FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Gr. [Greek: chrusanthemon] ([Greek: chrusos], gold, and

[Greek: anthemon], flower) was the herbalists' name for _C.

segetum_, the "corn marigold," with its yellow bloom, and was

transferred by Linnaeus to the genus, being commonly restricted now

to the species _C. sinense_.

CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century A.D., of the school

of Iamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of Aedesius, and

devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of Neoplatonism (q.v.). The

emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by the advice of Aedesius, and

subsequently invited him to come to court, and assist in the projected

resuscitation of Hellenism. But Chrysanthius declined on the strength of

unfavourable omens, as he said, but probably because he realized that

the scheme was unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained

from drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia.

As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his death,

venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife Melite, who was

associated with him in the priestly office, was a kinswoman of Eunapius

the biographer.

CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: elephas],

ivory), the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a

wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the drapery. The

two most celebrated examples are those by Pheidias of the statue of

Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in the temple at Olympia.

CHRYSENE C18H12, a hydrocarbon occurring in the high boiling fraction of

the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small quantity in the

distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of phenyl-naphthyl-methane

through a red-hot tube, on heating indene, or by passing the mixed

vapours of coumarone and naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It

crystallizes in plates or octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a

violet fluorescence, and melt at 250°C. Chromic acid in glacial acetic

acid solution oxidizes it to chrysoquinone C18H10O2, which when

distilled with lead oxide gives chrysoketone C17H10O. When chrysene is

fused with alkalis, chrysenic acid, C17H12O3, is produced, which on

heating gives [beta]-phenyl-naphthalene. On heating chrysene with

hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260°C, the hydro-derivatives C18H28

and C18H30 are produced. It gives characteristic addition products with

picric acid and dinitroanthraquinone. Impure chrysene is of a yellow

colour; hence its name ([Greek: chryseos], golden yellow).

CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third great leader

of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog. Laert. vii. 179), he

was robbed of his property and came to Athens, where he studied possibly

under Zeno, certainly under Cleanthes. It is said also that he became a

pupil of Arcesilaus and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy. This

impartiality in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work,

the dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather than

originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and

crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended them

against the attacks of the Academy. His polemic skill earned for him the

title of the "Column of the Portico." Diogenes Laertius says, "If the

gods use dialectic, they can use none other than that of Chrysippus";

[Greek: ei mê gar ên Chrysippos, ouk an ên Stoa] ("Without Chrysippus,

there had been no Porch"). He excelled in logic, the theory of

knowledge, ethics and physics. His relations with Cleanthes,

contemporaneously criticized by Antipater, are considered under STOICS.

He is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises,

fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we are told, was

unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was lucid and

impartial.

See G.H. Hagedorn, _Moralia Chrysippea_ (1685), _Ethica Chrysippi_

(1715); J.F. Richter, _De Chrysippo Stoico fastuoso_ (1738); F.

Baguet, _De Chrysippi vita doctrina et reliquiis_ (1822); C. Petersen,

_Philosophiae Chrysippeae fundamenta_ (1827); A. Gercke, "Chrysippea"

in _Jahrbücher für Philologie_, suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R. Nicolai,

_De logicis Chrysippi libris_ (1859); Christos Aronis, [Greek:

Chrysippos grammatikos] (1885); R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros

philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882); L. Stein, _Die Psychologie der

Stoa_ (1886); A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der alten

Philosophie_ (1840); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. 149.

CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for its hardness,

being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond and corundum. The

name suggests that it was formerly regarded as a golden variety of

beryl; and it is notable that though differing widely from beryl it yet

bears some relationship to it inasmuch as it contains the element

beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however, the beryllium exists as an

aluminate, having the formula BeAl2O4, or BeO·Al2O3. The analysis of a

specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl gave alumina 78.10, beryllia 17.94,

and ferric oxide 4.88%. The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines

in many cases to pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark

green and brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems

responsible for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its

colour for chrysolite (q.v.), and has indeed been termed Oriental

chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to

chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it is a

much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt to be

confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief characters:--

Chrysoberyl. Chrysolite.

Hardness 8.5 6.5 to 7

Specific Gravity 3.65 to 3.75 3.34 to 3.37

Chemical Composition BeAl2O4. Mg2SiO4.

Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and chatoyant, and is

then known as "cymophane" (Gr. [Greek: kyma], a "cloud"). The cloudiness

is referable to the presence of multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some

of the cymophane, when cut with a convex surface, forms the most

valuable kind of cat's-eye (see CAT'S-EYE). A remarkable dichroic

variety of chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite (q.v.).

Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of Minas

Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as small water-worn

pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the gem-gravels of Ceylon.

Chrysoberyl is known as a constituent of certain kinds of granite,

pegmatite and gneiss. In the United States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.;

Greenfield Centre, near Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island.

It is known also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found

near Gwelo in Rhodesia. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a decomposition

product of copper ores. It is never found as crystals, but always as

encrusting and botryoidal masses with a microcrystalline structure. It

is green or bluish-green in colour, and often has the appearance of opal

or enamel, being translucent and having a conchoidal fracture with

vitreous lustre; sometimes it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite

crystallized substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the

copper oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from 17

to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiO3 + 2H2O. The hardness

(2-4) and specific gravity (2.0-2.8) are also variable. It has recently

been suggested that the material may really be a mixture of more than

one hydrous copper silicate, since differences in the microcrystalline

structure of the different concentric layers of which the masses are

built up may be detected. Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also

commonly present, and several varieties have been distinguished by

special names: thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains

copper carbonate; demidoffite and cyanochalcite contain copper

phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane). The

mineral occurs in the upper parts of veins of copper ores, and has

resulted from their alteration by the action of waters containing silica

in solution. Pseudomorphs of chrysocolla after various copper minerals

(e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is found in most copper mines.

The name chrysocolla (from [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: kolla],

glue) was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to materials

used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island of Cyprus, may

have been identical with the mineral now known by this name. Borax,

which is used for this purpose, has also been called chrysocolla.

A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Ger. _Kupferpecherz_), and of some

importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a variety of

chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is dark brown to black

in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous lustre, and resembles pitch

in appearance. In thin sections it is translucent and optically

isotropic, and recent examinations seem to prove that it is a

homogeneous mineral and not a mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and

limonite. (L. J. S.)

CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a gem-stone and

often called peridot. The name chrysolite, meaning "golden stone"

([Greek: chrysos] and [Greek: lithos]), has been applied to various

yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of beryl and to

chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern mineralogist is a

magnesium silicate, referable to the species olivine. It is appropriate

to call the lighter coloured stones inclining to yellow chrysolite, and

the darker green stones peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the

Schneckenstein in Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while

moldavite, a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called

water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.

See CHRYSOBERYL; OLIVINE; PERIDOT.

CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or EMMANUEL] (c. 1355-1415), one of the pioneers in

spreading Greek literature in the West, was born at Constantinople of a

distinguished family, which had removed with Constantine the Great to

Byzantium. He was a pupil of Gemistus (q.v.). In 1393 he was sent to

Italy by the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the

Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constantinople, but

at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he became about 1395

professor of the Greek language in that city, where he taught three

years. He became famous as a translator of Homer and Plato. Having

visited Milan and Pavia, and resided for several years at Venice, he

went to Rome upon the invitation of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his

pupil, and was then secretary to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to

Paris on an important mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In

1413 he went to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the

object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general

council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at Constance;

and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having been chosen to represent

the Greek Church, when he died suddenly on the 15th of April 1415. Only

two of his works have been printed, his _Erotemata_ (published at Venice

in 1484), which was the first Greek grammar in use in the West, and

_Epistolae III. de comparatione veteris et novae Romae_.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, a relative of the above (variously described as his

nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and taught at

Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared Manuel's reputation

as one of those who spread the influence of Greek letters in the West.

His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).

CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: prason], leek), a

name applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of

chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The colour is due

to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a hydrous silicate.

By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong light, the chrysoprase

becomes paler, or even colourless, but it may regain its colour by

absorption of moisture. Chrysoprase is a mineral of rather limited

distribution. Most of it comes from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in

Silesia, where it occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is

found to a limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals;

and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities in

North America, notably at Nickel Mount, Douglas county, Oregon, where it

occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.

The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the _chrysoprasius_ of

Pliny, or the [Greek: chrysoprasos] of Greek writers. The ancient stone

was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is doubtful whether the

modern chrysoprase was known until a comparatively late period. The

chrysoprase of Kosemütz, near Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in

1740, and used by Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of

Sans Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silesian

chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wenzel chapel at

Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at the beginning of

the 19th century, being set round with small brilliants and used for

brooches and rings. At the present time it is said to be regarded by

some as a "lucky stone." Much commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony

artificially stained by impregnation with a green salt of nickel.

