One of the greatest and most remarkable literary enterprises of the 18th

century, the famous French _Encyclopedie_, originated in a French

translation of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_, begun in 1743 and

finished in 1745 by John Mills, an Englishman resident in France,

assisted by Gottfried Sellius, a very learned native of Danzig, who,

after being a professor at Halle and Gottingen, and residing in Holland,

had settled in Paris. They applied to Lebreton, the king's printer, to

publish the work, to fulfil the formalities required by French law, with

which, as foreigners, they were not acquainted, and to solicit a royal

privilege. This he obtained, but in his own name alone. Mills

complained so loudly and bitterly of this deception that Lebreton had

to acknowledge formally that the privilege belonged _en toute propriete_

to John Mills. But, as he again took care not to acquaint Mills with the

necessary legal formalities, this title soon became invalid. Mills then

agreed to grant him part of his privilege, and in May 1745 the work was

announced as _Encyclopedie ou dictionnaire universel des arts et des

sciences_, folio, four volumes of 250 to 260 sheets each, with a fifth

of at least 120 plates, and a vocabulary or list of articles in French,

Latin, German, Italian and Spanish, with other lists for each language

explained in French, so that foreigners might easily find any article

wanted. It was to be published by subscription at 135 livres, but for

large paper copies 200 livres, the first volume to be delivered in June

1746, and the two last at the end of 1748. The subscription list, which

was considerable, closed on the 31st of December 1745. Mills demanded an

account, which Lebreton, who had again omitted certain formalities,

insultingly refused. Mills brought an action against him, but before it

was decided Lebreton procured the revocation of the privilege as

informal, and obtained another for himself dated the 21st of January

1746. Thus, for unwittingly contravening regulations with which his

unscrupulous publisher ought to have made him acquainted, Mills was

despoiled of the work he had both planned and executed, and had to

return to England. Jean Paul de Gua de Malves, professor of philosophy

in the college of France (born at Carcassonne in 1713, died on the 15th

of June 1785), was then engaged as editor merely to correct errors and

add new discoveries. But he proposed a thorough revision, and obtained

the assistance of many learned men and artists, among whom Desessarts

names Louis, Condillac, d'Alembert and Diderot. But the publishers did

not think his reputation high enough to ensure success, withheld their

confidence, and often opposed his plans as too expensive. Tired at last

of disputes, and too easily offended, de Gua resigned the editorship.

The publishers, who had already made heavy advances, offered it to

Diderot, who was probably recommended to them by his very well received

_Dictionnaire universel de medicine_, Paris, 1746-1748, fol. 6 vols.,

published by Briasson, David and Durand, with notes and additions by

Julien Busson, doctor regent of the faculty of medicine of Paris. It was

a translation, made with the assistance of Eidous and Toussaint, of the

celebrated work of Dr Robert James, inventor of the fever powders, _A

Medicinal Dictionary_, London, 1743-1745, fol. 3 vols., 3275 pages and

98 plates, comprising a history of drugs, with chemistry, botany and

natural history so far as they relate to medicine, and with an

historical preface of 99 pages (in the translation 136). The proposed

work was to have been similar in character. De Gua's papers were handed

over to Diderot in great confusion. He soon persuaded the publishers to

undertake a far more original and comprehensive work. His friend

d'Alembert undertook to edit the mathematics. Other subjects were

allotted to 21 contributors, each of whom received the articles on this

subject in Mills' translation to serve as a basis for his work. But they

were in most cases so badly composed and translated, so full of errors

and omissions, that they were not used. The contributions were to be

finished in three months, but none was ready in time, except Music by

Rousseau, which he admits was hastily and badly done. Diderot was

imprisoned at Vincennes, on the 29th of July 1749, for his _Lettre sur

les aveugles_. He was closely confined for 28 days, and was then for

three months and ten days a prisoner on parole in the castle. This did

not stop the printing, though it caused delay. The prospectus by Diderot

appeared in November 1750. The work was to form 8 vols. fol., with at

least 600 plates. The first volume was published in July 1751, and

delivered to the subscribers in August. The second appeared in January

1752. An _arret_ of the council, 9th of February, suppressed both

volumes as injurious to the king's authority and to religion.

Malesherbes, director-general of the Librairie, stopped the issue of

volume ii., 9th of February, and on the 21st went with a _lettre de

cachet_ to Lebreton's to seize the plates and the MSS., but did not

find, says Barbier, even those of volume iii., as they had been taken to

his own house by Diderot and one of the publishers. The Jesuits tried

to continue the work, but in vain. It was less easy, says Grimm, than to

ruin philosophers. The _Dictionnaire de Trevoux_ pronounced the

completion of the _Encyclopedie_ impossible, and the project ridiculous

(5th edition, 1752, iii, 750). The government had to request the editors

to resume the work as one honourable to the nation. The marquis

d'Argenson writes, 7th of May 1752, that Mme de Pompadour had been

urging them to proceed, and at the end of June he reports them as again

at work. Volume iii., rather improved by the delay, appeared in October

1753; and volume vii., completing G, in November 1757. The clamours

against the work soon recommenced. D' Alembert retired in January 1758,

weary of sermons, satires and intolerant and absurd censors. The

parlement of Paris, by an _arret_, 23rd of January 1759, stopped the

sale and distribution of the _Encyclopedie_, Helvetius's _De l'Esprit_,

and six other books; and by an _arret_, 6th February, ordered them all

to be burnt, but referred the _Encyclopedie_ for examination to a

commission of nine. An _arret du conseil_, 7th of March, revoked the

privilege of 1746, and stopped the printing. Volume viii. was then in

the press. Malesherbes warned Diderot that he would have his papers

seized next day; and when Diderot said he could not make a selection, or

find a place of safety at such short notice, Malesherbes said, "Send

them to me, they will not look for them there." This, according to Mme

de Vandeul, Diderot's daughter, was done with perfect success. In the

article Pardonner Diderot refers to these persecutions, and says, "In

the space of some months we have seen our honour, fortune, liberty and

life imperilled." Malesherbes, Choiseul and Mme de Pompadour protected

the work; Diderot obtained private permission to go on printing, but

with a strict charge not to publish any part until the whole was

finished. The Jesuits were condemned by the parlement of Paris in 1762,

and by the king in November 1764. Volume i. of plates appeared in 1762,

and volumes viii. to xvii., ten volumes of text, 9408 pages, completing

the work, with the 4th volume of plates in 1765, when there were 4250

subscribers. The work circulated freely in the provinces and in foreign

countries, and was secretly distributed in Paris and Versailles. The

general assembly of the clergy, on the 20th of June 1765, approved

articles in which it was condemned, and on the 27th of September adopted

a _memoire_ to be presented to the king. They were forbidden to publish

their acts which favoured the Jesuits, but Lebreton was required to give

a list of his subscribers, and was put into the Bastille for eight days

in 1766. A royal order was sent to the subscribers to deliver their

copies to the lieutenant of police. Voltaire in 1774 relates that, at a

_petit souper_ of the king at Trianon, there was a debate on the

composition of gunpowder. Mme de Pompadour said she did not know how her

rouge or her silk stockings were made. The duc de la Valliere regretted

that the king had confiscated their encyclopaedias, which could decide

everything. The king said he had been told that the work was most

dangerous, but as he wished to judge for himself, he sent for a copy.

Three servants with difficulty brought in the 21 volumes. The company

found everything they looked for, and the king allowed the confiscated

copies to be returned. Mme de Pompadour died on the 15th of April 1764.

Lebreton had half of the property in the work, and Durand, David and

Briasson had the rest. Lebreton, who had the largest printing office in

Paris, employed 50 workmen in printing the last ten volumes. He had the

articles set in type exactly as the authors sent them in, and when

Diderot had corrected the last proof of each sheet, he and his foreman,

hastily, secretly and by night, unknown to his partners in the work, cut

out whatever seemed to them daring, or likely to give offence, mutilated

most of the best articles without any regard to the consecutiveness of

what was left, and burnt the manuscript as they proceeded. The printing

of the work was nearly finished when Diderot, having to consult one of

his great philosophical articles in the letter S, found it entirely

mutilated. He was confounded, says Grimm, at discovering the atrocity of

the printer; all the best articles were in the same confusion. This

discovery put him into a state of frenzy and despair from rage and

grief. His daughter never heard him speak coolly on the subject, and

after twenty years it still made him angry. He believed that every one

knew as well as he did what was wanting in each article, but in fact the

mutilation was not perceived even by the authors, and for many years was

known to few persons. Diderot at first refused to correct the remaining

proofs, or to do more than write the explanations of the plates. He

required, according to Mme de Vandeul, that a copy, now at St Petersburg

with his library, should be printed with columns in which all was

restored. The mutilations began as far back as the article Intendant.

