versicles being universally introduced into the hymns or musical poetry
of the Jews, easily spread itself through their other poetical writings,
which were not designed to be sung in alternate portions, and which,
therefore, did not so much require this mode of composition. But the
mode became familiar to their ears, and carried with it a certain solemn
majesty of style, particularly suited to sacred subjects. Hence,
throughout the prophetical writings, we find it prevailing as much as in
the Psalms of David. This form of writing is one of the great
characteristics of the ancient Hebrew poetry; very different from, and
even opposite to, the style of the Greek and Roman poets. Independently
of this peculiar mode of construction, the sacred poetry is
distinguished by the highest beauties of strong, concise, bold, and
figurative expression. Conciseness and strength are two of its most
remarkable characters. One might, indeed, imagine that the practice of
the Hebrew poets, of always amplifying the same thought, by repetition
or contrast, might tend to enfeeble their style. But they conduct
themselves so as not to produce this effect. Their sentences are always
short. Few superfluous words are used. The same thought is never dwelt
upon long. To their conciseness and sobriety of expression their poetry
is indebted for much of its sublimity; and all writers who attempt the
sublime might profit much by imitating, in this respect, the style of
the Old Testament.
No writings whatever abound so much with the most bold and animated
figures as the sacred books. In order to do justice to these, it is
necessary that we transport ourselves as much as we can into the land of
Judea, and place before our eyes that scenery and those objects with
which the Hebrew writers were conversant. Natural objects are in some
measure common to them with poets of all ages and countries. Light and
darkness, trees and flowers, the forest and the cultivated field,
suggest to them many beautiful figures. But, in order to relish their
figures of this kind, we must take notice that several of them arise
from the particular circumstances of the land of Judea. During the
summer months little or no rain falls throughout all that region. While
the heats continued, the country was intolerably parched; want of water
was a great distress; and a plentiful shower falling, or a rivulet
breaking forth, altered the whole face of nature, and introduced much
higher ideas of refreshment and pleasure than the like causes can
suggest to us. Hence, to represent distress, such frequent allusions
among them, to a dry and thirsty land where no water is;” and hence, to
describe a change from distress to prosperity, their metaphors are
founded on the falling of showers, and the bursting out of springs in
the desert. Thus: The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad,
and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. For in the
wilderness shall waters break out, and streams in the desert; and the
parched ground shall become a pool, and the thirsty land, springs of
water; in the habitation of dragons there shall be grass, with rushes
and reeds,” Isaiah xxxv, 1, 6, 7. Images of this nature are very
familiar to Isaiah, and occur in many parts of his book. Again: as Judea
was a hilly country, it was, during the rainy months, exposed to
frequent inundations by the rushing of torrents, which came down
suddenly from the mountains, and carried every thing before them; and
Jordan, their only great river, annually overflowed its banks. Hence the
frequent allusions to the noise, and to the rushings of many waters;”
and hence great calamities so often compared to the overflowing torrent,
which, in such a country, must have been images particularly striking:
Deep calleth unto deep at the noise of thy water spouts; all thy waves
and thy billows are gone over me,” Psalm xlii, 7. The two most
remarkable mountains of the country were Lebanon and Carmel; the former
noted for its height, and the woods of lofty cedars that covered it; the
latter, for its beauty and fertility, the richness of its vines and
olives. Hence, with the greatest propriety, Lebanon is employed as an
image of whatever is great, strong, or magnificent; Carmel, of what is
smiling and beautiful. The glory of Lebanon shall be given to it, and
the excellency of Carmel,” Isaiah xxxv, 2. Lebanon is often put
metaphorically for the whole state or people of Israel, for the temple,
for the king of Assyria; Carmel, for the blessings of peace and
prosperity. His countenance is as Lebanon,” says Solomon, speaking of
the dignity of a man’s appearance; but when he describes female beauty,
Thine head is like Mount Carmel,” Cant. v, 15; vii, 5. It is farther to
be remarked under this head, that, in the images of the awful and
terrible kind, with which the sacred poets abound, they plainly draw
their descriptions from that violence of the elements, and those great
concussions of nature, with which their climate rendered them
acquainted. Earthquakes were not unfrequent; and the tempests of hail,
thunder, and lightning, in Judea and Arabia, accompanied with whirlwinds
and darkness, far exceed any thing of that sort which happens in more
temperate regions. Isaiah, xxiv, 20, describes, with great majesty, the
earth, reeling to and fro like a drunkard, and removed like a cottage.”
