to his father's vast wealth; and in 1456 he was named by
Ladislaus his lieutenant in Hungary. The Hunyadis now conspired to
destroy him. On the 8th of November, in spite of warnings, he entered
Belgrade with the king; the next day he was attacked by Laszlo Hunyadi
and his friends, and done to death. With him died the male line of the
counts of Cilli.
Count Ulrich's ambition was boundless, his passions unbridled; but the
hostile judgments passed by Aeneas Sylvius and other contemporaries
upon him must be read with caution.
CILLI (Slovene, _Celje_), a town in Styria, Austria, 82 m. S. by W. of
Graz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6743. It is picturesquely situated on the left
bank of the river Sann, and still has remains of the old walls and
towers, with which it was once surrounded. Memorials of a still earlier
period in its history--Roman antiquities--are to be seen in the
municipal museum, while its canals and sewers are also of Roman origin.
These were discovered during the second half of the 19th century, and
were in such a good state of preservation that after a few small repairs
they are now utilized. The parish church, dating from the 14th century,
with its beautiful Gothic chapel, is one of the most interesting
specimens of medieval architecture. The so-called German church, in
Romanesque style, belonged to the Minorite monastery, founded in 1241
and closed in 1808. The throne of the counts of Cilli is preserved here,
and also the tombs of several members of the family. On the Schlossberg
(1320 ft.), situated to the S.E. of the town, are the ruins of the
castle of Ober-Cilli, the former residence of the counts of Cilli. Ten
miles to the N.W. of Cilli are situated the baths of Neuhaus, with
indifferent thermal waters (117° F.), frequented by ladies. Not far from
it is the ruined castle of Neuhaus, called since 1643 Schlangenburg,
from which an extensive view of the neighbouring Alps is obtained.