But how far, says Rosenkranz, this murderous, incredible and infamous

operation was carried cannot now be exactly ascertained. Diderot's

articles, not including those on arts and trades, were reprinted in

Naigeon's edition (Paris, 1821, 8vo, 22 vols.). They fill 4132 pages,

and number 1139, of which 601 were written for the last ten volumes.

They are on very many subjects, but principally on grammar, history,

morality, philosophy, literature and metaphysics. As a contributor, his

special department of the work was philosophy, and arts and trades. He

passed whole days in workshops, and began by examining a machine

carefully, then he had it taken to pieces and put together again, then

he watched it at work, and lastly worked it himself. He thus learned to

use such complicated machines as the stocking and cut velvet looms. He

at first received 1200 livres a year as editor, but afterwards 2500

livres a volume, besides a final sum of 20,000 livres. Although after

his engagement he did not suffer from poverty as he had done before, he

was obliged to sell his library in order to provide for his daughter. De

Jaucourt spared neither time, trouble nor expense in perfecting the

work, for which he received nothing, and he employed several secretaries

at it for ten years. To pay them he had to sell his house in Paris,

which Lebreton bought with the profits derived from De Jaucourt's work.

All the publishers made large fortunes; their expenses amounted to

1,158,000 livres and their profits to 2,162,000. D'Alembert's "Discours

Preliminaire," 45 pages, written in 1750, prefixed to the first volume,

and delivered before the French Academy on his reception on the 19th of

December 1754, consists of a systematic arrangement of the various

branches of knowledge, and an account of their progress since their

revival. His system, chiefly taken from Bacon, divides them into three

classes, under memory, reason and imagination. Arts and trades are

placed under natural history, superstition and magic under science de

Dieu, and orthography and heraldry under logic. The literary world is

divided into three corresponding classes--_erudits_, _philosophes_ and

_beaux esprits_. As in Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_, history and

biography were excluded, except incidentally; thus Aristotle's life is

given in the article Aristotelisme. The science to which an article

belongs is generally named at the beginning of it, references are given

to other articles, and the authors' names are marked by initials, of

which lists are given in the earlier volumes, but sometimes their names

are subscribed in full. Articles by Diderot have no mark, and those

inserted by him as editor have an asterisk prefixed. Among the

contributors were Voltaire, Euler, Marmontel, Montesquieu, D'Anville,

D'Holbach and Turgot, the leader of the new school of economists which

made its first appearance in the pages of the _Encyclopedie_. Louis

wrote the surgery, Daubenton natural history, Eidous heraldry and art,

Toussaint jurisprudence, and Condamine articles on South America.

No encyclopaedia perhaps has been of such political importance, or has

occupied so conspicuous a place in the civil and literary history of

its century. It sought not only to give information, but to guide

opinion. It was, as Rosenkranz says (_Diderot_, i. 157), theistic and

heretical. It was opposed to the church, then all-powerful in France,

and it treated dogma historically. It was, as Desnoiresterres says

(_Voltaire_, v. 164), a war machine; as it progressed, its attacks

both on the church and the still more despotic government, as well as

on Christianity itself, became bolder and more undisguised, and it was

met by opposition and persecution unparalleled in the history of

encyclopaedias. Its execution is very unequal, and its articles of

very different value. It was not constructed on a regular plan, or

subjected to sufficient supervision; articles were sent in by the

contributors, and not seen by the editors until they were in type. In

each subject there are some excellent articles, but others are very

inferior or altogether omitted, and references are often given to

articles which do not exist. Thus marine is said to be more than

three-fourths deficient; and in geography errors and omissions

abound--even capitals and sovereign states are overlooked, while

villages are given as towns, and towns are described which never

existed. The style is too generally loose, digressive and inexact;

dates are seldom given; and discursiveness, verbosity and dogmatism

are frequent faults. Voltaire was constantly demanding truth, brevity

and method, and said it was built half of marble and half of wood.

D'Alembert compared it to a harlequin's coat, in which there is some

good stuff but too many rags. Diderot was dissatisfied with it as a

whole; much of it was compiled in haste; and carelessly written

articles and incompetent contributors were admitted for want of money

to pay good writers. Zedler's _Universal Lexicon_ is on the whole much

more useful for reference than its far more brilliant successor. The

permanent value of encyclopaedias depends on the proportion of exact

and precise facts they contain and on their systematic regularity.

The first edition of the _Encyclopedie_, in 17 vols. folio, 16,288

pages, was imitated by a counterfeit edition printed at Geneva as the

volumes appeared in Paris. Eleven folio volumes of plates were

published at Paris (1762 to 1772), containing 2888 plates and 923

pages of explanation, &c. A supplement was printed at Amsterdam and

Paris (1776-1777), fol. 5 vols., 3874 pages, with 224 plates. History

was introduced at the wish of the public, but only "the general

features which mark epochs in the annals of the world." The astronomy

was by Delalande, mathematics by Condorcet, tables by Bernouilli,

natural history by Adanson, anatomy and physiology by Haller.

Daubenton, Condamine, Marmontel and other old contributors wrote many

articles, and several were taken from foreign editions. A very full

and elaborate index of the articles and subjects of the 33 volumes was

printed at Amsterdam in 1780, fol. 2 vols. 1852 pages. It was made by

Pierre Mouchon, who was born at Geneva on the 30th of July 1735,

consecrated minister on the 18th of August 1758, pastor of the French

church at Basel 1766, elected a pastor in Geneva on the 6th of March

1788, principal of the college there 22nd of April 1791, died on the

20th of August 1797. This _Table analytique_, which took him five

years to make, was undertaken for the publishers Cramer and De

Tournes, who gave him 800 louis for it. Though very exact and full, he

designedly omits the attacks on Christianity. This index was rendered

more useful and indispensable by the very diffuse and digressive style

of the work, and by the vast number of its articles. A complete copy

of the first edition of the _Encyclopedie_ consists of 35 vols. fol.,

printed 1751-1780, containing 23,135 pages and 3132 plates. It was

written by about 160 contributors. About 1761 Panckoucke and other

publishers in Paris proposed a new and revised edition, and bought the

plates for 250,000 livres. But, as Diderot indignantly refused to edit

what he considered a fraud on the subscribers to the as yet unfinished

work, they began simply to reprint the work, promising supplementary

volumes. When three volumes were printed the whole was seized in 1770

by the government at the complaint of the clergy, and was lodged in

the Bastille. The plan of a second French edition was laid aside then,

to be revived twenty years later in a very different form. Foreign

editions of the _Encyclopedie_ are numerous, and it is difficult to

enumerate them correctly. One, with notes by Ottavio Diodati, Dr

Sebastiano Paoli and Carlo Giuliani, appeared at Lucca (1758-1771),

fol. 17 vols. of text and 10 of plates. Though it was very much

expurgated, all engaged in it were excommunicated by the pope in 1759.

An attempt made at Siena to publish an Italian translation failed. An

addition by the abbe Serafini and Dr Gonnella (Livourne, 1770), &c.,

fol. 33 vols., returned a profit of 60,000 piastres, and was protected

by Leopold II., who secured the pope's silence. Other editions are

Geneve, Cramer (1772-1776), a facsimile reprint. Geneve, Pellet

(1777-1779), 4to, 36 vols. of text and 3 of plates, with 6 vols. of

Mouchon's index (Lyon, 1780), 4to; Geneve et Neufchatel, Pellet

(1778-1779), 4to, 36 vols. of text and 3 of plates; Lausanne

(1778-1781), 36 vols. 4to, or 72 octavo, of text and 3 of plates

(1779-1780); Lausanne et Bern, chez les Societes Typographiques

(1780-1782), 36 vols. 8vo of text and 3 vols. 4to of plates (1782).

