fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old,
established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be
made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with
well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top
soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface,
firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until
the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some
coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded
in lightly when spring opens.
In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in
March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants
will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good
cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent
place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at
a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with
pieces of roots.
If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and
yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family.
RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_.
ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he
considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of
fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially
flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the
flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in
the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by
insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with
Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be
tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as
specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden
Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery.
[Illustration: Wild Roses]
If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and
informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_.
This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the
season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit.
The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and
strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add
character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by
insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The
fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through
the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing
into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are
rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips.
Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or
Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of
culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their
popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very
extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron,
Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich
Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in
planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with
the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as
hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier.
The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in
continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des
Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are
white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant.
The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor
and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if
protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class
of Roses will give more general satisfaction.
The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline,
Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually
through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection
will prove hardy.
The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through
a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They
also make very fine pot-plants.
The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general
collection.
The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as
two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown
in pots.
The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants,
are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the
Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better
variety is the Crimson Rambler.
The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any
other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these
highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a
conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results
do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants
set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up
and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If
potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become
infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest,
they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well
worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions;
but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist's flower.
[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose]
All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil,
if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should
be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be
cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except
the Yellow Persian and the Harrison's Yellow, being borne on the new
wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth.
In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more
satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or
shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind,
whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti
or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing
the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth.
Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of
the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be
grown than from plants on their own roots.
The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful
spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at
evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an
easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these
facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or
Persian insect powder.
ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business
which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following
advice may be useful to those who have conservatories:
When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide
raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed
or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks
are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered
with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from
rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one
part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The
plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18
inches apart, and are grown there all summer.
During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58 deg. to 60 deg.
at night, and from 5 deg. to 10 deg. warmer during the day. The heating
pipes are often run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom
heat, but to economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in
case of their becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in
watering, in guarding the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts
result in checks to the growth and in mildewed foliage.
Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the
appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green
plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by
syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems.
An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis
is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of
water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a
piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four
pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red
spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or
soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at
all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely
to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery
appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of
the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of
sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly
whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a
broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and
less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil
may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating
pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but
fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there
on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances,
however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur
is death to plants.
[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose]
_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the
greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert
it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they
would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which
case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to
the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with
a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time.
After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the
branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had
formed roots.
Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand
to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch
of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and
single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were
inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot
month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting;
moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without
a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the
water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In
about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted
cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse.
[Illustration: Vase of Roses]
The "saucer system," in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand
contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to
the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give
the cuttings the "full sun" and to keep the sand saturated with water.
Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after
rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they
have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too
long in the sand weakens the cutting.
SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two
or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy.
SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne
in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other
annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold
well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in
February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be
planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants
at this time to cause them to branch.
SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and
early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be
cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in
the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The
roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of
the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a
cellar for winter use.
[Illustration: Salsify]
SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial,
blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders.
It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house
continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both
desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage
is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by
division. Height 2 to 3 feet.
[Illustration: Salvia coccinea]
SAN JOSE SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced
into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale
insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center.
There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look
very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them.
The San Jose Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very
serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity,
covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and
either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to
render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications
are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates
of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of
the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed
by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one
part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with
a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny
day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in
cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some
experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San
Jose Scale.
It is not to be expected that the San Jose Scale can be exterminated any
more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore,
that we should spray for the San Jose Scale as we do for other pests. It
is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take
measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be
inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated
with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly
poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced.
Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants
or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be
destroyed.
SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of
bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to
seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on
long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants
are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in
February and grown along to be planted out in April.
SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus
multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World,
especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an
ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide
unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant
or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the
dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the
ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the
house.
SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations.
The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in
order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of
fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only
the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be
scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed
readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture.
A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its
characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be
scraped.
SCREENS. See _Windbreak_.
SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_.
SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The
seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted
to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation
through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter.
The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering
with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean
material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among
the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly
prized by those who know it.
Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches
long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial,
and the early shoots may be bleached year after year.
SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or
three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of
seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or
growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to
sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be
in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing
very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size,
care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the
soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle
into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds
should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to
escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over
the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common
mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without
regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others
grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has
become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be
sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of
seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have
been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not
put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower
and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is
pierced or is very thin.
