frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of
Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman
historians. There are various opinions respecting the year of the
foundation of Rome. (1) Fabius Pictor places it in the latter half of
the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th
of the Julian period, and with the year 747 B.C. (2) Polybius places it
in the second year of the seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of
the Julian period, and 750 B.C. (3) M. Porcius Cato places it in the
first year of the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian
period, and 751 B.C. (4) Verrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of
the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and
752 B.C. (5) Terentius Varro places it in the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 B.C. A
knowledge of these different computations is necessary, in order to
reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even any one writer
with himself. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he
sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of
Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of
Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt
the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus,
where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the
festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now
this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore,
deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ.
The Palilia commenced on the 21st of April; and all the accounts agree
in regarding that day as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.
The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used
in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular
year, according to which the annals of their history have been
composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of January, but
this did not hold a fixed place in the solar year till the time of
Julius Caesar (see CALENDAR). The installation of the consuls
regulated the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of
the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century of
Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of
political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the
elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking,
comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil
years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians
generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the 6th century of our
era.
In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st
of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January,
February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year
(for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the
time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last month of the
year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year,
supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again
confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian
year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the
calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want of attention, many
writers also, particularly among the moderns, have confounded the
Julian and Olympic years, by making an entire Julian year correspond
to an entire Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same epoch.
Much attention to these particulars is required in the comparison of
ancient dates.
_The Christian Era._--The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era
of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian
countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations. Its epoch or
beginning is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th
Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the
Julian period. This epoch was introduced in Italy in the 6th century, by
Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the
8th, though it was not generally followed in that country till a century
later. From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England
before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual
practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number
in the cycle of Indiction.
In the Christian era the years are simply distinguished by the cardinal
numbers; those before Christ being marked B.C. (Before Christ), or A.C.
(Ante Christum), and those after Christ A.D. (Anno Domini). This method
of reckoning time is more convenient than those which employ cycles or
periods of any length whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the
simplest manner possible all the conditions that are necessary for
registering the succession of events. For, since the commencement of the
era is placed at an intermediate period of history, we are compelled to
resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well as forward.
Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the
method of numbering the preceding years. Astronomers denote the year
which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that
by 1 B.C.; but chronologers, in conformity with common notions, call the
year preceding the era 1 B.C., the previous year 2 B.C., and so on. By
reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular
succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap
years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or
ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.
In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty frequently arises
respecting dates on account of the different epochs assumed for the
beginning of the Christian year. Dionysius, the author of the era,
adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which
preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the
first year of the era. This epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar
era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in
some of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down
to the year 1745. It was also adopted in some of the Papal bulls; and
there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle
of the 11th century. Some chroniclers, who adhere to the day of the
Annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of
March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the 10th century.
Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make
the year begin sometimes with the 1st of March, and sometimes with the
1st of January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual
to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till
the middle of the 16th century, for an edict was issued by Charles IX.
in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the beginning of the year
should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the 1st of January.
An instance is given, in _L'Art de vérifier les dates_, of a date in
which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable
that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March
was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the 11th
century, it was usual to begin the year at Christmas; and this practice
also prevailed at Milan, Rome and other Italian cities, in the 13th,
14th and 15th centuries.
In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at
Christmas was introduced in the 7th century, and traces of it are found
even in the 13th. Gervase of Canterbury, who lived in the 13th century,
mentions that almost all writers of his country agreed in regarding
Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms, as it were,
the term at which the sun finishes and recommences his annual course. In
the 12th century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with
the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and
continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation
of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has always been reckoned by
English authors to begin with the 1st of January. The liturgic year of
the Church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.
A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the
commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably
necessary to the right interpretation of ancient chronicles, charters
and other documents in which the dates often appear contradictory. We
may cite an example or two. It is well known that Charles the Great was
crowned emperor at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he
died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning. But
in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated to have
taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. In the first case the
annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly
reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to
belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to
the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin
with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first
three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would
be referred to the end of the year 813. The English Revolution is
popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it
now does, with the 1st of January, it would have been the revolution of
1689, William and Mary being received as king and queen in February in
the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as
beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is
often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the
alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the Gregorian
Calendar (see CALENDAR).