These four editions have the supplement incorporated. Fortune

Barthelemy de Felice, an Italian monk, born at Rome on the 24th of

August 1723, who had been professor at Rome and Naples, and had become

a Protestant, printed a very incorrect though successful edition

(Yverdun, 1770-1780) 4to, 42 vols. of text, 5 of supplement and 10 of

plates. It professed to be a new work, standing in the same

relationship to the _Encyclopedie_ as that did to Chambers's, which is

far from being the case. Sir Joseph Ayloffe issued proposals, 14th

December 1751, for an English translation of the _Encyclopedie_, to be

finished by Christmas 1756, in 10 vols. 4to, with at least 600 plates.

No. 1 appeared in January 1752, but met with little success. Several

selections of articles and extracts have been published under the

title of _L'Esprit de l'Encyclopedie_. The last was by Hennequin

(Paris, 1822-1823), 8vo, 15 vols. An English selection is _Select

Essays from the Encyclopedy_ (London, 1773), 8vo. The articles of most

of the principal contributors have been reprinted in the editions of

their respective works. Voltaire wrote 8 vols. 8vo of a kind of

fragmentary supplement, _Questions sur l'Encyclopedie_, frequently

printed, and usually included in editions of his works, together with

his contributions to the _Encyclopedie_ and his _Dictionnaire

philosophique_. Several special dictionaries have been formed from the

_Encyclopedie_, as the _Dictionnaire portatif des arts et metiers_

(Paris, 1766), 8vo, 2 vols. about 1300 pages, by Philippe Macquer,

brother of the author of the _Dict. de chimie_. An enlarged edition by

the abbe Jaubert (Paris, 1773), 5 vols. 8vo, 3017 pages, was much

valued and often reprinted. The books attacking and defending the

_Encyclopedie_ are very many. No original work of the 18th century,

says Lanfrey, has been more depreciated, ridiculed and calumniated. It

has been called chaos, nothingness, the Tower of Babel, a work of

disorder and destruction, the gospel of Satan and even the ruins of

Palmyra.

The _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, "by a society of gentlemen in Scotland,

printed in Edinburgh for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar, and sold by Colin

Macfarquhar at his printing office in Nicolson Street," was completed in

1771 in 3 volumes 4to, containing 2670 pages, and 160 copperplates

engraved by Andrew Bell. It was published in numbers, of which the two

first were issued in December 1768, "price 6d. each, or 8d on a finer

paper," and was to be completed in 100 weekly numbers. It was compiled,

as the title-page says, on a new plan. The different sciences and arts

were "digested into distinct treatises or systems," of which there are

45 with cross headings, that is, titles printed across the page, and

about 30 other articles more than three pages long. The longest are

"Anatomy," 166 pages, and "Surgery," 238 pages. "The various technical

terms, &c., are explained as they occur in the order of the alphabet."

"Instead of dismembering the sciences, by attempting to treat them

intelligibly under a multitude of technical terms, they have digested

the principles of every science in the form of systems or distinct

treatises, and explained the terms as they occur in the order of the

alphabet, with references to the sciences to which they belong." This

plan, as the compilers say, differs from that of all the previous

dictionaries of arts and sciences. Its merit and novelty consist in the

combination of De Coetlogon's plan with that in common use,--on the one

hand keeping important subjects together, and on the other facilitating

reference by numerous separate articles. It is doubtful to whom the

credit of this plan is due. The editor, William Smellie, a printer (born

in 1740, died on the 24th of June 1795), afterwards secretary and

superintendent of natural history to the Society of Scottish

Antiquaries, is said by his biographer to have devised the plan and

written or compiled all the chief articles; and he prints, but without

date, part of a letter written and signed by Andrew Bell by which he was

engaged in the work:--"Sir, As we are engaged in publishing a dictionary

of the arts and sciences, and as you have informed us that there are

fifteen capital sciences which you will undertake for and write up the

subdivisions and detached parts of these conform to your plan, and

likewise to prepare the whole work for the press, &c., &c., we hereby

agree to allow you L200 for your trouble, &c." Prof. Macvey Napier says

that Smellie "was more likely to have suggested that great improvement

than any of his known coadjutors." Archibald Constable, who was

interested in the work from 1788, and was afterwards intimately

acquainted with Bell, says Colin Macfarquhar was the actual projector of

the _Encyclopaedia_, and the editor of the two first editions, while

Smellie was merely "a contributor for hire" (_Memoirs_, ii. 311). Dr

Gleig, in his preface to the third edition, says: "The idea had been

conceived by him (Colin Macfarquhar) and his friend Mr Andrew Bell,

engraver. By whom these gentlemen were assisted in digesting the plan

which attracted to that work so much public attention, or whether they

had any assistance, are questions in which our readers cannot be

interested." Macfarquhar, according to Constable, was a person of

excellent taste and very general knowledge, though at starting he had

little or no capital, and was obliged to associate Bell, then the

principal engraver in Edinburgh, as a partner in his undertaking.

The second edition was begun in 1776, and was published in numbers, of

which the first was issued on the 21st of June 1777, and the last, No.

181, on the 18th of September 1784, forming 10 vols. 4to, dated 1778 to

1783, and containing 8595 pages and 340 plates. The pagination is

continuous, ending with page 9200, but 295 pages are inserted in

various places, and page 7099 is followed by 8000. The number and length

of the articles were much increased, 72 have cross headings, and more

than 150 others may be classed as long articles. At the end is an

appendix ("Abatement" to "Wood") of 200 pages, containing, under the

heading Botanical Table, a list of the 931 genera included in the 58

natural orders of Linnaeus, and followed by a list of 526 books, said to

have been the principal authorities used. All the maps are placed

together under the article "Geography" (195 pages). Most of the long

articles have numbered marginal titles; "Scotland," 84 pages, has 837.

"Medicine," 309 pages, and "Pharmacy" have each an index. The plan of

the work was enlarged by the addition of history and biography, which

encyclopaedias in general had long omitted. "From the time of the second

edition of this work, every cyclopaedia of note, in England and

elsewhere, has been a cyclopaedia, not solely of arts and sciences, but

of the whole wide circle of general learning and miscellaneous

information" (_Quarterly Review_, cxiii. 362). Smellie was applied to by

Bell to edit the second edition, and to take a share of one-third in the

work; but he refused, because the other persons concerned in it, at the

suggestion of "a very distinguished nobleman of very high rank" (said by

Professor Napier to have been the duke of Buccleuch), insisted upon the

introduction of a system of general biography which he considered

inconsistent with the character of a dictionary of arts and sciences.

James Tytler, M.A., seems to have been selected as the next most

eligible compiler. His father, a man of extensive knowledge, was 53

years minister of Fearn in Forfarshire, and died in 1785. Tytler

(outlawed by the High Court of Justiciary, 7th of January 1793, buried

at Salem in Massachusetts on the 11th of January 1804, aged fifty-eight)

"wrote," says Watt, "many of the scientific treatises and histories, and

almost all the minor articles" (_Bibliotheca Brit._).

