warnings vouchsafed to him and his servants, a sorer set of plagues,
affecting themselves, began to be inflicted; and Moses now, for the
first time, appears as the executioner of divine vengeance; for in the
presence of Pharaoh, by the divine command, he sprinkled ashes of the
furnace toward heaven, and it became a boil, breaking forth with blains
upon man and upon beast. And the magicians could not stand before Moses
because of the boil, which affected them and all the Egyptians, Exod.
ix, 8–11. This was a very significant plague: the furnace from which the
ashes were taken aptly represented the iron furnace” of Egyptian
bondage, Deut. iv, 20, and the scattering of the ashes in the air might
have referred to the usage of the Egyptians in their Typhonian
sacrifices of human victims; while it converted another of the elements,
and of their gods, the air, or ether, into an instrument of their
chastisement. And now the Lord,” for the first time, hardened the heart
of Pharaoh,” after he had so repeatedly hardened it himself, and he
hearkened not unto them, as the Lord had foretold unto Moses,” Exod. ix,
12. Though Pharaoh probably felt, the scourge of the boil, as well as
his people, it did not soften nor humble his heart; and when he wilfully
and obstinately turned away from the light, and shut his eyes against
the luminous evidences vouchsafed to him of the supremacy of the God of
the Hebrews, and had twice broken his promise when he was indulged with
a respite, and dealt deceitfully, he became a just object of punishment;
and God now began to increase the hardness or obduracy of his heart. And
such is the usual and the righteous course of his providence; when
nations or individuals despise the warnings of Heaven, abuse their best
gifts, and resist the means of grace, God then delivers them over to a
reprobate” or undiscerning mind, to work all uncleanness with
greediness,” Rom. i, 28.
In the tremendous plague of hail, the united elements of air, water, and
fire, were employed to terrify and punish the Egyptians by their
principal divinities. This plague was formally announced to Pharaoh and
his people: I will at this season send all my plagues upon thine heart,
and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, that thou mayest know that
there is none like me in all the earth. For now I could stretch out my
hand, and smite thee and thy people with pestilence,” or destroy thee at
once, like thy cattle with the murrain, and thou shouldest be cut off
from the earth; but, in truth, for this cause have I sustained thee,
that I might manifest in thee my power, and that my name might be
declared throughout the whole earth,” Exod. ix, 13–16. This rendering of
the passage is more conformable to the context, the Chaldee paraphrase,
and to Philo, than the received translation, For now I will stretch out
my hand, that I may smite thee and thy people with pestilence;” for
surely Pharaoh and his people were not smitten with pestilence; and they
were preserved” or kept from immediate destruction, according to the
Septuagint, διετηρήθης, to manifest the divine power,” by the number and
variety of their plagues. Still, however, in the midst of judgment, God
remembered mercy; he gave a gracious warning to the Egyptians, to avoid,
if they chose, the threatened calamity: Send, therefore, now, and gather
thy cattle, and all that thou hast in the field; every man and beast
that shall be found in the field, and shall not be brought home, the
hail shall come down upon them, and they shall die.” And this warning
had some effect: He that feared the word of the Lord among the servants
of Pharaoh, made his servants and his cattle flee into the houses; and
he that regarded not the word of the Lord, left his servants and his
cattle in the field,” Exod. ix, 17–21. But it may be asked, If all the
cattle of the Egyptians were destroyed by the foregoing plague of
murrain, as asserted Exod. ix, 6, how came there to be any cattle left?