And in those circumstances of terror, with which an appearance of the
Almighty is described, in Psalm xviii, when his pavilion round about him
was darkness; when hail stones and coals of fire were his voice; and
when, at his rebuke, the channels of the waters are said to be seen, and
the foundations of the hills discovered; though there may be some
reference, as Dr. Lowth thinks, to the history of God’s descent upon
Mount Sinai; yet it seems more probable that the figures were taken
directly from those commotions of nature with which the author was
acquainted, and which suggested stronger and nobler images than those
which now occur to us.
Beside the natural objects of their own country, we find the rites of
their religion, and the arts and employments of their common life,
frequently employed as grounds of imagery among the Hebrews. Hence
flowed, of course, the many allusions to pastoral life, to the green
pastures and the still waters,” and to the care and watchfulness of a
shepherd over his flock, which carry to this day so much beauty and
tenderness in them, in Psalm xxiii, and in many other passages of the
poetical writings of Scripture. Hence all the images founded upon rural
employments, upon the wine press, the threshing floor, the stubble and
the chaff. To disrelish all such images is the effect of false delicacy.
Homer is at least as frequent, and much more minute and particular, in
his similes, founded on what we now call low life; but, in his
management of them, far inferior to the sacred writers, who generally
mix with their comparisons of this kind somewhat of dignity and grandeur
to ennoble them. What inexpressible grandeur does the following rural
image in Isaiah, for instance, receive from the intervention of the
Deity!--“The nations shall rush like the rushings of many waters; but
God shall rebuke them, and they shall fly far off; and they shall be
chased as the chaff of the mountain before the wind, and like the down
of the thistle before the whirlwind.” Figurative allusions, too, we
frequently find to the rites and ceremonies of their religion, to the
legal distinctions of things clean and unclean, to the mode of their
temple service, to the dress of their priests, and to the most noted
incidents recorded in their sacred history; as, to the destruction of
Sodom, the descent of God upon Mount Sinai, and the miraculous passage
of the Israelites through the Red Sea. The religion of the Hebrews
included the whole of their laws and civil constitution. It was full of
splendid external rites, that occupied their senses; it was connected
with every part of their national history and establishment; and hence,
all ideas founded on religion possessed in this nation a dignity and
importance peculiar to themselves, and were uncommonly suited to impress
the imagination.
From all this it results that the imagery of the sacred poets is, in a
high degree, expressive and natural; it is copied directly from real
objects that were before their eyes; it has this advantage, of being
more complete within itself, more entirely founded on national ideas and
manners, than that of the most of other poets. In reading their works we
find ourselves continually in the land of Judea. The palm trees, and the
cedars of Lebanon, are ever rising in our view. The face of their
territory, the circumstances of their climate, the manners of the
people, and the august ceremonies of their religion, constantly pass
under different forms before us. The comparisons employed by the sacred
poets are generally short, touching on one point only of resemblance,
rather than branching out into little episodes. In this respect they
have an advantage over the Greek and Roman authors; whose comparisons,
by the length to which they are extended, sometimes interrupt the
narration too much, and carry too visible marks of study and labour;
whereas, in the Hebrew poets, they appear more like the glowings of a
lively fancy, just glancing aside to some resembling object, and
presently returning to its track. Such is the following fine comparison,
introduced to describe the happy influence of good government upon a
people, in what are called the last words of David: He that ruleth over
men must be just, ruling in the fear of God; and he shall be as the
light of the morning when the sun riseth, even a morning without clouds;
as the tender grass springing out of the earth, by clear shining after
rain,” 2 Sam. xxiii, 3. This is one of the most regular and formal
comparisons in the sacred books.