_Era of the Creation of the World_.--As the Greek and Roman methods of
computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances
which the Christians held in abhorrence, the latter began at an early
period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the supposed
period of the creation of the world. Various computations were made at
different times, from Biblical sources, as to the age of the world; and
Des Vignoles, in the preface to his _Chronology of Sacred History_,
asserts that he collected upwards of two hundred different calculations,
the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of
the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the longest 6984.
The so-called era of the creation of the world is therefore a purely
conventional and arbitrary epoch; practically, it means the year 4004
B.C.,--this being the date which, under the sanction of Archbishop
Usher's opinion, won its way, among its hundreds of competitors, into
general acceptance.
_Jewish Year and Eras_.--Before the departure of the Israelites from
Egypt their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to
solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of _Nisan_ or
_Abib_, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time
of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the
ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of
the jubilees and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient
year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal
equinox.
After their dispersion the Jews were constrained to have recourse to the
astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order
that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all
the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they
adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of
the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians
borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be
neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six years,
with the addition of a Greek octaëteris, or period of eight years, in
order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of
originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and
the octaëteris 2922 days, the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the
number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very
far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a
difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places
of the sun and moon, which was the whole error of the Calippic period,
this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one
day, six hours and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the beginning of
this cycle in the year 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. According
to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have begun in the year
46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St Prosperus, that
the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years,
which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter,
till the time of the Council of Nice.
Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians,
abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by
which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This
improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish
school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year
360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year
which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till
the coming of the Messiah.
Till the 15th century the Jews usually followed the era of the
Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they have generally employed
a mundane era, and dated from the creation of the world, which,
according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three
months before the beginning of our era. No rule can be given for
determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins
without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated
calendar.
_Era of Constantinople._--This era, which is still used in the Greek
Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the
Great, dates from the creation of the world. The Incarnation falls in
the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of
the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September;
the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with
the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at
Constantinople as beginning with September before the separation of the
Eastern and Western empires.
At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four
months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the
Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while
the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to
find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of
Constantinople, we have the following rule: If the event took place
between the 1st of January and the end of August subtract 5508 from the
given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end
of the year, subtract 5509.
_Era of Alexandria._--The chronological computation of Julius Africanus
was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned
5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ. But in
reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era it must be observed that
Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier
than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the
Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This
correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era
till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by
dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the
imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to the Alexandrian
computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the
Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year
was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the
Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria,
the one being used before and the other after the accession of
Diocletian. It is not known for what reason the alteration was made; but
it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new
revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the
ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of
Hierapolis) to begin with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In
fact, 5777 being divided by 19 leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The
Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the 15th
century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.
Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by
subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after
that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the
four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the
year 5786, and 5493 after that year.
_Mundane Era of Antioch._--The chronological reckoning of Julius
Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted
by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian
monk, who flourished about the beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus
struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to
the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later,
referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common
era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of
Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the
accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the
Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch
being placed, in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than
in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.
As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to
any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 or
5493 according as the event falls between January and September or from
September to January.
_Era of Nabonassar._--This era is famous in astronomy, having been
generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is believed to have
been in use from the very time of its origin; for the observations of
eclipses which were collected in Chaldaea by Callisthenes, the general
of Alexander, and transmitted by him to Aristotle, were for the greater
part referred to the beginning of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of
the kingdom of the Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of
kings, also called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of
Ptolemy, which, before the astonishing discoveries at Nineveh, was the
sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian history known to us.
The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous
celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at
mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year
was in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On account of
the difference in the length of the Julian and Babylonian years, the
conversion of dates according to the era of Nabonassar into years before
Christ is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to
follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with
certainty, unless we know also the month and the day.