Surely the Egyptians might have recruited their stock from the land of
Goshen, where not one of the cattle of the Israelites died.” And this
justifies the supposition, that there was some respite, or interval,
between the several plagues, and confirms the conjecture of the duration
of the whole, about a quarter of a year. And that the warning, in this
case, was respected by many of the Egyptians, we may infer from the
number of chariots and horsemen that went in pursuit of the Israelites
afterward. This was foretold to be a very grievous hail, such as had not
been in Egypt since the foundation thereof: and the Lord sent thunder
and hail, and the fire ran along the ground; and the hail smote
throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the field, both man and
beast; and the hail smote every herb of the field, and brake every tree
of the field. Only in the land of Goshen, where the children of Israel
were, there was no hail.” Pharaoh sent and called for Moses and Aaron,
and said unto them, I have sinned this time; the Lord is righteous, and
I and my people are wicked: entreat the Lord,” for it is enough, that
there might be no more mighty thunderings and hail; and I will let you
go, and ye shall stay no longer.” But when there was respite, Pharaoh
sinned yet more, and hardened his heart, he and his servants; neither
would he let the people go,” Exod. ix, 27–35. In this instance, there is
a remarkable suspension of the judicial infatuation. Pharaoh had humbled
himself, and acknowledged his own and his people’s guilt, and the
justice of the divine plague: the Lord, therefore, forbore this time to
harden his heart. But he abused the long sufferance of God, and this
additional respite; he sinned yet more, because he now sinned wilfully,
after he had received information of the truth; he relapsed, and
hardened his own heart a seventh time. He became, therefore, a vessel of
wrath, fitted to destruction,” Heb. x, 26; Rom. ix, 22.
The design of the eighth and the ensuing plagues, was to confirm the
faith of the Israelites: “That thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son,
and of thy son’s son, what I have wrought in Egypt, and my signs which I
have done among them; that ye may know how that I am the Lord.” This
plague of locusts, inflicted on the now devoted Egyptians and their
king, completed the havoc begun by the hail; by this the wheat and rye
were destroyed, and every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the
trees which the hail had left: and there remained not any verdure in the
trees, nor in the herbs of the field, throughout the land of Egypt. Very
grievous were they; before them were no such locusts as they, neither
after them shall there be such,” Exod. x, 3–15.
The awful plague of darkness over all the land of Egypt, for three days,
a thick darkness which might be felt,” in the emphatic language of
Scripture, was inflicted on the Egyptians, and their chief god, the sun;
and was, indeed, a most significant sign of the divine displeasure, and
of that mental darkness under which they now laboured. Their
consternation thereat is strongly represented by their total inaction;
neither rose any from his place for three days, petrified, as they were,
with horror. They were also scared with strange apparitions and visions,
while a heavy night was spread over them, an image of that darkness
which should afterward receive them. But yet, they were unto themselves
more grievous than that darkness,” Wisdom xvii, 3–21; Psalm lxxviii, 49.
This terrific and horrible plague compelled Pharaoh to relax; he offered
to let the men and their families go; but he wished to keep the flocks
and herds as security for their return; but Moses peremptorily declared,
that not a hoof should be left behind. Again “the Lord hardened
Pharaoh’s heart, so that he would not let them go,” Exod. x, 21–27. And
the Lord said unto Moses, Pharaoh shall not hearken unto you, that my
wonders may be multiplied in the land of Egypt. And Moses and Aaron did
all these wonders before Pharaoh; and the Lord” ultimately “hardened
Pharaoh’s heart, so that he would not let the children of Israel go out
of his land,” Exod. xi, 9, 10. This passage forms the conclusion to the
nine plagues, and should properly follow the preceding; for the result
of the tenth and last plague was foretold, that Pharaoh should not only
let them go, but surely thrust them out altogether, Exod. xi, 1.
The tenth plague was announced to Pharaoh with much solemnity: Thus
saith the Lord, About midnight will I go out into the midst of Egypt,
and all the first-born in the land of Egypt shall die, from the
first-born of Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne, even to the
first-born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill; and all the
first-born of cattle. And there shall be a great cry throughout the land
of Egypt, such as there was none like it, nor shall be any more. But
against any of the children of Israel shall not a dog move his tongue,
against man or beast; that ye may know, how that the Lord doth make a
difference between the Egyptians and Israel. And all these thy servants
shall come down unto me, and bow themselves unto me, saying, Get thee
out, and all the people that follow thee. And after that I will go out,”
Exod. xi, 4–8. Such a threat, delivered in so high a tone, both in the
name of the God of Israel and of Moses, did not fail to exasperate the
infatuated Pharaoh, and he said, Get thee from me; take heed to thyself;
see my face no more: for in the day thou seest my face thou shalt die.
And Moses said, Be it so as thou hast spoken; I will see thy face again
no more. And he went out from Pharaoh in great anger,” Exod. x, 28, 29;
xi, 8. And at midnight the Lord smote all the first-born in the land of
Egypt; and there was a great cry in Egypt, for there was not a house in
which there was not one dead,” Exod. xii, 1–30. This last tremendous
judgment is described with much sublimity in the book of Wisdom, xviii,
14–18.