After about a year's preparation, the third edition was announced in

1787; the first number was published early in 1788, and the first volume

in October 1788. There were to be 300 weekly numbers, price 1s. each,

forming 30 parts at 10s. 6d. each, and 15 volumes, with 360 plates. It

was completed in 1797 in 18 vols. 4to, containing 14,579 pages and 542

plates. Among the multifarious articles represented in the frontispiece,

which was required by the traditional fashion of the period, is a

balloon. The maps are, as in subsequent editions, distributed among the

articles relating to the respective countries. It was edited by Colin

Macfarquhar as far as the article "Mysteries" (by Dr Doig, vol. xii.),

when he died, on the 2nd of April 1793, in his forty-eighth year, "worn

out," says Constable, "by fatigue and anxiety of mind." His children's

trustees and Andrew Bell requested George Gleig of Stirling (consecrated

on the 30th of October 1808 assistant and successor to the bishop of

Brechin), who had written about twelve articles, to edit the rest of the

work; "and for the time, and the limited sum allowed him for the reward

of contributors, his part in the work was considered very well done"

(Constable, ii. 312). Professor Robison was induced by Gleig to become a

contributor. He first revised the article "Optics," and then wrote a

series of articles on natural philosophy, which attracted great

attention and were long highly esteemed by scientific men. The

sub-editors were James Walker (Primus Scotiae Episcopus 27th of May

1837, died on the 5th of March 1841, aged seventy) until 1795, then

James Thomson, succeeded in November 1796 by his brother Thomas,

afterwards professor of chemistry at Glasgow, who remained connected

with the _Encyclopaedia_ until 1800. According to Kerr (_Smellie's

Life_, i. 364-365), 10,000 copies were printed, and the profit to the

proprietors was L42,000, besides the payments for their respective work

in the conduct of the publication as tradesmen,--Bell as engraver of all

the plates, and Macfarquhar as sole printer. According to Constable

(_Memoirs_, ii. 312), the impression was begun at 5000 copies, and

concluded with a sale of 13,000. James Hunter, "an active bookseller of

no character," who had a shop in Middle Row, Holborn, sold the book to

the trade, and on his failure Thomson Bonar, a wine merchant, who had

married Bell's daughter, became the seller of the book. He quarrelled

with his father-in-law, who would not see him for ten years before his

death in 1809. When the edition was completed, the copyright and

remaining books were sold in order to wind up the concern, and "the

whole was purchased by Bell, who gave L13 a copy, sold all the complete

copies to the trade, printed up the odd volumes, and thus kept the work

in the market for several years" (Constable, ii. 312)

The supplement of the third edition, printed for Thomson Bonar, and

edited by Gleig, was published in 1801 in 2 vols. 4to, containing 1624

pages and 50 copperplates engraved by D. Lizars. In the dedication to

the king, dated Stirling, 10th December 1800, Dr Gleig says: "The French

_Encyclopedie_ had been accused, and justly accused, of having

disseminated far and wide the seeds of anarchy and atheism. If the

_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ shall in any degree counteract the tendency

of that pestiferous work, even these two volumes will not be wholly

unworthy of your Majesty's attention." Professor Robison added 19

articles to the series he had begun when the third edition was so far

advanced. Professor Playfair assisted in "Mathematics." Dr Thomas

Thomson wrote "Chemistry," "Mineralogy" and other articles, in which the

use of symbols was for the first time introduced into chemistry; and

these articles formed the first outline of his _System of Chemistry_,

published at Edinburgh in 1802, 8vo, 4 vols.; the sixth edition, 1821.

The fourth edition, printed for Andrew Bell, was begun in 1800 or 1801,

and finished in 1810 in 20 vols. 4to, containing 16,033 pages, with 581

plates engraved by Bell. The dedication to the king, signed Andrew Bell,

is dated Lauristoun, Edinburgh, 1809. The preface is that of the third

edition with the necessary alterations and additions in the latter part.

No articles were reprinted from the supplement, as Bell had not the

copyright. Professor Wallace's articles on mathematics were much valued,

and raised the scientific character of the work. Dr Thomas Thomson

declined the editorship, and recommended Dr James Millar, afterwards

editor of the _Encyclopaedia Edinensis_ (died on the 13th of July 1827).

He was fond of natural history and a good chemist, but, according to

Constable, slow and dilatory and not well qualified. Andrew Bell died on

the 10th of June 1809, aged eighty-three, "leaving," says Constable,

"two sets of trustees, one literary to make the money, the other legal

to lay it out after it was made." The edition began with 1250 copies and

concluded at 4000, of which two-thirds passed through the hands of

Constable's firm. Early in 1804 Andrew Bell had offered Constable and

his partner Hunter the copyright of the work, printing materials, &c.,

and all that was then printed of the fourth edition, for L20,000. This

offer was in agitation in March 1804, when the two partners were in

London. On the 5th of May 1804, after Lord Jeffrey's arrival in

Edinburgh, as he relates to Francis Horner, they entrusted him with a

design, on which he found that most of his friends had embarked with

great eagerness, "for publishing an entire new encyclopaedia upon an

improved plan. Stewart, I understand, is to lend his name, and to write

the preliminary discourse, besides other articles. Playfair is to

superintend the mathematical department, and Robison the natural

philosophy. Thomas Thomson is extremely zealous in the cause. W. Scott

has embraced it with great affection.... The authors are to be paid at

least as well as reviewers, and are to retain the copyright of their

articles for separate publication if they think proper" (Cockburn, _Life

of Lord Jeffrey_, 1852, ii. 90). It was then, perhaps, that Constable

gave L100 to Bonar for the copyright of the supplement.

The fifth edition was begun immediately after the fourth as a mere

reprint. "The management of the edition, or rather mismanagement, went

on under the _lawyer trustees_ for several years, and at last the

whole property was again brought to the market by public sale. There

were about 1800 copies printed of the five first volumes, which formed

one lot, the copyright formed another lot, and so on. The whole was

purchased by myself and in my name for between L13,000 and L14,000,

and it was said by the wise booksellers of Edinburgh and others that

I had completely ruined myself and all connected with me by a purchase

to such an enormous amount; this was early in 1812" (Constable, ii.

314). Bonar, who lived next door to the printing office, thought he

could conduct the book, and had resolved on the purchase. Having a

good deal of money, he seemed to Constable a formidable rival, whose

alliance was to be secured. After "sundry interviews" it was agreed

that Constable should buy the copyright in his own name, and that

Bonar should have one-third, and also one-third of the copyright of

the supplement, for which he gave L200. Dr James Millar corrected and

revised the last 15 volumes. The preface is dated the 1st of December

1814. The printing was superintended by Bonar, who died on the 26th of

July 1814. His trustees were repaid his advances on the work, about

L6000, and the copyright was valued at L11,000, of which they received

one-third, Constable adding L500, as the book had been so extremely

successful. It was published in 20 vols., 16,017 pages, 582 plates,

price L36, and dated 1817.

Soon after the purchase of the copyright, Constable began to prepare

for the publication of a supplement, to be of four or, at the very

utmost, five volumes. "The first article arranged for was one on

'Chemistry' by Sir Humphry Davy, but he went abroad [in October 1813]