The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a
year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar of
Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other Roman provincials, the Julian
intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded to the 29th
of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient
Egyptian year corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the
29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year
must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of
our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one
day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the
first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian
calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23 and 22 B.C.
_Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era._--The era of the Seleucidae
dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator,
311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after
the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the
monarchy of the Seleucidae but in general in all the Greek countries
bordering on the Levant, was followed by the Jews till the 15th century,
and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the
Jews it was called the _Era of Contracts_, because the Syrian governors
compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts; the writers of the
books of Maccabees call it the _Era of Kings_. But notwithstanding its
general prevalence in the East for many centuries, authors using it
differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in
consequence of the different epochs adopted for the beginning of the
year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which
corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the
present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October.
The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with
the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the
first Tishrin, or October. Albategni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer,
dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as
Alfergani, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted
from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month,
and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies render it
extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian
dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still
greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year.
Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague
year of 365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 365¼ days.
According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of
the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian
year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date
to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.
The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their
correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:--
Syrian. Macedonian. English.
Elul. Gorpiaeus. September.
Tishrin I. Hyperberetaeus. October.
Tishrin II. Dius. November.
Canun I. Apellaeus. December.
Canun II. Audynaeus. January.
Sabat. Peritius. February.
Adar. Dystrus. March.
Nisan. Xanthicus. April.
Ayar. Artemisius. May.
Haziran. Daesius. June.
Tamus. Panemus. July.
Ab. Loüs. August.
_Era of Alexander._--Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a
chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in the year 325
B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the preceding era. This era
has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that
it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.
_Era of Tyre._--The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or
the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetaeus, in the year 126
B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125;
and when the date is B.C., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed
according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of
certain councils.
_Caesarean Era of Antioch._--This era was established to commemorate the
victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th
of August in the year 48 B.C., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians
computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to
the month Gorpiaeus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference
of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the
Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the
Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding the commencement
of the Christian era; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began
in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by
Evagrius in his _Ecclesiastical History_.
_Julian Era._--The Julian era begins with the 1st of January, forty-five
years B.C. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman
calendar by Julius Caesar.
_Era of Spain, or of the Caesars._--The conquest of Spain by Augustus,
which was completed in the thirty-ninth year B.C., gave rise to this
era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long
used in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces
subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France.
Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated
according to this era. After the 9th century it became usual to join
with it in public acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in
Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in
Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to
have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem
that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era
was used in the public acts of that country than that of the
Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the 1st of January, and the
months and days of the year are those of the Julian calendar, any date
is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number
of the year.
_Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus._--This era was established to
commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3rd of
September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the 15th of the Julian era. By
the Romans the era of Actium was considered as beginning on the 1st of
January of the 16th of the Julian era, which is the 30th B.C. The
Egyptians, who used this era till the time of Diocletian, dated its
commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of
August; and the Eastern Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter
it was also called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till
the 9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean era of
Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck
by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this
era.
Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which began
four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which Augustus prevailed on
the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and
to confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.
_Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs._--It has been already stated that
the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor Diocletian, made an
alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their
reckoning. At the same time they established a new era, which is still
followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It begins with the 29th of August
(the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which
was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of _Era of
Martyrs_, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution
of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be
referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that year that
Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the
accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The ancient Egyptian year
consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian
calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and
added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month
of every fourth year. The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian
year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the
Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the
intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of
August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period
begin on the 29th of our August, and the fourth begins on the 30th of
that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes
place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to
the 29th of August. Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our
own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and
240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year
following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the
third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 30th of August and
the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days. The Ethiopians
do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive
series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which
they again begin with 1. This is the Dionysian or Great Paschal Period,
and is formed by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is,
of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.
The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months,
with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old
style:--
Mascaram 29th August. Magabit 25th February.
Tikmith 28th September. Miazia 27th March.
Hadar 28th October. Gimbot 26th April.
Tacsam 27th November. Sene 26th May.
Tir 27th December. Hamle 25th June.
Yacatit 26th January. Nahasse 25th July.
The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August.
In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later.
The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
the above in every respect excepting the names.