For when all things were wrapt in still silence,
And night, in her proper speed, holding her mid course,
Thy all powerful oracle leapt down from heaven,
Out of the royal throne, a fierce warrior,
Into the midst of the land of destruction,
Wielding a sharp sword, thine unfeigned command,
And standing up, he filled the whole with death,
He touched the heavens, indeed, but trod upon the earth!”
And Pharaoh rose up in the night, he and all his servants, and all the
Egyptians; and he called for,” or sent to, Moses and Aaron by night, and
said, Get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of
Israel; and go, serve the Lord, as ye said; take also your flocks and
your herds, and be gone; and bless me also. And the Egyptians also were
urgent upon the people, to send them out of the land in haste; for they
said, We shall all be dead.” It is evident from the extreme urgency of
the occasion, when all the Egyptians apprehended total destruction, if
the departure of the Israelites was delayed any longer, that Pharaoh had
no personal interview with Moses and Aaron, which would have wasted
time, and was quite unnecessary; he only sent them a peremptory mandate
to be gone on their own terms. And the children of Israel did according
to the word of Moses; and they asked of the Egyptians jewels of silver,
and jewels of gold, and raiment. And the Lord gave the people favour in
the sight of the Egyptians, so that they freely gave what they required,
and they spoiled the Egyptians,” Exod. xii, 31–36, as originally
foretold to Abraham, Gen. xv, 14; and to Moses before the plagues began.
This was an act of perfect retributive justice, to make the Egyptians
pay for the long and laborious services of the Israelites, whom they had
unjustly enslaved, in violation of their charter.
The Israelites were thrust out of Egypt on the fifteenth day of the
first month, about six hundred thousand men on foot, beside women and
children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and flocks and
herds, even very much cattle,” Exod. xii, 37–38; Num. xi, 4; xxxiii, 3.
And they went out with a high hand; for the Lord went before them by
day, in a pillar of a cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in a
pillar of fire, to give them light, to go by day and night. He took not
away the pillar of the cloud by day, nor the pillar of fire by night,
from before the people,” Exod. xiii, 22; Num. ix, 15–23. And the motion
or rest of this divine guide regulated their marches, and their stations
or encampments during the whole of their route, Num. x, 33–36. See RED
SEA.
PLATONISTS. The Platonic philosophy is denominated from Plato, who was
born about B. C. 426. He founded the old academy on the opinions of
Heraclitus, Pythagoras, and Socrates; and by adding the information he
had acquired to their discoveries, he established a sect of
philosophers, who were esteemed more perfect than any who had before
appeared in the world. The outlines of Plato’s philosophical system were
as follows:--that there is one God, eternal, immutable, and immaterial;
perfect in wisdom and goodness, omniscient, and omnipresent: that this
all-perfect Being formed the universe out of a mass of eternally
preëxisting matter, to which he gave form and arrangement: that there is
in matter a necessary, but blind and refractory force, which resists the
will of the supreme Artificer, so that he cannot perfectly execute his
designs; and this is the cause of the mixture of good and evil which is
found in the material world: that the soul of man was derived by
emanation from God; but that this emanation was not immediate, but
through the intervention of the soul of the world, which was itself
debased by some material admixture: that the relation which the human
soul, in its original constitution, bears to matter, is the source of
moral evil; that when God formed the universe, he separated from the
soul of the world inferior souls, equal in number to the stars, and
assigned to each its proper celestial abode: that these souls were sent
down to earth to be imprisoned in mortal bodies; hence arose the
depravity and misery to which human nature is liable: that the soul is
immortal; and by disengaging itself from all animal passions, and rising
above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of
intelligence, it may be prepared to return to its original habitation:
that matter never suffers annihilation, but that the world will remain
for ever; and that by the action of its animating principle it
accomplishes certain periods, within which every thing returns to its
ancient place and state. This periodical revolution of nature is called
the Platonic, or great year.