and I released him from his engagement, and employed Mr Brande; the

second article was Mr Stewart's Dissertation, for which I agreed to

pay him L1000, leaving the extent of it to himself, but with this

understanding, that it was not to be under ten sheets, and might

extend to twenty" (Constable, ii. 318). Dugald Stewart, in a letter to

Constable, the 15th of November 1812, though he declines to engage to

execute any of his own suggestions, recommends that four discourses

should "stand in front," forming "a general map of the various

departments of human knowledge," similar to "the excellent discourse

prefixed by D'Alembert to the French _Encyclopedie_," together with

historical sketches of the progress since Bacon's time of modern

discoveries in metaphysical, moral and political philosophy, in

mathematics and physics, in chemistry, and in zoology, botany and

mineralogy. He would only promise to undertake the general map and the

first historical sketch, if his health and other engagements

permitted, after the second volume of his _Philosophy of the Human

Mind_ (published in 1813) had gone to press. For the second he

recommended Playfair, for chemistry Sir Humphry Davy. He received

L1000 for the first part of his dissertation (166 pages), and L700 for

the second (257 pages), the right of publication being limited to the

Supplement and _Encyclopaedia_. Constable next contracted with

Professor Playfair for a dissertation "to be equal in length or not to

Mr Stewart's, for L250; but a short time afterwards I felt that to pay

one eminent individual L1000 because he would not take less would be

quite unfair, and I wrote to the worthy Professor that I had fixed his

payment at L500." Constable gave him L500 for the first part (127

pages), and would have given as much for the second (90 pages) if it

had been as long. His next object was to find out the greatest defects

in the book, and he gave Professor Leslie L200 and Graham Dalyell L100

for looking over it. He then wrote out a prospectus and submitted it

in print to Stewart, "but the cautious philosopher referred" him to

Playfair, who "returned it next day very greatly improved." For this

Constable sent him six dozen of very fine old sherry, only feeling

regret that he had nothing better to offer. He at first intended to

have two editors, "one for the strictly literary and the other for the

scientific department." He applied to Dr Thomas Brown, who "preferred

writing trash of poetry to useful and lucrative employment." At last

he fixed on Mr Macvey Napier (born 1777), whom he had known from 1798,

and who "had been a hard student, and at college laid a good

foundation for his future career, though more perhaps in general

information than in what would be, strictly speaking, called

scholarship; this, however, does not fit him the less for his present

task." Constable, in a letter dated the 11th of June 1813, offered him

L300 before the first part went to press, L150 on the completion at

press of each of the eight half volumes, L500 if the work was

reprinted or extended beyond 7000 copies and L200 for incidental

expenses. "In this way the composition of the four volumes, including

the introductory dissertations, will amount to considerably more than

L9000." In a postscript the certain payment is characteristically

increased to L1575, the contingent to L735, and the allowance for

incidental expenses to L300 (Constable, ii. 326). Napier went to

London, and obtained the co-operation of many literary men. The

supplement was published in half-volume parts from December 1816 to

April 1824. It formed six volumes 4to, containing 4933 pages, 125

plates, 9 maps, three dissertations and 669 articles, of which a list

is given at the end. The first dissertation, on the "progress of

metaphysical, ethical and political philosophy," was by Stewart, who

completed his plan only in respect to metaphysics. He had thought it

would be easy to adapt the intellectual map or general survey of human

knowledge, sketched by Bacon and improved by D'Alembert, to the

advanced state of the sciences, while its unrivalled authority would

have softened criticism. But on closer examination he found the

logical views on which this systematic arrangement was based

essentially erroneous; and, doubting whether the time had come for a

successful repetition of this bold experiment, he forebore to

substitute a new scheme of his own. Sir James Mackintosh characterized

this discourse as "the most splendid of Mr. Stewart's works, a

composition which no other living writer of English prose has

equalled" (_Edinburgh Review_, xxvii. 191, September 1816). The second

dissertation, "On the progress of mathematics and physics," was by

Playfair, who died 19th July 1819, when he had only finished the

period of Newton and Leibnitz. The third, by Professor Brande, "On the

progress of chemistry from the early middle ages to 1800," was the

only one completed. These historical dissertations were admirable and

delightful compositions, and important and interesting additions to

the _Encyclopaedia_; but it is difficult to see why they should form a

separate department distinct from the general alphabet. The preface,

dated March 1824, begins with an account of the more important

previous encyclopaedias, relates the history of this to the sixth

edition, describes the preparation for the supplement and gives an

"outline of the contents," and mentions under each great division of

knowledge the principal articles and their authors' names, often with

remarks on the characters of both. Among the distinguished

contributors were Leslie, Playfair, Ivory, Sir John Barrow, Tredgold,

Jeffrey, John Bird Sumner, Blanco White, Hamilton Smith and Hazlitt.

Sir Walter Scott, to gratify his generous friend Constable, laid aside

_Waverley_, which he was completing for publication, and in April and

May 1814 wrote "Chivalry." He also wrote "Drama" in November 1818, and

"Romance" in the summer of 1823. As it seemed to the editor that

encyclopaedias had previously attended little to political philosophy,

he wrote "Balance of Power," and procured from James Mill "Banks for

Savings," "Education," "Law of Nations," "Liberty of the Press," and

other articles, which, reprinted cheaply, had a wide circulation.

M'Culloch wrote "Corn Laws," "Interest," "Money," "Political Economy,"

&c. Mr Ricardo wrote "Commerce" and "Funding System," and Professor

Malthus, in his article "Population," gave a comprehensive summary of

the facts and reasonings on which his theory rested. In the article

"Egypt" Dr Thomas Young "first gave to the public an extended view of

the results of his successful interpretation of the hieroglyphic

characters on the stone of Rosetta," with a vocabulary of 221 words in

English, Coptic, Hieroglyphic and Enchorial, engraved on four plates.

There were about 160 biographies, chiefly of persons who had died

within the preceding 30 years. Constable "wished short biographical

notices of the first founders of this great work, but they were, in

the opinion of my editor, too insignificant to entitle them to the

rank which such separate notice, it was supposed, would have given

them as literary men, although his own consequence in the world had

its origin in their exertions" (_Memoirs_, ii. 326). It is to be

regretted that this wish was not carried out, as was done in the

latter volumes of Zedler. Arago wrote "Double Refraction" and

"Polarization of Light," a note to which mentions his name as author.

Playfair wrote "Aepinus," and "Physical Astronomy." Biot wrote

"Electricity" and "Pendulum." He "gave his assistance with alacrity,"

though his articles had to be translated. Signatures, on the plan of

the _Encyclopedie_, were annexed to each article, the list forming a

triple alphabet, A to XXX, with the full names of the 72 contributors

arranged apparently in the order of their first occurrence. At the end

of vol. vi. are Addenda and Corrigenda, including "Interpolation," by

Leslie, and "Polarization of Light," by Arago.

The sixth edition, "revised, corrected and improved," appeared in

half-volume parts, price 16s. in boards, vol. xx. part ii. completing

the work in May 1823. Constable, thinking it not wise to reprint so

large a book year after year without correction, in 1820 selected Mr

Charles Maclaren (1782-1866), as editor. "His attention was chiefly

directed to the historical and geographical articles. He was to keep

the press going, and have the whole completed in three years." He

wrote "America," "Greece," "Troy," &c. Many of the large articles as

"Agriculture," "Chemistry," "Conchology," were new or nearly so; and

references were given to the supplement. A new edition in 25 vols. was

contemplated, not to be announced till a certain time after the

supplement was finished; but Constable's house stopped payment on the

19th of January 1826, and his copyrights were sold by auction. Those

of the _Encyclopaedia_ were bought by contract, on the 16th of July

1828, for L6150, by Thomas Allan, proprietor of the _Caledonian

Mercury_, Adam Black, Abram Thomson, bookbinder, and Alexander Wight,

banker, who, with the trustee of Constable's estate, had previously

begun the seventh edition. Not many years later Mr Black purchased all

the shares and became sole proprietor.

The seventh edition, 21 vols. 4to (with an index of 187 pages,

compiled by Robert Cox), containing 17,101 pages and 506 plates,

edited by Macvey Napier, assisted by James Browne, LL.D., was begun in

1827, and published from March 1830 to January 1842. It was reset

throughout and stereotyped. Mathematical diagrams were printed in the

text from woodcuts. The first half of the preface was nearly that of

the supplement. The list of signatures, containing 167 names, consists

of four alphabets with additions, and differs altogether from that in

the supplement: many names are omitted, the order is changed and 103

are added. A list follows of over 300 articles, without signatures, by

87 writers. The dissertations--1st, Stewart's, 289 pages; 2nd,

"Ethics" (136 pages), by Sir James Mackintosh, whose death prevented

the addition of "Political Philosophy"; 3rd, Playfair's, 139 pages;

4th, its continuation by Sir John Leslie, 100 pages--and their index

of 30 pages, fill vol. i. As they did not include Greek philosophy,

"Aristotle," "Plato" and "Socrates" were supplied by Dr Hampden,

afterwards bishop of Hereford. Among the numerous contributors of

eminence, mention may be made of Sir David Brewster, Prof. Phillips,

Prof. Spalding, John Hill Burton, Thomas De Quincey, Patrick Fraser

Tytler, Capt. Basil Hall, Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Antonio Panizzi,

John Scott Russell and Robert Stephenson. Zoology was divided into 11

chief articles, "Mammalia," "Ornithology," "Reptilia," "Ichthyology,"

"Mollusca," "Crustacea," "Arachnides," "Entomology," "Helminthology,"

"Zoophytes," and "Animalcule"--all by James Wilson.

The eighth edition, 1853-1860, 4to, 21 vols. (and index of 239 pages,

1861), containing 17,957 pages and 402 plates, with many woodcuts, was

edited by Dr Thomas Stewart Traill, professor of medical jurisprudence

in Edinburgh University. The dissertations were reprinted, with one on

the "Rise, Progress and Corruptions of Christianity" (97 pages), by

Archbishop Whately, and a continuation of Leslie's to 1850, by

Professor James David Forbes, 198 pages, the work of nearly three

years, called by himself his "magnum opus" (Life, pp. 361, 366). Lord

Macaulay, Charles Kingsley, Isaac Taylor, Hepworth Dixon, Robert

Chambers, Rev. Charles Merivale, Rev. F.W. Farrar, Sir John

Richardson, Dr Scoresby, Dr Hooker, Henry Austin Layard, Edw. B.