_Indiction._--The cycle of Indiction was very generally followed in the
Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption of the Christian
era. Three Indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in
regard to the commencement of the year.
1. The _Constantinopolitan Indiction_, like the Greek year, commenced
with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire,
and in some instances also in France.
2. The _Imperial_ or _Constantinian Indiction_ is so called because its
establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the
_Caesarean Indiction_. It begins on the 24th of September. It is not
infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.
3. The _Roman_ or _Pontifical Indiction_ began on the 25th of December
or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to begin on
the one or other of these days. It is often employed in papal bulls,
especially after the time of Gregory VII., and traces of its use are
found in early French authors.
_Era of the Armenians._--The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the
council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from
the Greek Church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and
it corresponds to Tuesday, the 9th of July of the year 552 of the
Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient
vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins
on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian
year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the
other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as
in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of
Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the
same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans,
they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian
year.
To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, proceed
as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from
the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era;
and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary
period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by
365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to
the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the
number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This
number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and
the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.
In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August.
To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 551
years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of
August, both inclusive, of the year 552--that is to say (since 552 is a
leap year), 223 days. In leap years one day must be subtracted if the
date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.
The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:--
1. Navazardi begins 11th August.
2. Hori 10th September.
3. Sahmi 10th October.
4. Dre Thari 9th November.
5. Kagoths 9th December.
6. Aracz 8th January.
7. Maleg 7th February.
8. Arcki 9th March.
9. Angi 8th April.
10. Mariri 8th May.
11. Marcacz 7th June.
12. Herodiez 7th July.
To complete the year five complementary days are added in common
years, and six in leap years.
_The Mahommedan Era, or Era of the Hegira._--The era in use among the
Turks, Arabs and other Mahommedan nations is that of the _Hegira_ or
_Hejra_, the flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, 622 A.D. Its
commencement, however, does not, as is sometimes stated, coincide with
the very day of the flight, but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The
prophet, after leaving Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the
Koreishites, hid himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca,
and there lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting
out on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third
month, Rabia I.--corresponding to the 22nd of September of the year 622
A.D. The era begins from the first day of the month of Muharram
preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian year which coincides
with Friday, July 16, 622 A.D. It is necessary to remember that by
astronomers and by some historians the era is assigned to the preceding
day, July 15. It is stated by D'Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was
instituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian era
of the martyrs.
_Era of Yazdegerd, or Persian or Jelalaean Era._--This era begins with
the elevation of Yazdegerd III. to the throne of Persia, on the 16th of
June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079 the Persian year
resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without
intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by
Jel[=a]l ud-D[=i]n Malik Shah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of
intercalation adopted which, though less convenient, is considerably
more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years,--one
day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end
of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end
of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally adopted in
Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India.
The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by
a different name. According to Alfergani, the names of the Persian
months are as follows:--
Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.
Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.
Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.
Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.
The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named
_Musteraca_.
As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was
ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on
which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees
begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We
have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague
year, which was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one
day every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to
about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in consequence be
thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of
the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our
era in which the Persian year begins.
_Chinese Chronology._--From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000
years B.C., the Chinese had two different years,--a civil year, which
was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar.
The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but
occasionally a thirteenth was added in order to preserve its
correspondence with the solar year. Even at that early period the solar
or astronomical year consisted of 365¼ days, like our Julian year; and
it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every
fourth year.
According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100
_ke_, each _ke_ into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This
practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the
instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of the tribunal of mathematics,
they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four
hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds.
The civil day begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.
Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 206 B.C., the
civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in
the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which
corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also they have
employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of
nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations
each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen
lunations. It is not, however, precisely known how they distributed
their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them,
great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the
calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the
mathematical tribunal.