(F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom ([Greek: Chrysostomos], golden-mouthed),

the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of a noble family at

Antioch, the capital of Syria, about A.D. 345 or 347. At the school of

Libanius the sophist he gave early indications of his mental powers, and

would have been the successor of his heathen master, had he not been

stolen away, to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety

(like Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the influence

of his pious mother Anthusa. After his baptism (about 370) by Meletius,

the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his forensic prospects, and buried

himself in an adjacent desert, where for nearly ten years he spent a

life of ascetic self-denial and theological study, to which he was

introduced by Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the

Antiochene type. Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world;

and the authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was

ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards presbyter

(386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was appointed archbishop

of Constantinople by Eutropius, the favourite minister of the emperor

Arcadius. He had, ten years before this, only escaped promotion to the

episcopate by a very questionable stratagem--which, however, he defends

in his instructive and eloquent treatise _De Sacerdotio_. As a

presbyter, he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more

especially by his homilies on _The Statues_, a course of sermons

delivered when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of

severe measures being taken against them by the emperor Theodosius,

whose statues had been demolished in a riot.

On the archiepiscopal throne Chrysostom still persevered in the practice

of monastic simplicity. The ample revenues which his predecessors had

consumed in pomp and luxury he diligently applied to the establishment

of hospitals; and the multitudes who were supported by his charity

preferred the eloquent discourses of their benefactor to the amusements

of the theatre or of the circus. His homilies, which are still

preserved, furnish ample apology for the partiality of the people,

exhibiting the free command of a pure and copious vocabulary, an

inexhaustible fund of metaphors and similitudes, giving variety and

grace to the most familiar topics, with an almost dramatic exposure of

the folly and turpitude of vice, and a deep moral earnestness. His zeal

as a bishop and eloquence as a preacher, however, gained him enemies

both in the church and at the court. The ecclesiastics who were parted

at his command from the lay-sisters (whom they kept ostensibly as

servants), the thirteen bishops whom he deposed for simony and

licentiousness at a single visitation, the idle monks who thronged the

avenues to the court and found themselves the public object of his

scorn--all conspired against the powerful author of their wrongs. Their

resentment was inflamed by a powerful party, embracing the magistrates,

the ministers, the favourite eunuchs, the ladies of the court, and

Eudoxia the empress herself, against whom the preacher thundered daily

from the pulpit of St Sophia. A favourable pretext for gratifying their

revenge was discovered in the shelter which Chrysostom had given to four

Nitrian monks, known as the tall brothers, who had come to

Constantinople on being excommunicated by their bishop, Theophilus of

Alexandria, a man who had long circulated in the East the charge of

Origenism against Chrysostom. By Theophilus's instrumentality a synod

was called to try or rather to condemn the archbishop; but fearing the

violence of the mob in the metropolis, who idolized him for the

fearlessness with which he exposed the vices of their superiors, it held

its sessions at the imperial estate named "The Oak" (_Synodus ad

quercum_), near Chalcedon, where Rufinus had erected a stately church

and monastery. A bishop and a deacon were sent to accuse the archbishop,

and presented to him a list of charges, in which pride, inhospitality

and Origenism were brought forward to procure the votes of those who

hated him for his austerity, or were prejudiced against him as a

suspected heretic. Four successive summonses were signified to

Chrysostom, but he indignantly refused to appear until four of his

notorious enemies were removed from the council. Without entering into

any examination of the charges brought before them, the synod condemned

him on the ground of contumacy, and, hinting that his audacity merited

the punishment of treason, called on the emperor to ratify and enforce

their decision. He was immediately arrested and hurried to Nicaea in

Bithynia.

As soon as the news of his banishment spread through the city, the

astonishment of the people was quickly exchanged for a spirit of

irresistible fury, which was increased by the occurrence of an

earthquake. In crowds they besieged the palace, and had already begun to

take vengeance on the foreign monks and sailors who had come from

Chalcedon to the metropolis, when, at the entreaty of Eudoxia, the

emperor consented to his recall. His return was graced with all the pomp

of a triumphal entry, but in two months after he was again in exile. His

fiery zeal could not blind him to the vices of the court, and heedless

of personal danger he thundered against the profane honours that were

addressed almost within the precincts of St Sophia to the statue of the

empress. The haughty spirit of Eudoxia was inflamed by the report of a

discourse commencing with the words--"Herodias is again furious;

Herodias again dances; she once more demands the head of John"; and

though the report was false, it sealed the doom of the archbishop. A new

council was summoned, more numerous and more subservient to the wishes

of Theophilus; and troops of barbarians were quartered in the city to

overawe the people. Without examining it, the council confirmed the

former sentence, and, in accordance with canon 12 of the Synod of

Antioch (341), pronounced his deposition for having resumed his

functions without their permission.

He was hurried away to the desolate town of Cucusus (Cocysus), among the

ridges of Mount Taurus, with a secret hope, perhaps, that he might be a

victim to the Isaurians on the march, or to the more implacable fury of

the monks. He arrived at his destination in safety; and the sympathies

of the people, which had roused them to fire the cathedral and

senate-house on the day of his exile, followed him to his obscure

retreat. His influence also became more powerfully felt in the

metropolis than before. In his solitude he had ample leisure for forming

schemes of missionary enterprise among Persians and Goths, and by his

correspondence with the different churches he at once baffled his

enemies and gave greater energy to his friends. This roused the emperor

to visit him with a severer punishment, though Innocent I. of Rome and

the emperor Honorius recognized his orthodoxy and besought his return.

An order was despatched for his removal to the extreme desert of Pityus;

and his guards so faithfully obeyed their instructions that, before he

reached the sea-coast of the Euxine, he expired at Comana in Pontus, in

the year 407. His exile gave rise to a schism in the church, and the

Johannists (as they were called) did not return to communion with the

archbishop of Constantinople till the relics of the saint were, 30 years

after, brought back to the Eastern metropolis with great pomp and the

emperor publicly implored forgiveness from Heaven for the guilt of his

ancestors. The festival of St Chrysostom is kept in the Greek Church on

the 13th of November, and in the Latin Church on the 27th of January.

In his general teaching Chrysostom elevates the ascetic element in

religion, and in his homilies he inculcates the need of personal

acquaintance with the Scriptures, and denounces ignorance of them as the

source of all heresy. If on one or two points, as, for instance, the

invocation of saints, some germs of subsequent Roman teaching may be

discovered, there is a want of anything like the doctrine of indulgences

or of compulsory private confession. Moreover, in writing to Innocent,

bishop of Rome, he addresses him as a brother metropolitan, and sends

the same letter to Venerius, bishop of Milan, and Chromatius, bishop of

Aquileia. His correspondence breathes a most Christian spirit,

especially in its tone of charity towards his persecutors. In exegesis

he is a pure Antiochene, basing his expositions upon thorough

grammatical study, and proceeding from a knowledge of the original

circumstances of composition to a forceful and practical application to

the needs of his day and of all time. With his exegetical skill (he was

inferior in pure dogma to Theodore of Mopsuestia) he united a wide

sympathy and a marvellous power of oratory.

The voluminous works of Chrysostom fall into three groups. To the days

of his early desert life is probably to be assigned the treatise _On

Priesthood_, a book full of wise counsel. To the years of his

presbyterate and episcopate belong the great mass of homilies and

commentaries, among which those _On the Statues_, and on _Matthew_,

_Romans_ and _Corinthians_, stand out pre-eminently. His letters belong

to the last years, the time of exile, and with his other works are

valuable sources for the history of his time.

The manuscripts are very numerous, and many of them are of great

antiquity, as are the Syriac and other translations. The best edition

is that of Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. fol. (1718-1738),

reproduced with some improvements by Migne (_Patrol. Graec._

xlvii.-lxiv.); but this edition is greatly indebted to the one issued

more than a century earlier (1612) by Sir Henry Savile, provost of

Eton College, from a press established at Eton by himself, which

Hallam (_Lit. of Europe_, iii. 10, 11) calls "the first work of

learning, on a great scale, published in England." F. Field admirably

edited _S. Matthew_ (Cambridge, 1839) and _Epistles of S. Paul_

(Oxford, 1849-1855). J.A. Bengel's edition of _De Sacerdotio_ (1725)

has been often reprinted (e.g. Leipzig, 1887).

As authorities for the life, the most valuable are the ecclesiastical

histories of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret; and amongst the moderns,

Erasmus, Cave, Lardner and Tillemont, with the church history of

Neander, and his monograph on the _Life and Times of Chrysostom_,

translated by J.C. Stapleton. More recent are the lives by W.R.W.