The Platonic system makes the perfection of morality to consist in
living in conformity to the will of God, the only standard of truth, and
teaches that our highest good consists in the contemplation and
knowledge of the supreme Being. In this divine Being Plato admitted a
sort of trinity of _three hypostases_. The first he considered as
self-existent, calling him, by way of eminence, τὸ hὸν, the Being, or τὸ
hὲν, the One. The only attribute which he acknowledged in this person
was goodness; and therefore he frequently styles him, τὸ ἀγαθὸν, the
_good_. The second he considered as, νοῦς, the _mind_, or, λογὸς, the
_wisdom_ or _reason_ of the former, and the δημιȣργὸς, _maker of the
world_. The third he always speaks of as, ψυχὴ, the _soul_ of the world.
He taught that the second is a necessary emanation from the first, and
the third from the second, or perhaps from both; comparing these
emanations to those of light and heat from the sun. From the above use
of _Logos_ for the second person of the Platonic trinity, it has been
thought that St. John borrowed the term from Plato; but it is not likely
that this Apostle was conversant with his writings, and therefore both
Le Clerc and Dr. Campbell think it more probable that he took it from
the Old Testament. The end of all knowledge, or philosophy, according to
Plato, was to make us resemble the Deity as much as is compatible with
human nature. This likeness consists in the possession and practice of
all the moral virtues. After the death of Plato, many of his disciples
deviated from his doctrines. His school was then divided into the old,
the middle, and the new academy. The old academy strictly adhered to his
tenets. The middle academy partially receded from his system, without
entirely deserting it. The new academy almost entirely relinquished the
original doctrines of Plato, and verged toward the skeptical philosophy.
An infusion of Platonism, though in a perverted form, is seen in the
philosophy most prevalent in the times of the Apostles. It was Judaized
by the contemplative Hellenists, and, through them, their native Judaism
was Platonized. The eclectic philosophy added other ingredients to the
compound, from the oriental systems. All however issued in pride, and
the domination of bewildering and monstrous imaginations.
PLOUGH. The Syrian plough, which was probably used in all the regions
around, is a very simple frame, and commonly so light, that a man of
moderate strength might carry it in one hand. Volney states that in
Syria it is often nothing else than the branch of a tree cut below a
bifurcation, and used without wheels. It is drawn by asses and cows,
seldom by oxen. And Dr. Russel informs us, the ploughing of Syria is
performed often by a little cow, at most with two, and sometimes only by
an ass. In Persia it is for the most part drawn by one ox only, and not
unfrequently even by an ass, although it is more ponderous than in
Palestine. With such an imperfect instrument, the Syrian husbandman can
do little more than scratch the surface of his field, or clear away the
stones or weeds that encumber it, and prevent the seed from reaching the
soil. The ploughshare is a piece of iron, broad, but not large, which
tips the end of the shaft.” So much does it resemble the short sword
used by the ancient warriors, that it may with very little trouble, be
converted into that deadly weapon; and when the work of destruction is
over, reduced again into its former shape, and applied to the purposes
of agriculture. In allusion to the first operation, the Prophet Joel
summons the nations to leave their peaceful employments in the
cultivated field, and buckle on their armour: Beat your ploughshares
into swords, and your pruning hooks into spears,” Joel iii, 10. This
beautiful image the Prophet Isaiah has reversed, and applied to the
establishment of that profound and lasting peace which is to bless the
church of Christ in the latter days: And they shall beat their swords
into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not
lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more,”
Isaiah ii, 4. The plough used in Syria is so light and simple in its
construction, that the husbandman is under the necessity of guiding it
with great care, bending over it, and loading it with his own weight,
else the share would glide along the surface without making any
incision. His mind should be wholly intent on his work, at once to press
the plough into the ground, and direct it in a straight line. Let the
ploughman,” said Hesiod, attend to his charge, and look before him; not
turn aside to look on his associates, but make straight furrows, and
have his mind attentive to his work.” And Pliny: Unless the ploughman
stoop forward,” to press his plough into the soil, and conduct it
properly, he will turn it aside.” To such careful and incessant
exertion, our Lord alludes in that declaration, No man having put his
hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of heaven,”
Luke ix, 62.