The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun with
regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions, each
corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these
periods, which is denominated a _tsë[)e]_, is subdivided into two equal
portions called _chung-ki_ and _tsie-ki_, the _chung-ki_ denoting the
first half of the _tsë[)e]_, and the _tsie-ki_ the latter half. Though
the _tsë[)e]_, are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what is
remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the
lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the _chung-ki_
or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the _tsë[)e]_ is
longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive
twice at a _chung-ki_ during the same lunation; and as there are only
twelve _tsë[)e]_, the year can contain only twelve months having
different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a
lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is
intercalary, and is called by the same name as the preceding month.
For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other
nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which
they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are distributed in
the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are
distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has
a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates,
to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year,
this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of
Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never
interrupted by any intercalation that may be necessary for adjusting
the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also
distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the
intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated,
namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new
sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle
is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1873
being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year,
reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868, 1863, &c., or
1877, 1882, &c., also begins a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In
regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a
distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as
this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other
chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from
following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated.
The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of
characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined
together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of
the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called _celestial_
signs, are--
1. Ke[)a]; 2. Y[)i]h; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;
6. Ke; 7. K[)a]ng; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei;
and in the series of 12, denominated _terrestrial_ signs,
1. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;
7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Se[)u]h; 12. Hae.
The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary
cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above
series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series,
and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second of
the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third
of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the
sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with
the last of the second. Thus Ke[)a]-tsze is the name of the first
year, Y[)i]h-Chow that of the second, Ke[)a]-se[)u]h that of the
eleventh, Y[)i]h-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the
thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.
In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order of
the emperor K'ang-hi, who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle
begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred
that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but
it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely,
that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given
to that year 2357 B.C. are Ke[)a]-shin, which denote the 41st of the
cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 B.C.,
or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by
the authors of _L'Art de vérifier les dates_. The mathematical
tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the first year of
the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the
year 2277 B.C.
Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the practice
of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An
emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years of his
reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In
consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of
Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c, of
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor or his successor to
ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The
periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to
this method of dating the years a new era commences with every reign;
and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we
have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the
years of our era.
For _Hindu Chronology_, see the article under that heading.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the early Greek writings already named,
there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety)
of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus Siculus, and
arranged in the form of annals; the _Pentabiblos_ of Julius Africanus
(about 220-230 A.D.); the treatise of Censorinus entitled _De die
natali_, written 238 A.D.; the _Chronicon_, in two books, of Eusebius
Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 A.D.), distinguished as the
first book of a purely chronological character which has come down to
us; and three important works forming parts of the _Corpus Scriptorum
Historiae Byzantinae_, namely, the _Chronographia_ of Georgius
Syncellus (800 A.D.), the _Chronographia_ of Johannes Malalas (9th
century), and the _Chronicon Paschale_.
Among works on Chronology, the following, which are arranged in the
order of their publication, have an historical interest, as leading up
to the epoch of modern research:--
1583. _De Emendatione Temporum_, by Joseph Scaliger, in which were
laid the foundations of chronological science.
1603. _Opus Chronologicum_, by Sethus Calvisius.
1627. _De Doctrina Temporum_, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with its
continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled
_Rationarium Temporum_, in 1633-1634.
1650. _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_, by Archbishop Ussher,
whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized
version of the Bible.
1651. _Regia Epitome Historiae Sacrae et Profanae_, by Philippe Labbe,
of which a French version was also published.
1669. _Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo_, by Bishop Beveridge.
1672. _Chronicus Canon Aegyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Graecus_, by Sir John
Marsham.
1687. _L'Antiquité des temps rétablie et défendue_, by Paul Pezron,
with its _Defense_, 1691.
1701. _De Veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis_, by Henry Dodwell.
1728. _The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended_, by Sir Isaac
Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on new bases,
independent of the Greek chronologers.
1738. _Chronologie de l'histoire sainte_, by Alphonse des Vignolles.
1744. _Tablettes chronologiques de l'histoire universelle_, by N.
Lenglet-Dufresnoy.
1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of _L'Art de vérifier les
dates_, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols.
8vo, a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various
members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.
1752. _Chronological Antiquities_, by John Jackson.
1754. _Chronology and History of the World_, by John Blair; new
edition, much enlarged (1857).