Stephens (London, 1871), R.W. Bush (London, 1885) and A. Peuch (Paris,

1891). F.W. Farrar's romance _Gathering Clouds_ gives a good picture

of the man and his times. For monographs on special points such as

Chrysostom's theological position and his preaching, see the very full

bibliography in E. Preuschen's article in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._

iv.; also A. Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, iii. and iv. Some of the

commentaries and homilies are translated in the Oxford Library of the

Fathers.

CHUB (_Leuciscus cephalus_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, belonging to

the same genus as the roach and dace. It is one of the largest of its

family, attaining a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 5 to 7 lb. It does

not avoid running waters, and is fond of insects, taking the fly

readily, but its flesh, like that of the other _Leucisci_, is tasteless

and full of bones. It is common in Great Britain and the continent of

Europe. In America the name of "chub" is given to some other members of

the family, and commonly to the horned dace (_Semnotilus

atromaculatus_); well-known varieties are the river chub (_Hybopsis

kentuckiensis_) and Columbia river chub (_Mylochilus caurinus_).

CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845), English locksmith, started a hardware business

at Winchester, subsequently removing to Portsea. Here he improved on the

"detector" lock (q.v.), originally patented in 1818 by his brother,

Jeremiah Chubb. He soon moved to London and then to Wolverhampton, where

he employed two hundred hands. In 1835 he patented a process intended to

render safes (q.v.) burglar-proof and fireproof, and subsequently

established a large safe-factory in London. He died on the 16th of May

1845, and was succeeded in the business by his son, John Chubb

(1816-1872), who patented various improvements in the products of the

firm and largely increased its output. The factories were combined under

one roof in a model plant, and the business grew to enormous

proportions. After John Chubb's death the business was converted into a

limited company under the management of his three sons.

CHUBB, THOMAS (1670-1746), English deist, the son of a maltster, was

born at East Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th of September 1679. The

death of his father (1688) cut short his education, and in 1694 he was

apprenticed to a glove-maker in Salisbury, but subsequently entered the

employment of a tallow-chandler. He picked up a fair knowledge of

mathematics and geography, but theology was his favourite study. His

habit of committing his thoughts to writing gave him a clear and fluent

style. He made his first appearance as an author in the Arian

controversy. A dispute having arisen about Whiston's argument in favour

of the supremacy of the one God and Father, he wrote an essay, _The

Supremacy of the Father Asserted_, which Whiston pronounced worthy of

publication, and it was printed in 1715. A number of tracts followed,

which were collected in 1730. For several years Chubb lived in the house

of Sir Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, in what capacity it is not

known; there are stories of his having waited at table as a servant out

of livery. His love of independence drew him back to Salisbury, where by

the kindness of friends he was enabled to devote the rest of his days to

his studies. He died on the 8th of February 1746. Chubb is interesting

mainly as showing that the rationalism of the intellectual classes had

taken considerable hold upon the popular mind. Though he acquired little

renown in England he was regarded by Voltaire and others as among the

most logical of the deist school (see DEISM). His principal works are _A

Discourse Concerning Reason_ (1731), _The True Gospel of Jesus Christ_

(1739), and _Posthumous Works_, 2 vols. (1748), the last containing "The

Author's Farewell to his Readers."

CHUBUT, a territory of the southern Argentine Republic, part of what was

formerly called Patagonia, bounded N. by Rio Negro, S. by Santa Cruz, E.

by the Atlantic and W. by Chile. Pop. (1895) 3748; (1904, estimate)

9060; area, 93,427 sq. m. Except for the valleys in the Andean

foothills, which are fertile and well forested, and the land along the

banks of the Chubut river, which flows entirely across the territory

from the Andes to the Atlantic, the country is a barren waste, covered

with pebbles and scanty clumps of dwarfed vegetation, with occasional

shallow saline lakes. The larger rivers are the Chubut and the Senguerr,

the latter flowing into Lake Colhuapi. There are a number of large lakes

among the Andean foothills, the best known of which are Fontana, La

Plata and General Paz, and, in the interior, Colhuapi or Colhué and

Musters, the latter named after the English naval officer who traversed

Patagonia in 1870. Petroleum was found at Comodoro Rivadavia, in the S.

part of the territory, toward the close of 1907, at a depth of 1768 ft.

Chubut is known chiefly by the Welsh colony near the mouth of the Chubut

river. The chief town of the Welsh, Rawson, is the capital of the

territory, and Port Madryn on Bahia Nueva is its best port. Other

colonies have been founded in the fertile valleys of the Andean

foothills, but their growth is greatly impeded by lack of transportation

facilities. (See further PATAGONIA.)

CHUDE, a tribal name used in both a special and a general sense. (1) It

was the name given by the Russians to certain Esthonian tribes with whom

they came in contact as they spread gradually over their present empire.

It would seem that the northern Chudes are the Vepsas, of whom about

21,000 are said to live near Lake Onega and in the northern parts of the

government of Novgorod, and that the southern Chudes are the Votes who

occupy about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. (2) As the Russians

advanced eastwards they extended the name to various tribes whom they

considered to be like the Esthonians, and in popular use it has come to

be applied to any ancient non-Russian people in Siberia, at least as far

east as the Altai. In particular, ancient mines, tumuli and the metal

work often found in them are commonly known as Chudish. Some

investigators have used the word in a more restricted sense of Permian

antiquities and their builders, but it seems to be a popular expression

not corresponding to any historical or scientific division of mankind.

CHUGUYEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 25 m. E.S.E.

of the town of Kharkov, on the right bank of the northern Donets. It is

a place of some strategic importance, and had in 1897 a population of

11,877.

CHUKCHI, CHANKTUS ("Men") or TUSKI ("Brothers" or "Confederates"), a

Mongoloid people inhabiting the northeasternmost portion of Siberia on

the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea. They are settled in small

groups along the Arctic coast between the Bering Straits and the Kolyma

river, or wander as far inland as the Anadyr basin. Though their

territory embraces some 300,000 odd sq. m., the most trustworthy

estimates put their numbers at but a few thousands. They were first

carefully studied by the members of the Nordenskjöld expedition

(1878-79), who describe them as tall, lean, with somewhat irregular

features--hence de Quatrefages classes them as "Allophylian Whites." The

accounts of their physical characteristics are somewhat confused owing

to the presence of the true Eskimo in the Chukchi domain. The typical

Chukchi is round-headed, and thus distinct from the long-headed Eskimo,

with broad, flat features and high cheek-bones. The nose is often so

buried between the puffed cheeks that a ruler might be laid across the

face without touching it. The lips are thick, and the brow low. The hair

is coarse, lank and black. The general muscular development is good,

though usually the body is stunted. It has been suggested that they

emigrated from the south, possibly from the Amur basin. In their arctic

homes they long carried on war with the Ongkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines,

gradually merging with the survivors and also mixing both with the

Kùsmen Koryaks (q.v.) and the Chuklukmuit Eskimo settled on the Asiatic

side of Bering Strait. Their racial characteristics make them an

ethnological link between the Mongols of central Asia and the Indians of

America. Some authorities affiliate them to the Eskimo because they are

believed to speak an Eskimo dialect. But this is merely a trade jargon,

a hotchpotch of Eskimo, Chukchi, Koryak, English and even Hawaiian. The

true Chukchi language, of which Nordenskjöld collected a thousand words,

is distinct from Eskimo and akin to Koryak, and Nordenskjöld sums the

problem up with the remark--"this race settled on the primeval route

between the Old and New World bears an unmistakable stamp of the Mongols

of Asia and the Eskimo and Indians of America."

The Chukchi are divided into the "Fishing Chukchi," who have settled

homes on the coast, and the "Reindeer Chukchi," who are nomads. The

latter breed reindeer (herds of more than 10,000 are not uncommon), live

on the flesh and milk, and are generally fairly prosperous; while the

fishing folk are very poor, begging from their richer kinsfolk hides to

make tents and clothes. The Chukchi were formerly warlike and vigorously

resisted the Russians, but to-day they are the most peaceable of folks,

amiable in their manners, affectionate in family life and good-humoured.

But this gentleness does not prevent them from killing off the old and

infirm. They believe in a future life, but only for those who die a

violent death. Thus it is regarded as an act of filial piety for a son

to kill his parent or a nephew his uncle. This tribal custom is known as

_kamitok_; and of it Mr Harry de Windt writes (_Through the Gold Fields

of Alaska to Bering Strait_, 1898), "The doomed one takes a lively

interest in the proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for

his own death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal

and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed till all are

intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the muffled roll of

walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment. At a given signal a ring

is formed by the relations and friends, the entire settlement looking on

from the background. The executioner (usually the victim's son or

brother) then steps forward, and placing his right foot behind the back

of the condemned, slowly strangles him to death with a walrus thong. A

_kamitok_ took place during the latter part of our stay." The Chukchi

are nominally Christians, but sacrifice animals to the spirits of the

rivers and mountains, and also practise Shamanism. In personal habits

the people are indescribably filthy. They are polygamous, but the women

are treated kindly. The children are specially petted, and are so

wrapped up to protect them from the cold that they have been described

as resembling huge balls crossed by a bar, their arms having to remain

outstretched owing to the bulk of their wrappings. Chukchi women are

often tattooed with two black-blue convex lines running from the eye to

the chin. Since their adoption of Christianity the men sometimes have a

Latin cross tattooed on their chins. The Chukchi burn their dead or

expose them on platforms to be devoured by ravens.