Eastwick, John Crawfurd, Augustus Petermann, Baron Bunsen, Sir John

Herschel, Dr Lankester, Professors Owen, Rankine, William Thomson,

Aytoun, Blackie, Daniel Wilson and Jukes, were some of the many

eminent new contributors found among the 344 authors, of whom an

alphabetical list is given, with a key to the signatures. In the

preface a list of 279 articles by 189 writers, classed under 15 heads,

is given. This edition was not wholly reset like the seventh, but many

long articles were retained almost or entirely intact.

The publication of the ninth edition (A. & C. Black) was commenced in

January 1875, under the editorship of Thomas Spencer Baynes until

1880, and subsequently of W. Robertson Smith, and completed in 1889,

24 vols., with index. This great edition retained a certain amount of

the valuable material in the eighth, but was substantially a new work;

and it was universally acknowledged to stand in the forefront of the

scholarship of its time. Its contributors included the most

distinguished men of letters and of science. In 1898 a reprint, sold

at about half the original price, and on the plan of payment by

instalments, was issued by _The Times_ of London; and in 1902, under

the joint editorship of Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, President Arthur

T. Hadley of Yale University, and Hugh Chisholm, eleven supplementary

volumes were published, forming, with the 24 vols. of the ninth

edition, a tenth edition of 35 volumes. These included a volume of

maps, and an elaborate index (vol. 35) to the whole edition,

comprising some 600,000 entries. In May 1903 a start was made with the

preparation of the 11th edition, under the general editorship of Hugh

Chisholm, with W. Alison Phillips as chief assistant-editor, and a

staff of editorial assistants, the whole work of organization being

conducted up to December 1909 from _The Times_ office. Arrangements

were then made by which the copyright and control of the

_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ passed to Cambridge University, for the

publication at the University Press in 1910-1911 of the 29 volumes

(one being Index) of the 11th edition, a distinctive feature of this

issue being the appearance of the whole series of volumes practically

at the same time.

A new and enlarged edition of the _Encyclopedie_ arranged as a system of

separate dictionaries, and entitled _Encyclopedie methodique ou par ordre

de matieres_, was undertaken by Charles Joseph Panckoucke, a publisher of

Paris (born at Lille on the 26th of November 1736, died on the 19th of

December 1798). His privilege was dated the 20th of June 1780. The

articles belonging to different subjects would readily form distinct

dictionaries, although, having been constructed for an alphabetical plan,

they seemed unsuited for any system wholly methodical. Two copies of the

book and its supplement were cut up into articles, which were sorted into

subjects. The division adopted was: 1, mathematics; 2 physics; 3,

medicine; 4, anatomy and physiology; 5, surgery; 6, chemistry, metallurgy

and pharmacy; 7, agriculture; 8, natural history of animals, in six

parts; 9, botany; 10, minerals; 11, physical geography; 12, ancient and

modern geography; 13, antiquities; 14, history; 15, theology; 16,

philosophy; 17, metaphysics, logic and morality; 18, grammar and

literature; 19, law; 20, finance; 21, political economy; 22, commerce;

23, marine; 24, art militaire; 25, beaux arts; 26, arts et metiers--all

forming distinct dictionaries entrusted to different editors. The first

object of each editor was to exclude all articles belonging to other

subjects, and to take care that those of a doubtful nature should not be

omitted by all. In some words (such as air, which belonged equally to

chemistry, physics and medicine) the methodical arrangement has the

unexpected effect of breaking up the single article into several widely

separated. Each dictionary was to have an introduction and a classified

table of the principal articles. History and its minor parts, as

inscriptions, fables, medals, were to be included. Theology, which was

neither complete, exact nor orthodox, was to be by the abbe Bergier,

confessor to Monsieur. The whole work was to be completed and connected

together by a Vocabulaire Universel, 1 vol. 4to, with references to all

the places where each word occurred, and a very exact history of the

_Encyclopedie_ and its editions by Panckoucke. The prospectus, issued

early in 1782, proposed three editions--84 vols. 8vo, 43 vols. 4to with 3

columns to a page, and 53 vols. 4to of about 100 sheets with 2 columns to

a page, each edition having 7 vols. 4to of 250 to 300 plates each. The

subscription was to be 672 livres from the 15th of March to July 1782,

then 751, and 888 after April 1783. It was to be issued in livraisons of

2 vols. each, the first (jurisprudence, vol. i., literature, vol. i.) to

appear in July 1782, and the whole to be finished in 1787. The number of

subscribers, 4072, was so great that the subscription list of 672 livres

was closed on the 30th of April. Twenty-five printing offices were

employed, and in November 1782 the 1st livraison (jurisprudence, vol. i.,

and half vol. each of arts et metiers and histoire naturelle) was issued.

A Spanish prospectus was sent out, and obtained 330 Spanish subscribers,

with the inquisitor-general at their head. The complaints of the

subscribers and his own heavy advances, over 150,000 livres, induced

Panckoucke, in November 1788, to appeal to the authors to finish the

work. Those _en retard_ made new contracts, giving their word of honour

to put their parts to press in 1788, and to continue them without

interruption, so that Panckoucke hoped to finish the whole, including the

vocabulary (4 or 5 vols.), in 1792. Whole sciences, as architecture,

engineering, hunting, police, games, &c., had been overlooked in the

prospectus; a new division was made in 44 parts, to contain 51

dictionaries and about 124 vols. Permission was obtained on the 27th of

February 1789, to receive subscriptions for the separate dictionaries.

Two thousand subscribers were lost by the Revolution. The 50th livraison

appeared on the 23rd of July 1792, when all the dictionaries eventually

published had been begun except seven--jeux familiers and mathematiques,

physics, art oratoire, physical geography, chasses and peches; and 18

were finished,--mathematics, games, surgery, ancient and modern

geography, history, theology, logic, grammar, jurisprudence, finance,

political economy, commerce, marine, arts militaires, arts academiques,

arts et metiers, encyclopediana. Supplements were added to military art

in 1797, and to history in 1807, but not to any of the other 16, though

required for most long before 1832. The publication was continued by

Henri Agasse, Panckoucke's son-in-law, from 1794 to 1813, and then by Mme

Agasse, his widow, to 1832, when it was completed in 102 livraisons or

337 parts, forming 166-1/2 vols. of text, and 51 parts containing 6439

plates. The letterpress issued with the plates amounts to 5458 pages,

making with the text 124,210 pages. To save expense the plates belonging

to architecture were not published. Pharmacy (separated from chemistry),

minerals, education, ponts et chaussees had been announced but were not

published, neither was the Vocabulaire Universel, the key and index to

the whole work, so that it is difficult to carry out any research or to

find all the articles on any subject. The original parts have been so

often subdivided, and have been so added to by other dictionaries,

supplements and appendices, that, without going into great detail, an

exact account cannot be given of the work, which contains 88 alphabets,

with 83 indexes, and 166 introductions, discourses, prefaces, &c. Many

dictionaries have a classed index of articles; that of economie politique

is very excellent, giving the contents of each article, so that any

passage can be found easily. The largest dictionaries are medicine, 13

vols., 10,330 pages; zoology, 7 dictionaries, 13,645 pages, 1206 plates;

botany, 12,002 pages, 1000 plates (34 only of cryptogamic plants);

geography, 3 dictionaries and 2 atlases, 9090 pages, 193 maps and plates;

jurisprudence (with police and municipalities), 10 vols., 7607 pages.

Anatomy, 4 vols., 2866 pages, is not a dictionary but a series of

systematic treatises. Assemblee Nationale was to be in three parts,--(1)

the history of the Revolution, (2) debates, and (3) laws and decrees.

Only vol. ii., debates, appeared, 1792, 804 pages, Absens to Aurillac.