1784. _A System of Chronology_, by Playfair.
1799. _Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums_, by A.H.L.
Heeren.
1803. _Handbuch der alten Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie_, by
G.G. Bredow, with his _Historische Tabellen_.
1809-1814. _New Analysis of Chronology_, by William Hales.
1819. _Annales Veterum Regnorum_, by C.G. Zumpt.
1821. _Tableaux historiques, chronologiques, et géographiques_, by
Buret de Longchamps.
1824-1834. _Fasti Hellenici_, and 1845-1850, _Fasti Romani_, by H.
Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published,
1851-1853.
1825-1826. _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_,
by Christian Ludwig Ideler; and his _Lehrbuch der Chronologie_,
(1831).
1833. _The Chronology of History_, by Sir Harris Nicolas.
1852. _Fasti Temporis Catholici_, by Edward Greswell; and by the same
author (1854), _Origines Kalendariae Italicae_; and 1862, _Origines
Kalendariae Hellenicae_.
More modern works are the _Encyclopaedia of Chronology_, by B.B.
Woodward and W.L.R. Cates (1872); and J.C. Macdonald's _Chronologies
and Calendars_ (1897). But see the separate historical articles in
this work. (W. L. R. C.)
CHRUDIM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of Prague by rail.
Pop. (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an important horse market,
besides manufactures of sugar, spirits, beer, soda-water and
agricultural machinery. There are also steam corn-mills and saw-mills.
Chrudim is mentioned as the castle of a _gaugraf_ as early as 993. The
new town was founded by Ottokar II., who settled many Germans in it and
gave it many privileges. After 1421 Chrudim was held by the Hussites,
and though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it
prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. In 1625
the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town, which
suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the birthplace of
Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), honoured in Austria as the inventor of the
screw propeller.
CHRYSANTHEMUM[1] (_Chrysanthemum sinense_; nat. ord. Compositae), one of
the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a native of China, whence it
was introduced to Europe. The first chrysanthemum in England was grown
at Kew in 1790, whither it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener.
It was not, however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition
took place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the
grotesque-flowered Japanese sorts, are of comparatively recent date, the
former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety introduced by
Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been introduced by the
same traveller about 1862. The Japanese kinds are unquestionably the
most popular for decorative purposes as well as for exhibition. They
afford a wide choice in colour, form, habit and times of flowering. The
incurved Chinese kinds are severely neat-looking flowers in many shades
of colour. The anemone-flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the
interior or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in
many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the petals
being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In the single
varieties the outer or ray florets alone are large and attractively
coloured.
_Plants for the Border._--As a border plant out of doors the
chrysanthemum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good
town plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be
produced in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the
end of November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the varieties
then introduced have been superseded by many excellent kinds raised in
Britain.
_Propagation._--The old English method of dividing the plants in March
or early April may be followed where better means of propagation are
not practicable. Many of the best border varieties are shy in
producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock, and are in
consequence not amenable to this method. It is better to raise the
plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for the early
flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during February and
March. They will root quite well in a cold frame, if protected during
frosty weather by litter or other similar material. If the frame can
be heated at will so as to maintain a fairly even temperature of from
4O° to 50° Fah., roots will be made more quickly and with more
certainty. A still better method is to improvise a frame near the
glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not raised above 50°
by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being accessible in all
weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with sifted coal ashes or
coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or pots used in propagating
are placed. These are well drained with broken crocks, the bottoms of
the boxes being drilled to allow water to pass out quickly. The soil
should consist of about equal parts of fibrous loam and leaf-mould,
half a part of coarse silver-sand, and about a quart of vegetable ash
from the garden refuse heap to each bushel of the compost. The whole
should be passed through a quarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed.