Allegory, likewise, is a figure frequently found in them. But the
poetical figure which, beyond all others, elevates the style of
Scripture, and gives it a peculiar boldness and sublimity, is
_prosopopœia_, or personification. No personifications employed by
any poets are so magnificent and striking as those of the inspired
writers. On great occasions they animate every part of nature,
especially when any appearance or operation of the Almighty is
concerned. Before him went the pestilence.” “The waters saw thee, O God,
and were afraid.” The mountains saw thee, and they trembled.” “The
overflowing of the water passed by.” The deep uttered his voice, and
lifted up his hands on high.” When inquiry is made about the place of
wisdom, Job introduces the deep, saying, It is not in me; and the sea
saith, It is not in me. Destruction and death say, We have heard the
fame thereof with our ears.” That noted sublime passage in the book of
Isaiah, which describes the fall of the king of Assyria, is full of
personified objects; the fir trees and cedars of Lebanon breaking forth
into exultation on the fall of the tyrant; hell from beneath stirring up
all the dead to meet him at his coming; and the dead kings introduced as
speaking and joining in the triumph. In the same strain are those many
lively and passionate apostrophes to cities and countries, to persons
and things, with which the prophetical writings every where abound. O
thou sword of the Lord, how long will it be ere thou be quiet? Put
thyself up into the scabbard, rest, and be still. How can it be quiet,”
as the reply is instantly made, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge
against Askelon, and the sea shore? there hath he appointed it,” Jer.
xlvii, 6. In general, for it would carry us too far to enlarge upon all
the instances, the style of the poetical books of the Old Testament is,
beyond the style of all other poetical works, fervid, bold, and
animated. It is extremely different from that regular correct expression
to which our ears are accustomed in modern poetry. It is the burst of
inspiration. The scenes are not coolly described, but represented as
passing before our eyes. Every object and every person is addressed and
spoken to, as if present. The transition is often abrupt; the connection
often obscure; the persons are often changed; figures crowded, and
heaped upon one another. Bold sublimity, not correct elegance, is its
character. We see the spirit of the writer raised beyond himself, and
labouring to find vent for ideas too mighty for his utterance.
The several kinds of poetical composition which we find in Scripture are
chiefly the didactic, elegiac, pastoral, and lyric. Of the didactic
species of poetry, the book of Proverbs is the principal instance. The
first nine chapters of that book are highly poetical, adorned with many
distinguished graces, and figures of expression. The book of
Ecclesiastes comes, likewise, under this head; and some of the Psalms,
as the hundred and nineteenth in particular. Of elegiac poetry, many
very beautiful specimens occur in Scripture; such as the lamentation of
David over his friend Jonathan; several passages in the prophetical
books; and several of David’s Psalms, composed on occasions of distress
and mourning. The forty-second Psalm, in particular, is, in the highest
degree, tender and plaintive. But the most regular and perfect elegiac
composition in the Scripture, perhaps in the whole world, is the
Lamentations of Jeremiah. As the prophet mourns, in that book, over the
destruction of the temple and the holy city, and the overthrow of the
whole state, he assembles all the affecting images which a subject so
melancholy could suggest. The Song of Solomon affords us a high
exemplification of pastoral poetry. Considered with respect to its
spiritual meaning, it is undoubtedly a mystical allegory; in its form it
is a dramatic pastoral, or a perpetual dialogue between personages in
the character of shepherds; and, suitably to that form, it is full of
rural and pastoral images from beginning to end. Of lyric poetry, or
that which is intended to be accompanied with music, the Old Testament
is full. Beside a great number of hymns and songs, which we find
scattered in the historical and prophetical books, such as the song of
Moses, the song of Deborah, and many others of like nature, the whole
book of Psalms is to be considered as a collection of sacred odes. In
these we find the ode exhibited in all the varieties of its form, and
supported with the highest spirit of lyric poetry; sometimes sprightly,
cheerful, and triumphant; sometimes solemn and magnificent; sometimes
tender and soft. From these instances it clearly appears, that there are
contained in the Holy Scriptures full exemplifications of several of the
chief kinds of poetical writing.
POLLUX, a tutelar deity of mariners in ancient times, Acts xxviii, 11,
whose image was placed either at the prow or stern of the ship.