Ten volumes of a Spanish translation with a vol. of plates were published

at Madrid to 1806--viz. historia natural, i. ii.; grammatica, i.; arte

militar, i., ii.; geografia, i.-iii.; fabricas, i., ii., plates, vol. i.

A French edition was printed at Padua, with the plates, says Peignot,

very carefully engraved. Probably no more unmanageable body of

dictionaries has ever been published except Migne's _Encyclopedie

theologique_, Paris, 1844-1875, 4to, 168 vols., 101 dictionaries, 119,059

pages.

No work of reference has been more useful and successful, or more

frequently copied, imitated and translated, than that known as the

_Conversations Lexikon_ of Brockhaus. It was begun as _Conversations

Lexikon mit vorzuglicher Rucksicht auf die gegenwartigen Zeiten_,

Leipzig, 1796 to 1808, 8vo, 6 vols., 2762 pages, by Dr Gotthelf Renatus

Lobel (born on the 1st of April 1767 at Thalwitz near Wurzen in Saxony,

died on the 14th of February 1799), who intended to supersede Hubner,

and included geography, history, and in part biography, besides

mythology, philosophy, natural history, &c. Vols. i.-iv. (A to R)

appeared 1796 to 1800, vol. v. in 1806. Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus

(q.v.) bought the work with its copyright on the 25th of October 1808,

for 1800 thalers from the printer, who seems to have got it in payment

of his bill. The editor, Christian Wilhelm Franke, by contract dated the

16th of November, was to finish vol. vi. by the 5th of December, and the

already projected supplement, 2 vols., by Michaelmas 1809, for 8 thalers

a printed sheet. No penalty was specified, but, says his grandson,

Brockhaus was to learn that such contracts, whether under penalty or

not, are not kept, for the supplement was finished only in 1811.

Brockhaus issued a new impression as _Conversations Lexikon oder

kurzgefasstes Handworterbuch_, &c, 1809-1811, and on removing to

Altenburg in 1811 began himself to edit the 2nd edition (1812-1819, 10

vols.), and, when vol. iv. was published, the 3rd (1814-1819). He

carried on both editions together until 1817, when he removed to

Leipzig, and began the 4th edition as _Allgemeine deutsche

Realencyclopadie fur die gebildeten Stande. Conversations Lexikon_. This

title was, in the 14th edition, changed to that of _Brockhaus'

Konversations Lexicon_. The 5th edition was at once begun, and was

finished in eighteen months. Dr Ludwig Hain assisted in editing the 4th

and 5th editions until he left Leipzig in April 1820, when Professor

F.C. Hasse took his place. The 12,000 copies of the 5th edition being

exhausted while vol. x. was at press, a 2nd unaltered impression of

10,000 was required in 1820 and a 3rd of 10,000 in 1822. The 6th

edition, 10 vols., was begun in September 1822. Brockhaus died in 1823,

and his two eldest sons, Friedrich and Heinrich, who carried on the

business for the heirs and became sole possessors in 1829, finished the

edition with Hasse's assistance in September 1823. The 7th edition

(1827-1829, 12 vols., 10,489 pages, 13,000 copies, 2nd impression

14,000) was edited by Hasse. The 8th edition (1833-1836, 12 vols.,

10,689 pages, 31,000 copies to 1842), begun in the autumn of 1832, ended

May 1837, was edited by Dr Karl August Espe (born February 1804, died in

the Irrenanstalt at Stotteritz near Leipzig on the 24th of November

1850) with the aid of many learned and distinguished writers. A general

index, Universal Register, 242 pages, was added in 1839. The 9th edition

(1843-1847, 15 vols., 11,470 pages, over 30,000 copies) was edited by Dr

Espe. The 10th edition (1851-1855, 12,564 pages) was also in 15 vols.,

for convenience in reference, and was edited by Dr August Kurtzel aided

by Oskar Pilz. Friedrich Brockhaus had retired in 1849; Dr Heinrich

Edward, the elder son of Heinrich, made partner in 1854, assisted in

this edition, and Heinrich Rudolf, the younger son, partner since 1863,

in the 11th (1864-1868, 15 vols. of 60 sheets, 13,366 pages).

Kurtzel died on the 24th of April 1871, and Pilz was sole editor until

March 1872, when Dr Gustav Stockmann joined, who was alone from April

until joined by Dr Karl Wippermann in October. Besides the Universal

Register of 136 pages and about 50,000 articles, each volume has an

index. The supplement, 2 vols, 1764 pages, was begun in February 1871,

and finished in April 1873. The 12th edition, begun in 1875, was

completed in 1879 in 15 vols., the 13th edition (1882-1887), in 16

vols., and the 14th (1901-1903) in 16 vols. with a supplementary

volume in 1904. The _Conversations Lexicon_ is intended, not for

scientific use, but to promote general mental improvement by giving

the results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form

without extended details. The articles, often too brief, are very

excellent and trustworthy, especially on German subjects, give

references to the best books, and include biographies of living men.

One of the best German encyclopaedias is that of Meyer, _Neues

Konversations-Lexicon_. The first edition, in 37 vols., was published in

1839-1852. The later editions, following closely the arrangement of

Brockhaus, are the 4th (1885-1890, 17 vols.), the 5th (1894-1898, 18

vols.), and the 6th (begun in 1902).

The most copious German encyclopaedia is Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine

Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_, Leipzig. It was designed

and begun in 1813 by Professor Johann Samuel Ersch (born at Gross Glogau

on the 23rd of June 1766, chief librarian at Halle, died on the 16th of

January 1828) to satisfy the wants of Germans, only in part supplied by

foreign works. It was stopped by the war until 1816, when Professor

Hufeland (born at Danzig on the 19th of October 1760) joined, but he

died on the 25th of November 1817 while the specimen part was at press.

The editors of the different sections at various times have been some of

the best-known men of learning in Germany, including J.G. Gruber, M.H.E.

Meier, Hermann Brockhaus, W. Muller and A.G. Hoffmann of Jena.

The work is divided into three sections (1) A-G, of which 99 vols. had

appeared by 1905, (2) H-N, 43 vols., (3) O-Z, 25 vols. All articles

bear the authors' names, and those not ready in time were placed at

the end of their letter. The longest in the work is Griechenland,

vols. 80-87, 3668 pages, with a table of contents. It began to appear

after vol. 73 (Gotze to Gondouin), and hence does not come in its

proper place, which is in vol. 91. Gross Britannien contains 700

pages, and Indien by Benfey 356.

The _Encyclopaedia Metropolitana_ (London, 1845, 4to, 28 vols., issued

in 59 parts in 1817-1845, 22,426 pages, 565 plates) professed to give

sciences and systematic arts entire and in their natural sequence, as

shown in the introductory treatise on method by S.T. Coleridge. "The

plan was the proposal of the poet Coleridge, and it had at least enough

of a poetical character to be eminently unpractical" (_Quarterly

Review_, cxiii., 379). However defective the plan, the excellence of

many of the treatises by Archbishop Whately, Sir John Herschel,

Professors Barlow, Peacock, de Morgan, &c., is undoubted. It is in four

divisions, the last only being alphabetical:--I. _Pure Sciences_, 2

vols., 1813 pages, 16 plates, 28 treatises, includes grammar, law and

theology; II. _Mixed and Applied Sciences_, 8 vols., 5391 pages, 437

plates, 42 treatises, including fine arts, useful arts, natural history

and its "application," the medical sciences; III. _History and

Biography_, 5 vols., 4458 pages, 7 maps, containing biography (135

essays) chronologically arranged (to Thomas Aquinas in vol. 3), and

interspersed with (210) chapters on history (to 1815), as the most

philosophical, interesting and natural form (but modern lives were so

many that the plan broke down, and a division of biography, to be in 2

vols., was announced but not published); IV. _Miscellaneous_, 12 vols.,

10,338 pages, 105 plates, including geography, a dictionary of English

(the first form of Richardson's) and descriptive natural history. The

index, 364 pages, contains about 9000 articles. A re-issue in 38 vols.

4to, was announced in 1849. Of a second edition 42 vols. 8vo, 14,744

pages, belonging to divisions i. to iii., were published in 1849-1858.