It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those
who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and
selection of the plants.
SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is
always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house,
if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or
other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very
inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if
poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects
in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight.
Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually
buried or kept in sand.
SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the
amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the
leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat
early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border.
The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a
temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants
are usually the most sensitive.
SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to
the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and
other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly
always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or
fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be
omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a
very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other
trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern
parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse
chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should
ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size
and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15
feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they
should be thinned.
SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_.
SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are
useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for
use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used
only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is,
nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the
angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the
general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are
planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting
and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the
flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy
background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily
cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the
lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is
an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an
indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need
the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the
Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and
coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored
leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the
plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy
foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted
just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a
background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the
lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and
_Borders_.
It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the
Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled
between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the
place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about
the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may
be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2
feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a
few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be
removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and
make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It
is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure,
leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy,
this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the
Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of
fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often
advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year
after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the
Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but
after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to
take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop
and meet the greensward.
Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in
woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally
adaptable for the North, the following are excellent:
Barberries.
Box.
Burning Bush, or Euonymus.
Bush Honeysuckles.
Bush Willows.
Caryopteris, blooming in August and September.
Cotoneasters.
Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall.
Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._
Elders. Native species are excellent.
Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring.
Flowering Almond.
Flowering Crabs.
Flowering Currants.
Forsythias, or Golden Bells.
Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus.
Hawthorns.
Hydrangeas.
Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._
Japanese Quince.
Kerria, or Corchorus.
Lilacs.
Mock Orange, or Philadelphus.
New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus.
Osiers, or Dogwoods.
Privet.
Rose Acacia.
Roses (see _Roses_).
Smoke Tree.
Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable.
Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._
Spireas of many kinds.
Viburnums of many kinds.
Weigelas.
White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._
Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter.
Xanthoceras sorbifolia.
SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy
culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results
are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any
garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes
running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart.
SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot
be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown
and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a
place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in
January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the
bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The
plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible
overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb
on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is
very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines
grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched
with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second
growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants
and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house
through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine
of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable.
SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely
through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or
borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow
Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by
cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the
spring.
Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants
sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons
make good window plants.
SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring,
always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The
bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left
undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after
forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter.
SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_.
SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of
seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas,
and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results
are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very
carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed.
[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings]
The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which
comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is
supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has
made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed.
The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should
be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and
one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is
heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the
sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the
sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a
sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of
sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose
beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that
the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten
or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease.
[Illustration: Cutting sod]
The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so
that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be
used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod
with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very
loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the
surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that
there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded
down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is
laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more
lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose
land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be
higher than adjacent land after a year or two.
If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be
filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through
it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of
fine loam to protect it.
SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon
one's point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable,
dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot
be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see
_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances.
In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign
substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of
the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its
plant-food. These are coordinate objects. In some cases one may be of
prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary.
Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be
unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure,
even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being
baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed,
then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to
apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be
wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like;
if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more
or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_).
The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to
prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture.
If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly
enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to
lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into
clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results.
However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to
induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no
disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the
very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark,
since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it.
Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much
used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into
the soil in the spring, and need not be removed.
SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_.
[Illustration: Spade]
[Illustration: Shovel]
SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common
and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are
more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the
spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with
strongly strapped handles.
SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the
Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy,
and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the
fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six
weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house
plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant
before removal.
SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable,
being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to
market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often
protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut
soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York
Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by
placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young
leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames.
Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season
seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow
through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The
seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak
a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about
three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and
winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce
being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is
a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop.
SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most
important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi
and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or
injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of
Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the
control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which
are used for the control of insect enemies.
The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most
popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which
see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the
interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to
the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with
fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from
getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to
Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire
surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to
prevent the access of the fungi.
Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by
external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all
other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which
are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and
beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in
various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which
see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris
green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together.
The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the
greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle
is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For
Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most
popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other
nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every
outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of
work. Get a pump with much power.
Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until
the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the
plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and
what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty
which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed
before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need
Spraying again.
SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_.
SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after
culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except
that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart,
and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight
to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants
after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed
will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but
eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type
are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are
popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is
essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little
chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes.
[Illustration: Hubbard Squash]
[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash]
SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants,
most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering
at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red,
pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color.
Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed.
STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in
nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be
incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species
as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from
seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted
several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each
transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double
flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich.
The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which
flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown
on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and
lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may
be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of
seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved,
it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches.
STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable
products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different
commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a
cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great
length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to
be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature;
and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low
temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of
fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing
too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of
any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper
condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which
are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in
Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of
diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into
Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the
rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time.
Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature
somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40 deg. Fahr.
for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below
the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which
there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too
high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in
tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to
prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if
headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool
cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on
shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then
they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure
that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples
are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they
will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them.
[Illustration: A good out-door cellar]
Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water
should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the
field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety,
ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that
uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are
to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the
purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly
moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw
alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to
result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical
heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw
covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided
they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down
in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown
straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only
in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be
expected from such methods.
In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green
matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the
produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put
on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them
gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all
vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If
covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made
out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land.
When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it
is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load
or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These
pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is
left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in
cold weather without interfering with the others.
An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a
heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be
inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not
used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a
ventilating shaft.
[Illustration: Strawberries]
STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is
misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on
certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can
only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select
such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of
culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which
the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that
no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown
and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be
had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying
on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or
Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the
runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance
of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the
first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root
themselves, but "set in." This is not a difficult operation; and if the
runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well
established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners
should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide
at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full
sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps
as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could
be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off
runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the
first.
[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry]
The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches
apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the
results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain
plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or
outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are
moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried
out by the wind and sun.
[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry]
Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries.
Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be
avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a
soft texture.
Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall
setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil
and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained
the following spring.
In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches
apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants
should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3-1/2 feet apart. The first method
requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants.
The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the
plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw
or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are
introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches.
As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to
lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken
off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the
purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean.
Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich
soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the
patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen,
and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a
pollen-bearing kind.
The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is
usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time
the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage
for the next year.
SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual
Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure
with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border
should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period
extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from
light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10
feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any
formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug
in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus
multiflorus_ is always valuable.
[Illustration: Double Sunflower]
[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower]
[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant]
Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally
cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species
from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow
variety, are two of the best.
[Illustration: Wild Sunflower]
SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the
late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those
of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut,
resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the
whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or
cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and
pure white. The plant has been called the "Winter Sweet Pea," but the
flowers are not fragrant.
SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border
plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities
of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and
give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown
in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be
sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be
planted out until settled weather. Annual.
SWEET CORN. See _Corn_.
SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs'
grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the
surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy
all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of
medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the
wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The
seedsmen's catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs,
medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will
grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to
resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds
each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an
ordinary family.
SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the
Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the
country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of
varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or
buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A
bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial
gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow
soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the
seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill
5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the
plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill
nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught.
After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold
the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good
plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out
very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition.
Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that
often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will
lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not
let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart.
[Illustration: Sweet Pea]
A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June,
and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but
the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the
middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall,
particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in
nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the
expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the
soil, and do not water frequently.
SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by
planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of
obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet
Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole
tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way),
covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash
should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep
the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts
should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The
sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the
lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5
inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The
ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6
inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as
to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On
this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves,
and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4
feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between
the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted
frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines
have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to
dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes,
store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry
room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out.
SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants
of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the
plant itself.
Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be
thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump,
or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of
them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray.
Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red
spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry
season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It
usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants
frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes
can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his
plants frequently. See _Spraying_.
Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with
plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations
are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe
them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true
with cuttings.
In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not
become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the
house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is
bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the
night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to
syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such
cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry
most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of
carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust.
Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See
_Frost_.
TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope;
to afford an architectural base for a building.
It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if
the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to
cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look
smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The
surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very
dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot
tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are
rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a
sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but
in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so
that the slope is an agreeable one.
[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace]
If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace
would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one
is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the
outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall
may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be
placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the
architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done,
there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it
architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be
made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the
place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong
horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in
the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The
cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with.
THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to
grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the
vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by
destroying the injured fruit.
The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is
thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are
likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of
one's thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is
difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the
curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will
apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin
their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what
would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining
specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very
greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums,
which, if not Thinned, are very inferior.
Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the
fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the
fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not
be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit
may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late
spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper
pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit.
The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season's growth. The best
fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is
the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood
from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the
inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the
remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be
done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever
the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as
already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and
handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects
or fungi.
THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at
their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them
free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine
vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to
6 feet. Flowers white and yellow.
[Illustration: Thunbergia alata]
TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the
fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for
three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down;
and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage,
however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil
mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It
enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding
surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many
chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it
productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the
Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of
all agricultural operations.
[Illustration: For hand Tilling]
The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be
determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently
from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in
which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be
made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the
storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent
Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the
purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the
moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose
layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may
itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between
the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This
surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the
earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or
leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air
through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as
often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling
is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The
surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it
tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and
usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to
be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine
the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges
or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas
in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are
excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be
necessary to use heavier and rougher tools.
[Illustration: Steel rake]
In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not
to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when
they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps
will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to
go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be
gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in
fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow
or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such
cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough
and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if
handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or
sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it
from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty
bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This
may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed.
One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable
matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and
friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief
value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need
humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives
better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer
secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green
crops.
TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in
a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of
seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can
use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they
should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other
receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them
out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows
four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows.
Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to
hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent
support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at
home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an
excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an
inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little
attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them
perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The
late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or
they will ripen if placed in a drawer.
[Illustration: Tomato]
One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred
plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off
quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground
and the rampant suckers are cut out.
TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden.
There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its
work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in
place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in
the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place.
Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other
useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_.
TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance
"pricking out." This means taking young seedling plants from the seed
box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the
first "rough" leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes
or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were
when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out
plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing
shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if
possible.
TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which
see). The word "Trimming," however, should be restricted to the shaping
of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood,
fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of
pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used
to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed
into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is
usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than
Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural
form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within
manageable bounds.
TROPAEOLUM. See _Nasturtium_.
TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it
is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border
they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly
warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost
too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in
loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the
roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted
out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before
frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or
boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As
with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit.
TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink,
white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in
diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a
sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous
Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding.
Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have
succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes
a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window,
and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding
plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements.
[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia]
C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on "Bulbs and
Tuberous-Rooted Plants," says: "The principal point learned in regard to
its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb.
The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant,
has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted
out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant
during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the
tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to
the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The
tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of
growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may
be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the
tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated
in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper
season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as
Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At
that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and
proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire
season, rather delighting in great heat."
[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.]
In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or
moss in a temperature of 60 deg. to 65 deg., either in the greenhouse or
window. After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as
pointed out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil.
When they are well under way give them all the light and air they will
bear, and keep them close to the glass to avoid "legginess" and to
insure a firm, sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they
should be given abundance of air and light to "harden off" the plants
preparatory to setting them in sun and wind.
The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be
partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched
with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one
foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time;
but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the
foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be
helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool.
Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried
in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in
shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They
should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves
or heating pipes.
For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several
colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are
extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention.
TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_,
_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter
bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several
years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the
old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the
inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy
anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep.
[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant]
TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July
and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring
sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will
become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops,
and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on
the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the
flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill.
VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending
planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to
be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the
land, to determine whether one's soil and site are adapted to the plant
in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all
the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties,
which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of
Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to
success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant.
It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very
largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he
likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the
home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the
problem. Having satisfied one's own mind as to what kinds of Varieties
he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if
those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to
grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before
choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and
seedmen's catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it
may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one's
own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the
experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are
recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined
opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man's judgment
should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are
grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his
climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his
plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man's
opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but
it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists,
particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose
Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants
in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment
station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent
writings on the subject.
VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one's
own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor.
Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily,
either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the
labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste
of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to
one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as
parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables,
as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere
with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on
different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing
something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or
club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a
year or more the vegetables on which they live.
[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden]
Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and
labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and
to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with
celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking
the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable
Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the
house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush
fruits may be planted.
A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of
potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the
garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet
long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to
work, of the following:
Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify.
One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set
onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use.
Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be
sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the
room.
One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from
a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart.
One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage.
Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows:
100 feet of extra early.
100 feet of intermediate.
100 feet of late.
100 feet of extra early, sown late.