The coarse leaf-mould, &c., from the sieve should be spread thinly
over the drainage, and the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims
with the compost, and covered, if possible, with a thin layer of
silver-sand. It should be pressed firmly, watered with a fine rose,
and allowed to drain for an hour. The cuttings should then be dibbled
into the boxes in rows, just clear, the soil being gently pressed
around each. Short stout shoots which arise directly from the
rootstock make the best cuttings. In their absence cuttings from the
stems are used. The ideal length for a cutting is about 2½ in. Cut the
stem squarely with a sharp knife just below a joint, and remove the
lower leaves. Insert as soon as possible and water with a fine rose to
settle the soil around them. The soil is not allowed to become dry.
The cuttings should be looked over daily, decayed leaves removed, and
surplus moisture, condensed on the glass, wiped away. Ventilate
gradually as rooting takes place, and, when well rooted, transfer
singly into pots about 3 in. in diameter, using as compost a mixture
of two parts loam, one part leaf-mould, half a part coarse
silver-sand, and a gallon of vegetable ash to every bushel of the
compost. Return to the frames and keep close for a few days to allow
the little plants to recover from the check occasioned by the potting.
Ventilation should be gradually increased until the plants are able to
bear full exposure during favourable weather, without showing signs of
distress by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all times
from cold cutting winds. In April, should the weather be favourable,
the plants may be transferred to the borders, especially should the
positions happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable, another
shift will be necessary, this time into pots about 5 in. in diameter.
The soil should be similar to that advised for the previous potting,
enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been thoroughly
sweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All borders intended for
chrysanthemums should be well dug and manured. The strong growing
kinds should be planted about 3 ft. apart, the smaller kinds being
allowed a little less room.
In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings whenever
practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by surface hoeings;
stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch out the tips of the
shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy by frequent
branching. Pinching should not be practised later than the end of
June.
_Pot Plants for Decoration._--A list of a few of the thousands of
varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here; new
varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader is
referred to trade catalogues.
The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the choice
of colours; (b) the types of flowers; (c) the height and habits of the
varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those of weak
growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The majority of
the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are also suitable for
decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation and early
culture are substantially as for border plants.
As soon as the 5-in. pots are filled with roots, no time should be
lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots are large enough
for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
size. The soil, prepared a fortnight in advance, should consist of
four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
slag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn over at
intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the soil well
around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the support of the
plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may later be
necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but their number
should not be overdone. The stakes should be as few as possible
consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should be looped up
loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in their summer
quarters directly after potting. Stand them in rows in a sunny
situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room being
allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among them.
The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining wire in
two rows about 2 ft. apart between upright poles driven into the
ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breeze are the best materials to
stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms working through
into the pots. The plants, which are required to produce as many
flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched out at frequent
intervals, from the end of March or beginning of April to the last
week in June, for the main season kinds; and about the middle of July
for the later kinds.
Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots with
weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight dusting of
soluble chemical manure such as guano. The soil should be moderately
moist when manure is given. In order that the flowers may be of good
form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as soon as they are
large enough to handle, leaving only the bud terminating each shoot.
Towards the end of September--earlier should the weather prove wet and
cold--remove the plants to well-ventilated greenhouses where they are
intended to flower. Feeding should be continued until the flowers are
nearly half open, when it may be gradually reduced. The large
mop-headed blooms seen at exhibitions in November are grown in the way
described, but only one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a
plant, each shoot eventually having only one bloom.
The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and
green-fly. These pests may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing
with quassia and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew generally
appears after the plants are housed. It may be destroyed by dusting
the leaves attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a fungoid disease
of recent years. It is best checked by syringing the plants with liver
of sulphur (1 oz. to 3 gallons of water) occasionally, a few weeks
before taking the plants into the greenhouse. Earwigs and slugs must
be trapped and destroyed.
_Flowers for Exhibition._--Flowers of exhibition standard must be as
broad and as deep as the various varieties are capable of producing;
they must be irreproachable in colour. They must also exhibit the form
peculiar to the variety when at its best, very few kinds being
precisely alike in this respect. New varieties are introduced in large
numbers annually, some of which supplant the older kinds. The
cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities of several new kinds
each year if he would be a successful exhibitor.
For lists of varieties, &c. see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
which are published from time to time.