See Harry de Windt, _Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering

Strait_ (1898); Dittmar, "Über die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten

Tchouktchen," in _Bul. Acad. Sc._ (St Petersburg), xii. p. 99; Hooper,

_Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski_; W.H. Dall, _Contributions

to North American Ethnology_, vol. i. (1877).

CHULALONGKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853-1910), king of Siam, eldest son

of King Maha Mongkut, was born on the 21st of September 1853. His full

signature, used in all important state documents, consists of

twenty-seven names, but it is by the first four that he is usually

known. Educated in his childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good

knowledge of the English language and of Western culture. But his

surroundings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according

to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the throne on the

death of his father, 1st October 1868, and was crowned on the 11th of

November following, a ceremony marked by the innovation of permitting

the presence of Europeans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was

carried on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery,

and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East Indies, an

undertaking until then without precedent among the potentates of eastern

Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of power than he gave evidence of

his recognition of the importance of modern culture by abolishing

slavery in Siam. He simplified court etiquette, no longer demanding, for

example, that his subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still

more important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included among

his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience. This was

followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the construction of

roads and railways, and the further development of the army and fleet

which his father had initiated. To him Siam is indebted for its standard

coinage, its postal and telegraph service, and for the policing,

sanitation and electric-lighting of Bangkok. Several of his sons,

including the crown prince, were educated in England, and in the summer

of 1897 he himself visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht

on the 29th of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen

Victoria at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to

Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also SIAM.)

CHUMBI VALLEY, a valley connecting Tibet (q.v.) with the frontier of

British India. Lying on the southern slopes of the Himalayas at an

altitude of about 9500 ft. above the sea, the valley is wedged in

between Bhutan and Sikkim, and does not belong geographically but only

politically to Tibet. This was the route by which the British mission of

1904 advanced. Before the date of that expedition the valley had

acquired a reputation for beauty and fertility, which was subsequently

found to be only comparative in relation to the barrenness of the rest

of the Tibetan frontier. The summer months, though not hot, are relaxing

and enervating.

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, a town and ancient fortress of India, in the

district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces, situated on the south

bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 9926. The fort occupies a conspicuous

site on the summit of an abrupt rock which commands the river. It was at

one time a place of great strength, and still contains a magazine, and

is fortified with batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the

remains of a Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the

former importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two

straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar is first

mentioned in the 16th century, when in possession of Sing Joanpore. In

1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the Afghan, and forty-five

years later was recovered by the emperor Akbar after sustaining a siege

of six months. It fell into the hands of the English under General

Carnac in 1763 after a prolonged resistance which caused considerable

loss to the assailants. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed here

by Warren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company in September

1781.

CHUNCHO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the forests east

of Cuzco, central Peru. They are a fierce and savage people who have

preserved their independence. They are said to be akin to their

neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal houses, and live chiefly by

hunting. Chuncho has also been used to describe one of three aboriginal

stocks of Peru, the others being Quichua and Aymara.

CH'UNGK'ING, a city in the province of Szech'uen, China, on the left

bank of the Yangtsze, at its point of junction with the Kialing, in 29°

33' N., and 107° 2' E. It is surrounded by a crenelated stone wall,

which is 5 m. in circumference and is pierced by nine gates. It is the

commercial centre for the trade, not only of Szech'uen, but of all

south-western China. The one highway between Szech'uen and the eastern

provinces is the Yangtsze river route, as owing to the mountainous

nature of the intervening country land transit is almost impracticable.

The import trade brought up by large junks from Ich'ang, and consisting

of cotton cloth, yarn, metals and foreign manufactures, centres here,

and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up the various rivers

of the provinces. Native produce, such as yellow silk, white wax, hides,

rhubarb, musk and opium, is here collected and repacked for conveyance

to Hankow, Shanghai or other parts of the empire. The city was opened to

foreign trade by convention with the British government in 1891, with

the proviso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at liberty to

trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded in ascending the

river. This restriction was abolished by the Japanese treaty of 1895,

which declared Ch'ungk'ing open on the same terms as other ports. After

that date the problem of steam navigation on the section of the river

between Ich'ang and Ch'ungk'ing occupied attention. By 1907 a small

steamer had been navigated up the rapids, but it remained a question how

far steam navigation could be made a practical success. The trade was

carried on by native craft, hauled up against the strength of the

current in the worst places by a line of trackers on the bank. The great

rise in the river during the summer months, at Ch'ungk'ing ordinarily 70

ft. and occasionally as much as 96 ft., added to the difficulties. The

population of Ch'ungk'ing, including the city of Kiangpei on the

opposite bank of the Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign

residents are very few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through

the maritime customs was £2,614,000, and in 1904 £4,214,568, of which

imports counted for £2,644,777 and exports for £1,569,791.

CHUPATTY, an Anglo-Indian term for an unleavened cake of bread. The word

represents the Hindustani _chapati_, and is applied to the usual form of

native bread, the staple food of upper India. The chupatty is generally

made of coarse wheaten flour, patted flat with the hand, and baked upon

a griddle. In the troubled times that preceded the mutiny of 1857

chupatties were circulated from village to village throughout India,

apparently as a token of discontent.

CHUPRIYA (sometimes written _Tiupriia_; Croatian _Cuprÿa_), the capital

of the Morava department of Servia, on the railway from Belgrade to

Nish, and on the right bank of the Morava, which is navigable up to this

point by small sailing-vessels. Pop. (1900) about 6000. Some of the

finest Servian cattle are bred in the neighbouring lowlands, and the

town has a considerable trade in plums and other farm-produce. A light

railway, leading to several important collieries, runs for 13 m. through

the beech-forests and mountains on the east. Cloth is woven at Parachin,

5 m. S.; and Yagodina, 8 m. W. by N., is an important market town. Among

the foothills of the Golubinye Range, 7 m. E.N.E., is the 14th-century

Ravanitsa monastery, with a ruined fort and an old church--their walls

and frescoes pitted by Turkish bullets. There is a legend that here the

Servian tsar Lazar (1374-1389) was visited by an angel, who bade him

choose between an earthly and a heavenly crown. In accordance with his

choice, Lazar fell fighting at Kossovo, and was buried at Ravanitsa; his

body being afterwards transferred, through fear of the Turks, to another

Ravanitsa, in eastern Slavonia. His crucifix is treasured among the

monastic archives, which also contain a charter signed by Peter the

Great of Russia (1672-1725). Manasia (_Manasiya_), the still more

celebrated foundation of Stephen, the son and successor of Lazar, lies

12 m. N. of Ravanitsa. Built in a cleft among the hills which line the

river Resava, an affluent of the Morava, this monastery is enclosed in a

fortress, whose square towers, and curtain without loopholes or

battlements, remain largely intact. Within the curtain stand the

monastic buildings, a large garden and a cruciform chapel, with many

curious old stone carvings, half hidden beneath whitewash. Numerous

gifts from the Russian court, such as gospels lettered in gold and

silver relief, or jewelled crucifixes, are preserved on the spot; but

the valuable library was removed, in the 15th century, to Mount Athos.

CHUQUISACA, a department of S.E. Bolivia, bounded N. by Cochabamba and

Santa Cruz, E. by Santa Cruz and Brazil, S. by Tarija, and W. by Potosi.

It lies partly upon the eastern plateau of Bolivia and partly upon the

great plains of the upper La Plata basin; area, 26,418 sq. m. The

Pilcomayo, a large tributary of the Paraguay, crosses N.W. to S.E. the

western part of the department. The climate of the lowlands is hot,

humid and unhealthy, but that of the plateau is salubrious, though

subject to greater extremes in temperature and rainfall. The seasons are

sharply divided into wet and dry, the eastern plains becoming great

lagoons during the wet season, and parched deserts during the dry. The

mineral resources are important, but are less developed than those of

Potosi and Oruro. Grazing is the principal industry of the plains, and

cattle, sheep, goats and llamas are raised and cereals grown in the

fertile valleys of the plateau. Three rough highways connect the

department with its neighbours on the N. and W., and pack animals are

the common means of transporting merchandise. The population was

estimated at 204,434 m 1900, and is largely composed of Indians and

_mestizos_. The plateau Indians are generally Aymaras, but on the

eastern plains there are considerable settlements of partly civilized

Chiriguanos, of Guarani origin. The department is divided into four

provinces, the greater part of the lowlands being unsettled and without

effective political organization. Its principal towns are Sucré,

Camargo, Padilla and Yotala.

CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900), American landscape painter, was

born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th of May 1826. He was a pupil of

Thomas Cole at Catskill, New York, where his first pictures were

painted. Developing unusual technical dexterity, Church from the

beginning sought for his themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls,

the Andes, and tropical forests--he visited South America in 1853 and

1857,--volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he

portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and the

phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these plausible and

effective. In their time these paintings awoke the wildest admiration

and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in the United States and in

Europe eagerly seeking them, though their vogue has now passed away. In

1849 Church was made a member of the National Academy of Design. His

"Great Fall at Niagara" (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery,

Washington, D.C., and a large "Twilight" is in the Walters Gallery,

Baltimore, Maryland. Among his other canvases are "Andes of Ecuador"

(1855), "Heart of the Andes" (1859), "Cotopaxi" (1862), "Jerusalem"

(1870), and "Morning in the Tropics" (1877). He died on the 7th of April

1900, at his house on the Hudson river above New York City, where he had

lived and worked for many years. He was the most prominent member of the

so-called "Hudson River School" of American artists.

CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835-1910), American geographer, was born in New

Bedford, Massachusetts, on the 7th of December 1835. He was educated as

a civil engineer, and was early engaged on the Hoosac Tunnel. In 1858 he

joined an exploring expedition to South America. During the American

Civil War he served (1862-1865) in the Army of the Potomac, rising to

the command of a brigade and the rank of colonel; and in 1866-1867 he

was war correspondent of the _New York Herald_ in Mexico. He explored

the Amazon (1868-1879), and gradually became the leading authority on

that region of South America, being appointed United States commissioner

to report on Ecuador in 1880, and visiting Costa Rica in 1895 to report

on its debt and railways. He wrote extensively on South and Central

American geography, and became a vice-president of the Royal

Geographical Society (London), and in 1898 president of the geographical

section of the British Association.

CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784-1873), British military officer and general in

the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew Church of Cork. He was

born in 1784, and at the age of sixteen ran away from home and enlisted

in the army. For this violation of its principles he was disowned by the

Society of Friends, but his father bought him a commission, dated the

3rd of July 1800, in the 13th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry. He served

in the demonstration against Ferrol, and in the expedition to Egypt

under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801. After the expulsion of the French

from Egypt he returned home, but came back to the Mediterranean in 1805

among the troops sent to defend the island of Sicily. He accompanied the

expedition which landed in Calabria, and fought a successful battle

against the French at Maida on the 6th of July 1806. Church was present

on this occasion as captain of a recently raised company of Corsican

Rangers. His zeal attracted the notice of his superiors, and he had

begun to show his capacity for managing and drilling foreign levies. His

Corsicans formed part of the garrison of Capri from October 1806 till

the island was taken by an expedition directed against it by Murat, in

September 1808, at the very beginning of his reign as king of Naples.

Church, who had distinguished himself in the defence, returned to Malta

after the capitulation.

In the summer of 1809 he sailed with the expedition sent to occupy the

Ionian Islands. Here he increased the reputation he had already gained

by forming a Greek regiment in English pay. It included many of the men

who were afterwards among the leaders of the Greeks in the War of

Independence. Church commanded this regiment at the taking of Santa

Maura, on which occasion his left arm was shattered by a bullet. During

his slow recovery he travelled in northern Greece, and Macedonia, and to

Constantinople. In the years of the fall of Napoleon (1813 and 1814) he

was present as English military representative with the Austrian troops

until the campaign which terminated in the expulsion of Murat from

Naples. He drew up a report on the Ionian Islands for the congress of

Vienna, in which he argued in support, not only of the retention of the

islands under the British flag, but of the permanent occupation by Great

Britain of Parga and of other formerly Venetian coast towns on the

mainland, then in the possession of Ali Pasha of Iannina. The peace and

the disbanding of his Greek regiment left him without employment, though

his reputation was high at the war office, and his services were

recognized by the grant of a companionship of the Bath. In 1817 he

entered the service of King Ferdinand of Naples as lieutenant-general,

with a commission to suppress the brigandage then rampant in Apulia.

Ample powers were given him, and he attained a full measure of success.

In 1820 he was appointed governor of Palermo and commander-in-chief of

the troops in Sicily. The revolution which broke out in that year led to

the termination of his services in Naples. He escaped from violence in

Sicily with some difficulty. At Naples he was imprisoned and put on his

trial by the government, but was acquitted and released in January 1821;

and King George IV. conferred on him a knight commandership of the

Hanoverian order.

The rising of the Greeks against the Turks, which began at this time,

had his full sympathy from the first. But for some years he had to act

only as the friend of the insurgents in England. In 1827 he took the

honourable but unfortunate step of accepting the commandership-in-chief

of the Greek army. At the point of anarchy and indiscipline to which

they had now fallen, the Greeks could no longer form an efficient army,

and could look for salvation only to foreign intervention. Sir Richard

Church, who landed in March, was sworn "archistrategos" on the 15th of

April 1827. But he could not secure loyal co-operation or obedience. The

rout of his army in an attempt to relieve the acropolis of Athens, then

besieged by the Turks, proved that it was incapable of conducting

regular operations. The acropolis capitulated, and Sir Richard turned to

partisan warfare in western Greece. Here his activity had beneficial

results, for it led to a rectification in 1832, in a sense favourable to

Greece, of the frontier drawn by the powers in 1830 (see his

_Observations on an Eligible Line of Frontier for Greece_, London,

1830). Church had, however, surrendered his commission, as a protest

against the unfriendly government of Capo d'Istria, on the 25th of

August 1829. He lived for the rest of his life in Greece, was created

general of the army in 1854, and died at Athens on the 30th of March

1873. Sir Richard Church married in 1826 Elizabeth Augusta

Wilmot-Horton, who survived him till 1878.

See _Sir Richard Church_, by Stanley Lane Poole (London, 1890); _Sir

Richard Church in Italy and Greece_, by E.M. Church (Edinburgh, 1895),

based on family papers (an Italian version, _Brigantaggio e società

segrete nelle Puglie, 1817-1828_, executed under the direction of

Carlo Lacaita, appeared at Florence in 1899). The MS. Correspondence

and Papers of Sir Richard Church, in 29 vols., now in the British

Museum (Add. MSS. 36543-36571), contain invaluable material for the

history of the War of Greek Independence, including a narrative of the

war during Church's tenure of the command, which corrects many errors

in the published accounts and successfully vindicates Church's

reputation against the strictures of Finlay, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,

and other historians of the war (see _Cam. Mod. Hist._ x. p. 804).

(D. H.)

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890), English divine, son of John Dearman

Church, brother of Sir Richard Church (q.v.), a merchant, was born at

Lisbon on the 25th of April 1815, his early years being mostly spent at

Florence. After his father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a

pronounced evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to

Wadham College, Oxford, then an evangelical college. He took first-class

honours in 1836, and in 1838 was elected fellow of Oriel. One of his

contemporaries, Richard Mitchell, commenting on this election, said:

"There is such a moral beauty about Church that they could not help

taking him." He was appointed tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained

the same year. He was an intimate friend of J.H. Newman at this period,

and closely allied to the Tractarian party. In 1841 No. 90 of _Tracts

for the Times_ appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 1844-1845

he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with his senior

colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly. In 1846

Church, with others, started _The Guardian_ newspaper, and he was an

early contributor to _The Saturday Review_. In 1850 he became engaged to

Miss H.F. Bennett, of a Somersetshire family, a niece of George Moberly,

bishop of Salisbury. After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he

accepted in 1852 the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near

Frome, and was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish

priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current

literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in 1871 he

accepted, most reluctantly (calling it "a sacrifice _en pure perte_"),

the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated by W.E. Gladstone.

His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (1) the restoration of

the cathedral; (2) the adjustment of the question of the cathedral

revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners; (3) the reorganization

of a conservative cathedral staff with anomalous vested rights. He

described the intention of his appointment to be "that St Paul's should

waken up from its long slumber." The first year that he spent at St

Paul's was, writes one of his friends, one of "misery" for a man who

loved study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp and

financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he performed his

difficult and uncongenial task with almost incredible success, and is

said never to have made an enemy or a mistake. The dean was

distinguished for uniting in a singular degree the virtues of austerity

and sympathy. He was pre-eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment,

characterized by Canon Scott Holland as the gift of "high and fine and

sane and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had a

strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with him, and

though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never hesitated to express

censure if he was convinced it was deserved. In the pulpit the voice of

the dean was deliberately monotonous, and he employed no adventitious

gesture. He may be described as a High Churchman, but of an essentially

rational type, and with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it

impossible for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate

demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of England

that there was "no more glorious church in Christendom than this

inconsistent English Church." The dean often meditated resigning his

office, though his reputation as an ecclesiastical statesman stood so

high that he was regarded in 1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop

Tait. But his health and mode of life made it out of the question. In

1888 his only son died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the

last time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1890, dying on 9th

December 1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatley.