50 feet of dwarf varieties.
If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs
will maintain a supply.
After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the
tender vegetables may be planted, as follows:
Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate,
and two rows late.
One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties.
Vines as follows:
10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet.
20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet.
6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet.
10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet.
One hundred feet of okra.
Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes.
Six large clumps of rhubarb.
An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide.
Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant
by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans.
A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme,
sage, hyssop, mints.
VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants,
blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As
the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of
plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed
sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or
boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has
become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than
those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed
that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but
the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands
of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper
to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to
keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown
plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10
to 15 inches apart each way.
[Illustration: Verbena]
VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly
places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common
evergreen, mat-like "running myrtle") are hardy, but the most useful
ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The
variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated
mostly by cuttings. Perennials.
VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased
in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The
tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the
ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very
rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many
others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine
clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being
brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than
the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from
cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent
introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They
are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick,
glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along
the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in
June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in
clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has
very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental
fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or
trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman's pipe), hedera (or ivy), and
loniceras (or honeysuckles).
[Illustration: A vine support for a porch]
Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomoeas are the most common,
while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the
gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent
introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This
is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing
little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all
danger of frost is over.
_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_
_Tendril-climbers_
Adlumia (biennial).
Balloon Vine.
Cobaea.
Gourds.
Nasturtiums.
Sweet Pea.
Wild Cucumber.
_Twiners_
Beans, Flowering.
Cypress Vine.
Dolichos.
Hop, Japanese.
Ipomoea.
Moonflower.
Morning-glory.
Thunbergia.
Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber).
_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_
_Tendril-climbers_
Ampelopsis tricuspidata.
Clematis of many kinds.
Grape of various kinds.
Greenbrier.
Ivy (by roots).
Roses (scramblers).
Trumpet Creeper (by roots).
Virginia Creeper.
_Twiners_
Actinidia polygama.
Akebia quinata.
Aristolochia, or Dutchman's Pipe.
Bittersweet, or Celastrus.
Honeysuckles.
Moonseed.
Wistaria.
[Illustration: Violets]
VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves
successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had
elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months.
A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be
set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These
plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before
weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers
through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to
the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large
enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a
hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the
frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or
straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants
from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be
removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not
disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high
temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the
plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April
the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop
without protection. Violets belong with the "cool" plants of florists.
When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They
should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each
year. They thrive in a temperature of 55 deg. to 65 deg.
WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly
between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the
curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that
he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not
making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk.
Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks
have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of
ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid,
so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two
lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be
made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking
the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the
simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks
which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct
and convenient.
Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with
tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay
some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better
than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the
surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on
decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose
material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The
best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is
called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and
is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly
year after year.
The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less
temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very
serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties
are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient
draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made
strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as
brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low
and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound
the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes
thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The
first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed
mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and
two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become
partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a
finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part
water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials
be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square
and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the
cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin
crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a
well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that
it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before
frosty weather comes.
WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like
fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted.
One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown.
Hardy. Two to 3 feet.
WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making
a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi
which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that
it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible,
also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the
ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with
soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with
an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps
nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself.
It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and
again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and
the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just
getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the
eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way
underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very
early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old
practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the
oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests,
however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth
is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new
wood and they are very easily destroyed.
WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering
of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those
of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time
of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really
need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an
indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant,
just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for
Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have
their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first
copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three
times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the
roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into
larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but
those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or
shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often.
One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can
judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large
leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in
luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or
become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must
be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for
having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_.
[Illustration: Watering pot]
WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for
muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer
place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6
to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, "quick" soil and sunny exposure. It is
essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into
bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills.
WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of
window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have
difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to
manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a
summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the
winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the
temperature does not go above 50 deg. Fahr., so much the better; neither
should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought
out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old
flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as
well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into
growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always
with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each
year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and
allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many
feet.
WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one's soil: only good
soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one's tillage. If
the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to
unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of
growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the
Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for
thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the
hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save
laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure,
especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles.
See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the
treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_.
[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller]
[Illustration: Finger-weeder]
[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder]
WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value
of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the
fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a
disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of
very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden
with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries
they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer
than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better
not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation.
This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The
wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends
thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation
of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the
still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense
plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call "stagnant air;" but
thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through
it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric
drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts.