POETRY OF THE HEBREWS. Among the books of the Old Testament, says Bishop
Lowth, there is such an apparent diversity in style, as sufficiently
discovers which of them are to be considered as poetical, and which as
prose. While the historical books and legislative writings of Moses are
evidently prosaic compositions, the book of Job, the Psalms of David,
the Song of Solomon, the Lamentations of Jeremiah, a great part of the
prophetical writings, and several passages scattered occasionally
through the historical books, carry the most plain and distinguishing
marks of poetical writing. There is not the least reason for doubting
that originally these were written in verse, or some kind of measured
numbers; though, as the ancient pronunciation of the Hebrew language is
now lost, we are not able to ascertain the nature of the Hebrew verse,
or at most can ascertain it but imperfectly. Let any person read the
historical introduction to the book of Job, contained in the first and
second chapters, and then go on to Job’s speech in the beginning of the
third chapter, and he cannot avoid being sensible that he passes all at
once from the region of prose to that of poetry. From the earliest times
music and poetry were cultivated among the Hebrews. In the days of the
judges mention is made of the schools or colleges of the prophets, where
one part of the employment of the persons trained in such schools was to
sing the praises of God, accompanied with various instruments. But in
the days of King David music and poetry were carried to the greatest
height. In 1 Chron. xxv, an account is given of David’s institutions
relating to the sacred music and poetry, which were certainly more
costly, more splendid and magnificent, than ever obtained in the public
service of any other nation. See PSALMS.
The general construction of the Hebrew poetry is of a singular nature,
and peculiar to itself. It consists in dividing every period into
correspondent, for the most part into equal, members, which answer to
one another both in sense and sound. In the first member of the period a
sentiment is expressed; and in the second member the same sentiment is
amplified, or is repeated in different terms, or sometimes contrasted
with its opposite; but in such a manner, that the same structure, and
nearly the same number of words, is preserved. This is the general
strain of all the Hebrew poetry. Instances of it occur every where on
opening the Old Testament. Thus, in Psalm xcvi:--
Sing unto the Lord a new song.
Sing unto the Lord, all the earth.
Sing unto the Lord, and bless his name.
Show forth his salvation from day to day.
Declare his glory among the Heathen,
His wonders among all the people.
For the Lord is great, and greatly to be praised.
He is to be feared above all the gods.
Honour and majesty are before him;
Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary.”
It is owing in a great measure to this form of composition, that our
version, though in prose, retains so much of a poetical cast: for, the
version being strictly word for word after the original, the form and
order of the original sentence are preserved; which, by this artificial
structure, this regular alternation and correspondence of parts, makes
the ear sensible of a departure from the common style and tone of prose.
The origin of this form of poetical composition among the Hebrews is
clearly to be deduced from the manner in which their sacred hymns were
wont to be sung. They were accompanied with music, and they were
performed by choirs or bands of singers and musicians, who answered
alternately to each other. When, for instance, one band began the hymn
thus: The Lord reigneth, let the earth rejoice;” the chorus, or
semi-chorus, took up the corresponding versicle, Let the multitude of
the isles be glad thereof.” “Clouds and darkness are round about him,”
sung the one; the other replied, Judgment and righteousness are the
habitation of his throne.” And in this manner their poetry, when set to
music, naturally divided itself into a succession of strophes and
antistrophes correspondent to each other; whence it is probable the
antiphon, or responsory, in the public religious service of so many
Christian churches, derived its origin. The twenty-fourth Psalm, in
particular, which is thought to have been composed on the great and
solemn occasion of the ark of the covenant being brought back to Mount
Zion, must have had a noble effect when performed after this manner, as
Dr. Lowth has illustrated it. The whole people are supposed to be
attending the procession. The Levites and singers, divided into their
several courses, and accompanied with all their musical instruments, led
the way. After the introduction to the Psalm, in the two first verses,
when the procession begins to ascend the sacred mount, the question is
put, as by a semi-chorus, Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord,
and who shall stand in his holy place?” The response is made by the full
chorus with the greatest dignity: He that hath clean hands and a pure
heart; who hath not lifted up his soul to vanity, nor sworn
deceitfully.” As the procession approaches to the doors of the
tabernacle, the chorus, with all their instruments, join in this
exclamation: Lift up your heads, ye gates, and be ye lifted up, ye
everlasting doors, and the King of glory shall come in.” Here the
semi-chorus plainly breaks in, as with a lower voice, Who is this King
of glory?” And at the moment when the ark is introduced into the
tabernacle, the response is made by the burst of the whole chorus: The
Lord, strong and mighty; the Lord, mighty in battle.”