The dean's chief published works are a _Life of St Anselm_ (1870), the

lives of _Spenser_ (1879) and _Bacon_ (1884) in Macmillan's "Men of

Letters" series, an _Essay on Dante_ (1878), _The Oxford Movement_

(1891), together with many other volumes of essays and sermons. A

collection of his journalistic articles was published in 1897 as

_Occasional Papers_. In these writings he exhibits a great grasp of

principles, an accurate mastery of detail, and the same fusion of

intelligent sympathy and dispassionate judgment that appeared in his

handling of business. His style is lucid, and has the charm of

austerity. He stated that he had never studied style _per se_, but that

he had acquired it by the exercise of translation from classical

languages; that he watched against the temptation of using unreal and

fine words; that he employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in

his use of adjectives; and that he fought against self-indulgence in

writing just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality

of self-restraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and contain

many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious subjects he resolutely

avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing precision. The dean was a man

of genius, whose moral stainlessness and instinctive fire were indicated

rather than revealed by his writings.

See _Life and Letters of Dean Church_, by his daughter, M.C. Church

(1895); memoir by H.C. Beeching in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; and D.C.

Lathbury, _Dean Church_ (1907). (A. C. BE.)

CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. [Greek:

kyriakon [doma]], "the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic,

Slavonic and other languages under various forms--Scottish _kirk_, Ger.

_Kirche_, Swed. _kirka_, Dan. _kirke_, Russ. _tserkov_, Bulg. _cerkova_,

Czech _cirkev_, Finn, _kirkko_, &c), a word originally applied to the

building used for Christian worship, and subsequently extended to the

Christian community (_ecclesia_) itself. Similarly the Greek word

_ecclesia_ ([Greek: ekklêsia]), "assembly," was very early transferred

from the community to the building, and is used in both senses,

especially in the modern Romance and Celtic languages (e.g. Fr.

_église_, Welsh _eglwys_, &c).

(1) _Church Architecture._--From the strictly architectural point of

view the subject of church building, including the development of the

various styles and the essential features of the construction and

arrangement of churches, is dealt with elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE;

ABBEY; BASILICA). It is, however, impossible to understand the

development of church architecture without realizing its intimate

connexion with that of the doctrine, organization and ritual of the

Christian Church as a religious community, and a brief sketch of this

connexion may be given here by way of introduction to the more technical

treatment of the subject. In general it may be said of church

architecture, more truly than of any other, that artistically it is

"frozen music." It is true that at all times churches have been put to

secular uses; in periods of unrest, as among the Nestorian Christians

now, they were sometimes built to serve at need as fortresses; their

towers were used for beacons, their naves for meetings on secular

affairs. But as a rule, and especially in the great periods of church

architecture, their builders were untrammelled by any utilitarian

considerations; they built for the glory of God, for their own glory

perhaps, in honour of the saints; and their work, where it survives, is

(as it were) a petrification of their beliefs and ideals. This is, of

course, more true of the middle ages than of the times that preceded and

followed them; the Church under the Roman empire hardly as yet realized

the possibilities of "sermons in stones," and took over, with little

change, the model of the secular and religious buildings of pagan Rome;

the Renaissance, essentially a neo-pagan movement, introduced disturbing

factors from outside, and, though developing a style very characteristic

of the age that produced it, started that archaeological movement which

has tended in modern times to substitute mere imitations of old models

for any attempt to express in church architecture the religious spirit

of the age.

The earliest type of Christian Church, out of which the others

developed, was the basilica. The Church, emerging in the 4th century

into imperial favour, and established as part of the organization of the

Roman empire, simply adopted that type of secular official building

which she found convenient for her purposes. The clergy, now Roman

officials, vested in the robes of the civil dignitaries (see VESTMENTS),

took their seats in the apse of the basilica where the magistrates were

wont to sit, in front of them the holy table, facing the congregation.

The _cancelli_, the lattice or bar, which in the civil tribunal had

divided the court from the litigants and the public, now served to

separate clergy and laity. This arrangement still survives in some of

the ancient churches of Rome; it has been revived in many Protestant

places of worship. It symbolized principally an official distinction;

but with the theocratizing of the empire in the East and its decay in

the West the accentuation of the mystic powers of the clergy led to a

more complete separation from the laity, a tendency which left its mark

on the arrangements of the churches. In the East the _cancelli_, under

the influence possibly of the ritual of the Jewish temple, developed

into the _iconostasis_, the screen of holy pictures, behind the closed

doors of which the supreme act of the eucharistic mystery is hidden from

the lay people. In the West the high altar was moved to the east end

(the _presbyterium_) with a space before it for the assisting deacons

andsubdeacons (the chancel proper) railed off as a spot peculiarly holy

(now usually called the sanctuary); between this and the nave, where the

laity were, was the choir, with seats for the clergy on either side. The

whole of this space (sanctuary and choir) came to be known as the

"chancel." This was divided from the nave, sometimes by an arch forming

part of the structure of the building, sometimes by a screen, or by

steps, sometimes by all three (see CHANCEL). The division of churches

into chancel and nave, the outcome of the sacramental and sacerdotal

spirit of the Catholic Church, may be taken as generally typical of

church construction in the medieval West, though there were exceptions,

e.g. the round churches of the Templars. There were, however, further

changes, the result partly of doctrinal developments, partly of that

passion for symbolism which by the 13th century had completed the

evolution of the Catholic ritual. Transepts were added, to give to the

ground-plan of the building the figure of the cross. The insistence on

the unique efficacy of the sacrifice of the altar led to the

multiplication of masses, and so of altars, which were placed in the

transepts or aisles or in chapels, dedicated to the saints whose relics

they enshrined. The chief of these subsidiary chapels, that of the

Blessed Virgin (or Lady chapel), behind the high altar, was often of

large size. Finally, for the convenience of processions, the nave and

chancel aisles were carried round behind the high altar as ambulatories.

The Romanesque churches, still reminiscent of antique models, had

preserved all the simplicity of the ancient basilicas with much more

than their grandeur; but the taste for religious symbolism which

culminated in the 13th century, and the imaginative genius of the

northern peoples, transformed them into the marvellous dreams in stone

of the "Gothic" period. Churches now became, in form and decoration,

epitomes of the Christian scheme of salvation as the middle ages

understood it. In the plan of the buildings and their decoration

everything still remained subordinate to the high altar; but though on

this and its surroundings ornament was most lavishly expended, the

churches--wherever wealth permitted--were covered within and without

with sculpture or painting: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, from

the lives of saints, even from every-day life; figures of the Almighty,

of Christ, of the Virgin Mother, of apostles, saints, confessors;

pictures of the joys of heaven and the torments of hell; and outside,

grimacing from every angle, demons and goblins, amusing enough to us but

terrible to the age that set them there, visible embodiments of the evil

spirits driven from within the sacred building by the efficacy of the

holy rites. In considering the origins of medieval churches, moreover,

it must be borne in mind that as a general rule their builders were not

actuated by the motives usual in modern times, at least among

Protestants. The size of churches was not determined by the needs of

population but by the piety and wealth of the founders; and the same

applies to their number. Often they were founded as acts of propitiation

of the Almighty or of the saints, and the greater their size and

splendour the more effective they were held to be for their purpose.

Local rivalry, too, played a large part, one wealthy abbey building

"against" another, much in the same way as modern business houses

endeavour to outshine each other in the magnificence of their buildings.

Of all the mixed motives that went to the evolution of church

architecture in the middle ages, this rivalry in ostentation was

probably the most fertile in the creation of new forms. A volume might

be written on the economic effects of this locking up of vast capital in

unproductive buildings. In Catholic countries (notably in Ireland) great

churches are still built out of the savings of a poverty-stricken

peasantry; and from this point of view the destruction of churches in

the 16th century was probably a benefit to the world. This, however, is

a consideration altogether alien to the Christian spirit, the aspiration

of which is to lay up treasures not on earth but in heaven.