It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or
deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the
wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall
or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the
plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as
already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good
Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force
of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to
circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided.
Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient
protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or
land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is
usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the
area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold
air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those
trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard
enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the
tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed
orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of
the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very
likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food.
A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter
belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not
enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is
usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest
or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so,
the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower
belt, the arborvitae is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or
Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some
distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther
it should be placed from the house.
Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable
objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an
unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens,
any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very
excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor
beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very
efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia,
basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent
shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two,
they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and
strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer,
giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such
purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If,
after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some
of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with
manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy
summer growth.
WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_.
WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is
particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the
want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible.
[Illustration: A summer window ledge]
Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood
and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are
on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A
stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window,
about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box,
since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides,
moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit
into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep
the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few
small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with
carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its
exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the
position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage
is always advisable.
Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to
make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in
the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like
clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a
soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be
obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of
the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel
of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and
prevent baking.
Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the
spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted
directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be
preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer.
The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit,
such as lobelias, tropaeolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and
sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them
may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias,
etc.
Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For
the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be
used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the
more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for
drooping would be: *tropaeolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet
alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing
plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one,
the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth
ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax,
*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracaenas,
palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others.
For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form
or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of
blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions,
those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be
trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the
climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_.
After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable
to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling
of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time
during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid
manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the
growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil.
In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this
case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in
some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also
be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will
be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light
than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage.
_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few
choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable
collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their
accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive
arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The
plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small
collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be
easily accommodated and kept in good condition.
The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern
exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter,
especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be
tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold
weather.
Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on
them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night
and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the
next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected
to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot
air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as
keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all
day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over
night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame
dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down.
It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning
gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for
plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by
glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory.
While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget
that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our
living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on
the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the
necessary humidity.
The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust.
A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent
place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and
supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be
freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually
advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen
kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed
with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can
be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or
moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed.
[Illustration: A window-box]
The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or
less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental
tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood
surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about
the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the
top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some
neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets,
jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists.
The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable
arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then
have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with
a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the
real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below
them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly
watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the
carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on
a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained
every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to
allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the
false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet.
Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets
attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to
support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided
with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around
from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with
the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on.
Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in
pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it
more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets
may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to
fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of
these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded
close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp
sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil
from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so
grateful to the foliage.
In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on
either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be
desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit
of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer
for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage.
Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter
flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in
making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in
the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give
the matter better attention.
Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the
groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former
are given a night temperature of about 60 deg., the latter about 50 deg. In
each case the temperature is 10 to 15 deg. higher for the daytime. Five
degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without
any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or
less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature
may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather.
_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60 deg._
_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria "Lincoln
Park," begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or
calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single
petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas.
_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracaena
fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes,
ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or "screw pine," _Pilea
arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_.
_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Cobaea
scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia),
_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also
list below.
_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for
baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia,
_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O.
floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or
honey-bell.
_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_,
Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_,
othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_
and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers
are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*)
droop but slightly.
_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50 deg._
_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations,
chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or
Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia
(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter
lily when in bloom, and others.
_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden
and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller.
_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy,
lygodium (climbing fern).
_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum,
_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium.
_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent
house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially
well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed
like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most
others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away
in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be
placed in the cellar "to root up," or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in
the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can
be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40 deg. to
45 deg. suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select
pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a
pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having
been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the
tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight
jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set
away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more
watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be
watered freely.
[Illustration: Window-garden]
Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment.
When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought
out and given a temperature of some 55 deg. to 60 deg. till the flowers
appear, when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50 deg.
The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it
should be kept at not lower than 60 deg. at night. Warmer will be better.
Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep.
Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then
started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night
temperature of 50 deg., and 55 deg. to 60 deg. when they have begun to
grow.
Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a
pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive
to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started
to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45 deg. will be as warm as they ever
need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the
various plants under their respective names.
_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_.
WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry,
unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before
cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating
manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see
_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it
is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them
up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects.
Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is
possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over
small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a
cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel.
Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice
do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch.
ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given
place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for
color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened,
the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a
hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting
out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the
plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24
inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance.
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