POMEGRANATE, רמון, Numbers xiii, 23; xx, 5; 1 Sam. xiv, 2, &c, a low
tree growing very common in Palestine, and in other parts of the east.
Its branches are very thick and bushy; some of them are armed with sharp
thorns. They are garnished with narrow spear-shaped leaves. Its flowers
are of an elegant red colour, resembling a rose. It is chiefly valued
for the fruit, which is as big as a large apple, is quite round, and has
the general qualities of other summer fruits, allaying heat and
quenching thirst. The high estimation in which it was held by the people
of Israel, may be inferred from its being one of the three kinds of
fruit brought by the spies from Eshcol to Moses and the congregation in
the wilderness, Num. xiii, 23; xx, 5; and from its being specified by
that rebellious people as one of the greatest luxuries which they
enjoyed in Egypt, the want of which they felt so severely in the sandy
desert. The pomegranate, classed by Moses with wheat and barley, vines
and figs, oil olive and honey, was, in his account, one principal
recommendation of the promised land, Deut. viii, 8. The form of this
fruit was so beautiful, as to be honoured with a place at the bottom of
the high priest’s robe, Exodus xxviii, 33; Ecclus. xlv, 9; and was the
principal ornament of the stately columns of Solomon’s temple. The
inside is full of small kernels, replenished with a generous liquor. In
short there is scarcely any part of the pomegranate which does not
delight and recreate the senses.
PORTERS OF THE TEMPLE. The Levites discharged the office of porters of
the temple both day and night, and had the care both of the treasure and
offerings. The office of porter was in some sort military; properly
speaking, they were the soldiers of the Lord, and the guards of his
house, to whose charge the several gates of the courts of the sanctuary
were appointed by lot, 1 Chronicles xxvi, 1, 13, 19. They waited at
every gate; and were not permitted to depart from their service,” 2
Chron. xxxv, 15; and they attended by turns in their courses, as the
other Levites did, 2 Chron. viii, 14. Their proper business was to open
and shut the gates, and to attend at them by day, as a sort of peace
officers, in order to prevent any tumult among the people; to keep
strangers and the excommunicated and unclean persons, from entering into
the holy court; and, in short, to prevent whatever might be prejudicial
to the safety, peace, and purity of the holy place and service. They
also kept guard by night about the temple and its courts; and they are
said to have been twenty-four, including three priests, who stood sentry
at so many different places. There was a superior officer over the whole
guard, called by Maimonides, the man of the mountain of the house;” he
walked the round as often as he pleased; when he passed a sentinel that
was standing, he said, Peace be unto you;” but if he found one asleep,
he struck him, and he had liberty to set fire to his garment. This
custom may, perhaps, be alluded to in the following passage: Behold, I
come as a thief,” that is, unawares; blessed is he that watcheth and
keepeth his garments,” Rev. xvi, 15. Psalm cxxxiv, seems to be addressed
to these watchmen of the temple, who by night stand in the house of the
Lord;” in which they are exhorted to employ their waking hours in acts
of praise and devotion.
POST, a messenger or regulated courier, appointed to carry with
expedition the despatches of princes, or the letters of private persons
in general, Job ix, 25; Jer. li, 31; 2 Chron. xxx, 6; Esther iii, 13,
&c. It is thought that the use of posts is derived from the Persians.
Diodorus Siculus observes, that the kings of Persia, in order to have
intelligence of what was passed through all the provinces of their vast
dominions, placed centinels at eminences, at convenient distances, where
towers were built. These centinels gave notice of public occurrences
from one to another, with a very loud and shrill voice, by which news
was transmitted from one extremity of the kingdom to another with great
expedition. But as this could not be practised, except in the case of
general news, which it was expedient that the whole nation should be
acquainted with, Cyrus, as Xenophon relates, appointed couriers and
places for post horses, building on purpose on all the high roads houses
for the reception of the couriers, where they were to deliver their
packets to the next, and so on. This they did night and day, so that no
inclemency of weather was to stop them; and they are represented as
moving with astonishing speed. In the judgment of many they went faster
than cranes could fly. Herodotus owns, that nothing swifter was known
for a journey by land. Xerxes, in his famous expedition against Greece,
planted posts from the Ægean Sea to Shushan, or Susa, to send notice
thither of what might happen to his army; he placed these messengers
from station to station, to convey his packets, at such distances from
each other as a horse might easily travel.