The Reformation was a fateful epoch in the history of church

architecture. The substitution of the Bible for the Mass destroyed the

_raison d'être_ of churches as the middle ages had made them. Pictures

and stories, carved or painted, seemed no longer necessary now that the

open Bible was in the hands of the common people; they had been too

often prostituted, moreover, to idolatrous uses,--and "idolatry" was the

worst of blasphemies to the re-discoverers of the Old Testament. Save in

some parts of Germany, where the influence of Luther saved the churches

from wreck, an iconoclastic wave spread over the greater part of Western

Europe, wherever the "new religion" prevailed; everywhere churches were

cleared of images and reduced to the state of those described by William

Harrison in his _Description of England_ (1570), only the "pictures in

glass" being suffered in some cases to survive for a while "by reason of

the extreme cost of replacing them." The structures of the churches,

however, remained; and these, even in countries which departed furthest

from the Catholic system, served in some measure to keep its tradition

alive. Protestantism has, indeed, produced a distinctive church

architecture, i.e. the conventicle type, favoured more especially by the

so-called "Free Churches." Its distinctive features are pulpit and

auditorium, and it is symbolical of the complete equality of ministers

and congregation. In general, however, Protestant builders have been

content to preserve or to adapt the traditional models. It would be

interesting in this connexion to trace the reverse effect of church

architecture upon church doctrine. In England, for instance, the

chancels were for the most part disused after the Reformation (see

Harrison, op. cit.), but presently they came into use again, and on the

Catholic revival in the Church of England in the 19th century it is

certain that the medieval churches exercised an influence by giving a

sense of fitness, which might otherwise have been lacking, to the

restoration of medieval ritual. A similar tendency has of late years

been displayed in the Established Church of Scotland.

Churches, as the outcome of the organization of the Catholic Church, are

divided into classes as "cathedral," "conventual" and "collegiate,"

"parochial" and "district" churches. It must be noted, however, that the

term cathedral (q.v.), ecclesiastically applicable to any church which

happens to be a bishop's see, architecturally connotes a certain size

and dignity, and is sometimes applied to churches which have never been,

or have long ceased to be, bishop's seats. (W.A.P.)

(2) _The Religious Community._--In the sense of Christian community

(_ecclesia_) the word "Church" is applied in a narrow sense to any one

of the numerous separate organizations into which Christendom is divided

(e.g. Roman Catholic Church, Orthodox Eastern Church, Church of England,

Evangelical [Lutheran] Church)--these are dealt with under their several

headings--and in a comprehensive sense (with which we are now concerned)

to the general body of all those "who profess and call themselves

Christians." Religion, according to the old definition, is the bond

which binds the soul of man to God.[1] It begins as the relation of a

tribe to its God. Personal religious conviction grows out of the tribal

(corporate) religious bond. But the social instinct is strong. Men

owning the same religious convictions will naturally draw together into

some sort of association. Using the word religion to cover all the

imperfect ways in which men have felt after God, we note that in every

case men have found the need alike of a teacher and of fellowship. Thus

the idea of a church as "the pillar and ground of the truth" (1 Tim.

iii. 15) corresponds to some of the primary needs of man. Even at

Stonehenge, the oldest relic of prehistoric religion in England, where

we picture in imagination the worship of the rising sun, nature worship

degraded to a horrible depth by human sacrifice, we find struggling for

expression the idea of a corporate religious life. From all the lower

levels where superstition and cruelty reign, from the depths of fear

inspired by fetichism, we look on to the higher level of Judaism as the

progressive religion of the old world. This does not mean that we shut

our eyes to the ideals of Greek philosophers, with whom morality was

constantly outgrowing religion. "The vision of an ideal state which the

master-mind of Plato contemplated, but thought too good ever to become

true in actual realization, is full of aspirations which the Christian

Church claims to satisfy. The problems of the relations of the life of

the State and the life of the individual, which Aristotle ever suggests

and never solves, are problems with which the Christian Church has at

least attempted to deal."[2]

From the beginning of the history of the Jewish race the idea that the

world is a kingdom under the rule of God began to find expression. The

conception of Israel as "a kingdom of priests and an holy nation" (Exod.

xix. 6) bore witness to it. The idea of kingship from the first was that

of a ruler representing God. As time went on and even the dynasty of

David failed in the persons of unworthy representatives to maintain this

ideal, both psalmists and prophets taught the people to look beyond the

earthly kingdom to the spiritual kingdom of which it was a type. But

even Isaiah tended to think of the spiritual life and worship of the

nation as a department of political organization only, controlled by the

king and his princes. It was reserved for Jeremiah, in the darkest days

of his life, to build up the ideal of a spiritual society which should

weld Israel together, to proclaim a new covenant (xxxi. 31-34) which

Jehovah would make with Israel when representatives of the previously

exiled ten tribes should return with the exiles of Judah. This prophecy

is instinct with the growing sense of the personal responsibility of

individual men brought into communion with God. The religion of Israel

from this time of the captivity ceased to be a merely national religion

connected with particular forms of sacrifice in a particular land. The

synagogues which traced their origin to the time of Ezekiel, when the

sacrificial cultus was impossible, extended this ideal yet further.

During the centuries preceding the birth of Christ there grew up an

apocalyptic literature which regarded as a primary truth the conception

of a kingdom of righteousness ruled over by a present God. The

preaching of John the Baptist was thus in sympathy with the ideals of

his generation, though the sternness of the repentance which he set

forth as the necessary preparation for entrance into the new kingdom of

heaven, which was to be made visible on earth, was not less repugnant to

the men of his day than of later times. Christ's own teaching and that

of his disciples began with the proclamation of the kingdom of God (or

of heaven) (Luke iv. 43, viii. 1, ix. 2; Matt. x. 7). That he intended

it to find outward expression in a visible society appears from the

careful way in which he trained the apostles to become leaders

hereafter, crowning that work by the institution of the sacraments of

baptism and the Eucharist. "It was not from accident or for convenience

that Christ formed a society."[3] His parables even more than his

sermons reveal the principles of his endeavour. But he seldom used the

word _ecclesia_, church, which became the universal designation of his

society.

All the more emphatic is Christ's use of the term _ecclesia_ upon the

distinct advance in faith made by the apostles when St Peter as their

spokesman confessed him to be "the Christ, the Son of the living God"

(Matt. xvi. 16). Instantly came the reply, "I say unto thee, that thou

art _Petros_ (rockman), and on this _Petra_ (rock) I will build my

_ecclesia_ (church); and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against

it." On the rock of a human character, ennobled by faith in his divine

Sonship, he could raise the church of the future, which should be at the

same time continuous with the old, new in spiritual power, one in

worship and in work.

To the Jew the word _ecclesia_ as used in the Septuagint suggested the

assembly of the congregation of Israel. To a Greek it suggested the

assembly of freeborn citizens in a city state. Without ceasing to be the

congregation of Jehovah, it would claim for itself all the hopes of an

ideal state over which Greek philosophers had sighed in vain.

Opinions differ upon the question whether the apostles were chosen as

representatives of the _ecclesia_ to be founded (Hort) or as men fitted

to become its duly authorized teachers and leaders from the beginning

(Stone). But as Mr Stone well puts it, "It would not be a necessary

inference [from Dr Hort's opinion] that there ought to be no ministry in

the Christian Church."[4]

At first the church was limited to the Christian believers in the city

of Jerusalem, then by persecution their company was broken up, and,

since those who were scattered went everywhere preaching the word, the

conception was enlarged to include all "of the way" (Acts ix. 2) in the

Holy Land. A new epoch began from the return of St Paul and St Barnabas

to Antioch after their first missionary journey, when they called

together the church and narrated their experiences, and told how "God

had opened to the Gentiles the door of faith" (Acts xiv. 27). Hitherto

the term Church had been "ideally conterminous" with the Jewish Church.

Now it was to contain members who had never in any sense belonged to the

Jewish Church. Thus the way was opened for new developments and for

illimitable extension. St Paul, in his address to the elders at Ephesus

(Acts xx. 28), adapted the words of Ps. lxxiv. 2, "Remember thy

congregation, which thou hast purchased of old," claiming for the

Christian _ecclesia_ the title of God's ancient _ecclesia_. But he

never, however fiercely opposed by Judaizers, set a new _ecclesia_ of

Christ in opposition to the old. We wait, however, for the Epistles of

his captivity at Rome to find the full meaning of the idea of the church

dawning upon his imagination. "Here at least, for the first time in the

Acts and Epistles, we have the _ecclesia_ spoken of in the sense of the

one universal _ecclesia_, and it comes more from the theological than

from the historical side; i.e. less from the actual circumstances of the

actual Christian communities than from a development of thoughts

respecting the place and office of the Son of God: his headship was felt

to involve the unity of all those who were united to him."[5] Similar

development of the idea of the one _ecclesia_ as including all members

of all local _ecclesiae_ does not lead St Paul to regard membership of

the universal church as invisible.