POTTER. Frequent mention is made of the potter in Scripture, Jer. xviii,
3; Ecclus. xxxviii, 29, 30. Homer says, that the potter turns his wheel
with his hands. But at the present day, the wheel on which the work is
formed is turned by another.
POTTER’s FIELD, the land that was bought with the money for which Judas
sold our Saviour, Matt. xxvii, 7, 10, and which he returned. See
ACELDAMA.
PRAYER has been well defined, the offering up of our desires unto God,
for things agreeable to his will, in the name or through the mediation
of Jesus Christ, by the help of the Holy Spirit, with a confession of
our sins, and a thankful acknowledgment of his mercies. 1. Prayer is in
itself a becoming acknowledgment of the all-sufficiency of God, and of
our dependence upon him. It is his appointed means for the obtaining of
both temporal and spiritual blessings. He could bless his creatures in
another way: but he will be inquired of, to do for them those things of
which they stand in need, Ezek. xxxvi, 37. It is the act of an indigent
creature, seeking relief from the fountain of mercy. A sense of want
excites desire, and desire is the very essence of prayer. One thing have
I desired of the Lord,” says David: that will I seek after.” Prayer
without desire is like an altar without a sacrifice, or without the fire
from heaven to consume it. When all our wants are supplied, prayer will
be converted into praise; till then Christians must live by prayer, and
dwell at the mercy seat. God alone is able to hear and to supply their
every want. The revelation which he has given of his goodness lays a
foundation for our asking with confidence the blessings we need, and his
ability encourages us to hope for their bestowment. O thou that hearest
prayer; unto thee shall all flesh come,” Psalm lxv, 2. 2. Prayer is a
spiritual exercise, and can only be performed acceptably by the
assistance of the Holy Spirit, Rom. viii, 26. The sacrifice of the
wicked is an abomination to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is
his delight.” The Holy Spirit is the great agent in the world of grace,
and without his special influence there is no acceptable prayer. Hence
he is called the Spirit of grace and of supplication: for he it is that
enables us to draw nigh unto God, filling our mouth with arguments, and
teaching us to order our cause before him, Zech. xii, 10. 3. All
acceptable prayer must be offered in faith, or a believing frame of
mind. If any man lack wisdom, let him ask of God, who giveth to all men
liberally, and upbraideth not, and it shall be given him. But let him
ask in faith, nothing wavering--for let not the wavering man think that
he shall receive any thing of the Lord,” James i, 5–7. He that cometh
unto God must believe that he is, and that he is a rewarder of them that
diligently seek him,” Heb. xi, 6. It must be offered in the name of
Christ, believing in him as revealed in the word of God, placing in him
all our hope of acceptance, and exercising unfeigned confidence in his
atoning sacrifice and prevalent intercession. 4. Prayer is to be offered
for things agreeable to the will of God.” So the Apostle says: This is
the confidence that we have in him, that, if we ask any thing according
to his will, he heareth us; and if we know that he hear us, whatsoever
we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of him,” 1
John v, 14, 15. Our prayers must therefore be regulated by the revealed
will of God, and come within the compass of the promises. These are to
be the matter and the ground of our supplications. What God has not
particularly promised he may nevertheless possibly bestow; but what he
has promised he will assuredly perform. Of the good things promised to
Israel of old not one failed, but all came to pass; and in due time the
same shall be said of all the rest. 5. All this must be accompanied with
confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of God’s mercies.
These are two necessary ingredients in acceptable prayer. I prayed,”
says the Prophet Daniel, and made confession.” Sin is a burden, of which
confession unloads the soul. Father,” said the returning prodigal, I
have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight.” Thanksgiving is also as
necessary as confession; by the one we take shame to ourselves; by the
other, we give glory to God. By the one, we abase the creature; by the
other we exalt the Creator. In petitioning favours from God, we act like
dependent creatures; in confession, like sinners; but in thanksgiving,
like angels.