But the mere history of the word _ecclesia_ does not exhaust the

subject. We must take into account not only the idea of the visible

_actual_ church, but also the ideal pictured by St Paul in the metaphors

of the Body (Rom. xii. 5), the Temple (1 Cor. iii. 10-15) and the Bride

of Christ (2 Cor. xi. 2). The actual church is always falling short of

its profession; but its successive reformations witness to the strength

of its longing after the beauty of holiness.

Membership in the actual church is acquired through baptism "in the name

of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19).

The references in the New Testament to baptism "in the name of Jesus"

(or the Lord Jesus) (Acts ii. 38, viii. 16. x. 48, xix. 5; Rom. vi. 3;

Gal. iii. 27), which are by some critics taken to refer to a primitive

Christological baptismal formula, seem to refer to the confession made

by the baptized, or to the new relationship into which they are brought

as "members of Christ."[6] Candidates for baptism were exhorted to

prepare for it by repentance and faith (Acts ii. 38). The laying on of

hands (Heb. vi. 2), in the rite called in later times confirmation,

followed baptism (Acts viii. 17). In the modern Greek Church it is

administered by priests with oil which has been consecrated by the

bishop, in the Roman Church by the bishop himself. Such use of the

chrism can be traced from the 2nd century. The Anglican Church retains

only the Biblical symbolism of "the blessing of the hand." Presbyterians

and other Protestant churches have abandoned the use, except the

Lutherans. We need not here trace the history of Christian worship, in

daily services (Acts ii. 46), or on the Lord's Day (Acts xx. 7), meeting

for the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. xi. 17-34), or for mutual edification in

prayer, praise and prophecy (1 Cor. xiv.). These things represent the

ideal of Christendom. In the words of an eminent Roman Catholic scholar,

Monsignor Duchesne, "Faith unites, theology often separates." It must be

our task to summarize the leading ideas of the church in which all

Christians are agreed.

(a) The first is certainly fellowship with Christ and with the brethren.

The early Christians earnestly believed that their life was "hidden with

Christ in God" (Col. iii. 3), and found in their union with Christ the

lasting and strongest motive of love to the brethren. Such fellowship is

attributed by St Paul pre-eminently to the work of the Holy Spirit (2

Cor. xiii. 14). Its strength is shown in England in the growing

readiness of the different religious bodies to co-operate in movements

for the purifying of public morality and for the better observance of

Sunday.

(b) The second is unity. We have seen how St. Paul was led on to grasp

the conception of one church universal manifested in all the local

churches. Its unity is not purely accidental in that individuals have

been forced to act together under pressure of chance circumstances. Nor

is the ideal of unity adopted simply because experience teaches that

"union is strength." Nor is it even based on the philosophical

conception of the incompleteness of the individual life. As Dr Sanday

finely says, "If the church is in something more than mere metaphor the

Body of Christ, if there is circulating through it a continual flow and

return of spiritual forces, derived directly from him, if the Spirit

which animates the Body is one, then the Body itself also must be in

essence one. It has its centre not on earth but in heavenly places,

where Christ sitteth at the right hand of God."[7]

(c) Thirdly, there is no question that the Lord intended the one

fellowship of his saints to be _a visible fellowship_. The idea of an

invisible church has only commended itself in dark hours when men

despaired of unity even as an ideal. The view of Zwingli and Calvin in

the 16th century was not by any means acceptable to other reformers.

Luther distinguished between the Spiritual Church, which he identified

with the Communion of Saints, and the Corporeal Church, the outward

marks of which are Baptism, Sacrament and Gospel. But he regarded them

as different aspects of the same church, and Melanchthon was even more

explicit.[8] As the saint purified in heaven is he who struggled with

his sins on earth, so is the church triumphant one with the church

militant. In Dr Lindsay's words, "it is one of the privileges of faith,

when strengthened by hope and by love, to see the glorious ideal in the

somewhat poor material reality. It was thus that St Paul saw the

universal Church of Christ made visible in the Christian community of

Corinth."[9]

But it is at this point that we come to the dividing line which has been

drawn by different conceptions of catholicity. Dr Lindsay goes on to

argue that all insistence on the principle of historical continuity,

whether urged by members of the Anglican or the Roman Catholic Church,

as upholders of episcopacy, is a deliberate return to the principle of

Judaism, which declared that no one who was outside the circle of the

"circumcised," no matter how strong his faith nor how the fruits of the

Spirit were manifest in his life and deeds, could plead "the security of

the Divine Covenant." Without entering into controversy it must suffice

to point out that, from the point of view of all episcopal churches, the

ministry of the bishops succeeding the ministry of the apostles, however

it came to pass, was for fifteen centuries accepted as the pledge of

unity. This principle, however, of continuity in ministry, belongs to a

different department of Christian thought from the sacrament of baptism,

which really corresponds to the Jewish rites of admission to the

covenant. And it has been an established principle of the undivided

church since the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome in this case upholding

against St Cyprian the view which subsequent generations have ratified

as Catholic truth, that baptism by whomsoever administered is valid if

water is used with the right words. From this point, alas, divergence

begins.

(d) The fourth element is authority. Probably all Christians can agree

in the statement that the Christian democracy is also a theocracy, that

Christ is the source of all authority. There are three passages in the

Gospel which claim notice: (i.) the promise to St Peter (Matt. xvi.

18f), as spokesman for the apostles, of the key of the household of God,

of power to admit and exclude; (ii.) the promise (Matt. xviii. 15-20)

probably given to the Twelve, regarding offences against the peace of

the society, advocating exclusion only when brotherly appeals had

failed; (iii.) the commission of the whole _ecclesia_ or of the

Christian ministry (John xx. 22, 23). Again the root difference between

the Presbyterian and Episcopalian conceptions of the church comes to

light. Is the authority of the church manifested in the decisions which

a local church arrives at by a majority of votes, or in the decisions of

apostles and prophets after taking counsel, of the episcopate in later

times, ratified by common consent of Christendom? As has been well said,

"the church is primarily a witness--the strength of its authority lies

in the many sides from which the witness comes." It witnesses to the

Divine Life of Christ as a power of the present and of the future as of

the past, ministered in the Word and sacraments.

(e) The church is a sacerdotal society. St Paul delighted to represent

it as the "ideal Israel," and St John echoes the thought in the words of

praise (Rev. i. 5, 6), "Unto him that hath loved us ... and made us to

be a kingdom, and priests unto his God and Father." This idea of the

priesthood of the whole church has three elements--the divine element,

the human element and self-sacrifice. The promise that Christians should

be temples of the living God has been fulfilled. As Dr Milligan has said

very well, "It is not only in things to which we commonly confine the

word miracle that the Divine appears. It may appear not less in the

whole tone and spirit of the Church's life, in the varied Christian

virtues of her members, in the general character of their Christian

work, and in the grace received by them in the Christian sacraments.

When that life is exhibited, as it ought to be, in its distinctively

heavenly character, it bears witness to the presence of a power in

Christian men which no mere recollection of a past example, however

heroic or beautiful, can supply. The difficulties of exhibiting and

maintaining it are probably far greater now than they were in the

apostolic age; and as nothing but a present divine support can enable us

to overcome these, so, when they are overcome, a testimony is given to

the fact that God is with us."[10]

But this life is to be a human life still, to be in touch with all that

is noble and of good report in art and literature, keenly interested in

all the discoveries of science, active in all movements of social

progress. It cannot, however, be denied that to live such a life, divine

in its powers and human in its sympathies, demands daily and hourly

self-sacrifice. As the author of the _Imitation of Christ_ put it long

ago, "There is no living in love without pain." The thought of

self-sacrifice has been emphasized from the earliest times in the

liturgies. By a true instinct the early Christian writers called widows

and orphans the altar of God on which the sacrifices of almsgiving are

offered up.[11] Such works of charity, however, represent only one of

the channels by which self-sacrifice is ministered, to which all prayers

and thanksgiving and instruction of psalms, prophecy and preaching

contribute. Thus in the Eucharist the offering of the church is made one

with the offering of the Great High Priest.[12]

All this represents an ideal. It suggests in a modern form the perpetual

paradox of the Christian life: we are what we are to be. The church is

the divine society in which all other religious associations are

eventually to find their home. The prayer, "Thy kingdom come," embraces

all spiritual forces which make for righteousness. They were

acknowledged in Christ's words, "He that is not against you is for you"

(Luke ix. 50). But the divisions of Christendom testify to the harm done

by undue insistence on the claims of the individual to gain scope to

extend the kingdom in his own way. As in a choir all the resources of an

individual voice are used to strengthen the general effect, so must the

individual lose his life that he may find it, witnessing by his share in

the common service of the church to the ultimate unity of knowledge and

harmony of truth.

For the various conceptions of the church as an organized body see

CHURCH HISTORY, sec. 3, and the articles on the various churches.

(A. E. B.)