The very excellent and useful _English Cyclopaedia_ (London, 1854-1862,

4to, 23 vols., 12,117 pages; supplements, 1869-1873, 4 vols., 2858

pages), conducted by Charles Knight, based on the _Penny Cyclopaedia_

(London, 1833-1846, 4to, 29 vols., 15,625 pages), of which he had the

copyright, is in four divisions all alphabetical, and evidently very

unequal as classes:--1, geography; 2, natural history; 3, biography

(with 703 lives of living persons); 4, arts and sciences. The synoptical

index, 168 pages, has four columns on a page, one for each division, so

that the order is alphabetical and yet the words are classed.

_Chambers's Encyclopaedia_ (Edinburgh, W. & R. Chambers), 1860-1868,

8vo, 10 vols., 8283 pages, edited in part by the publishers, but under

the charge of Dr Andrew Findlater as "acting editor" throughout, was

founded on the 10th edition of _Brockhaus_. A revised edition appeared

in 1874, 8320 pages. In the list of 126 contributors were J.H. Burton,

Emmanuel Deutsch, Professor Goldstucker, &c. The index of matters not

having special articles contained about 1500 headings. The articles were

generally excellent, more especially on Jewish literature, folk-lore and

practical science; but, as in _Brockhaus_, the scope of the work did not

allow extended treatment. A further revision took place, and in

1888-1892 an entirely new edition was published, in 10 vols., still

further new editions being issued in 1895 and in 1901.

An excellent brief compilation, the _Harmsworth Encyclopaedia_ (1905),

was published in 40 fortnightly parts (sevenpence each) in England, and

as _Nelson's Encyclopaedia_ (revised) in 12 vols. (1906) in America. It

was originally prepared for Messrs Nelson of Edinburgh and for the

Carmelite Press, London.

In the United States various encyclopaedias have been published, but

without rivalling there the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the 9th edition

of which was extensively pirated. Several American Supplements were also

issued.

The _New American Cyclopaedia_, New York (Appleton & Co.), 1858-1863, 16

vols., 12,752 pages, was the work of the editors, George Ripley and

Charles Anderson Dana, and 364 contributors, chiefly American. A

supplementary work, the _American Annual Cyclopaedia_, a yearly 8vo vol.

of about 800 pages and 250 articles, was started in 1861, but ceased in

1902. In a new edition, the _American Cyclopaedia_, 1873-1876, 8vo, 16

vols., 13,484 pages, by the same editors, 4 associate editors, 31

revisers and a librarian, each article passed through the hands of 6 or

8 revisers.

Other American encyclopaedias are Alvin J. Johnson's _New Universal

Cyclopaedia_, 1875-1877, in 4 vols., a new edition of which (excellently

planned) was published in 8 vols., 1893-1895, under the name of

_Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia_; the _Encyclopaedia Americana_, edited

by Francis Lieber, which appeared in 1839-1847 in 14 vols.; a new work

under the same title, published in 1903-1904 in 16 vols.; the

_International Cyclopaedia_, first published in 1884 (revised in 1891,

1894 and 1898), and superseded in 1902 (revised, 1906) by the _New

International Encyclopaedia_ in 17 vols.

In Europe a great impetus was given to the compilation of

encyclopaedias by the appearance of Brockhaus' _Conversations-Lexicon_

(see above), which, as a begetter of these works, must rank, in the

19th century, with the _Cyclopaedia_ of Ephraim Chambers in the 18th.

The following, although in no sense an exhaustive list, may be here

mentioned. In France, _Le Grand Dictionnaire universel du XIX^e

siecle_, of Pierre Larousse (15 vols., 1866-1876), with supplementary

volumes in 1877, 1887 and 1890; the _Nouveau Larousse illustre,

dictionnaire universel encyclopedique_ (7 vols., 1901-1904), (this is

in no way a re-issue or an abridgment of _Le Grand Dictionnaire_ of

Pierre Larousse); _La Grande Encyclopedie, inventaire raisonne des

sciences, des lettres, et des arts_, in 31 vols. (1886-1903). In

Italy, the _Nuova Enciclopedia Italiana_ (14 vols., 1841-1851, and in

25 vols., 1875-1888). In Spain, the _Diccionario enciclopedico

Hispano-Americano de litteratura, ciencias y artes_, published at

Barcelona (25 vols., 1877-1899). The Russian encyclopaedia, _Russkiy

Entsiklopedicheskiy Slovar_ (41 vols., 1905, 2 supplementary vols.,

1908) was begun in 1890 as a Russian version of Brockhaus'

_Conversations-Lexicon_, but has become a monumental encyclopaedia, to

which all the best Russian men of science and letters have

contributed. Elaborate encyclopaedias have also appeared in the

Polish, Hungarian, Bohemian and Rumanian languages. Of Scandinavian

encyclopaedias there have been re-issues of the _Nordesk

Conversations-Lexicon_, first published in 1858-1863, and of the

_Svenskt Conversations-Lexicon_, first published in 1845-1851.

ENDECOTT, JOHN (c. 1588-1665), English colonial governor in America, was

born probably at Dorchester, Dorsetshire, England, about 1588. Little is

known of him before 1628, when he was one of the six "joint adventurers"

who purchased from the Plymouth Company a strip of land about 60 m. wide

along the Massachusetts coast and extending westward to the Pacific

Ocean. By his associates Endecott was entrusted with the responsibility

of leading the first colonists to the region, and with some sixty

persons proceeded to Naumkeag (later Salem) where Roger Conant, a

seceder from the colony at Plymouth, had begun a settlement two years

earlier. Endecott experienced some trouble with the previous settlers

and with Thomas Morton's settlement at "Merry Mount" (Mount Wollaston,

now Quincy), where, in accordance with his strict Puritanical tenets, he

cut down the maypole and dispersed the merrymakers. He was the local

governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony from the 30th of April 1629 to

the 12th of June 1630, when John Winthrop, who had succeeded Matthew

Cradock as governor of the company on the 20th of October 1629, brought

the charter to Salem and became governor of the colony as well as of the

company. In the years immediately following he continued to take a

prominent part in the affairs of the colony, serving as an assistant and

as a military commissioner, and commanding, although with little

success, an expedition against the Pequots in 1636. At Salem he was a

member of the congregation of Roger Williams, whom he resolutely

defended in his trouble with the New England clerical hierarchy, and

excited by Williams's teachings, cut the cross of St George from the

English flag in token of his hatred of all symbols of Romanism. He was

deputy-governor in 1641-1644, and governor in 1644-1645, and served also

as sergeant-major-general (commander-in-chief) of the militia and as one

of the commissioners of the United Colonies of New England, of which in

1658 he was president. On the death of John Winthrop in 1649 he became

governor, and by annual re-elections served continuously until his

death, with the exception of two years (1650-1651 and 1654-1655), when

he was deputy-governor. Under his authority the colony of Massachusetts

Bay made rapid progress, and except in the matter of religious

intolerance--he showed great bigotry and harshness, particularly towards

the Quakers--his rule was just and praiseworthy. Of him Edward Eggleston

says: "A strange mixture of rashness, pious zeal, genial manners, hot

temper, and harsh bigotry, his extravagances supply the condiment of

humour to a very serious history--it is perhaps the principal debt

posterity owes him." He died on the 15th of March 1665.

See C.M. Endicott, _Memoirs of John Endecott_ (Salem, 1847), and a

"Memoir of John Endecott" in _Antiquarian Papers_ of the American

Antiquarian Society (Worcester, Mass., 1879).

A lineal descendant, WILLIAM CROWNINSHIELD ENDICOTT (1826-1900),

graduated at Harvard in 1847, was a justice of the Massachusetts supreme

court in 1873-1882, and was secretary of war in President Cleveland's

cabinet from 1885 to 1889. His daughter, Mary Crowninshield Endicott,

was married to the English statesman Mr Joseph Chamberlain in 1888.

ENDIVE, _Cichorium Endivia_, an annual esculent plant of the natural

order Compositae, commonly reputed to have been introduced into Europe

from the East Indies, but, according to some authorities, more probably

indigenous to Egypt. It has been cultivated in England for more than

three hundred years, and is mentioned by John Gerarde in his _Herbal_

(1597). There are numerous varieties of the endive, forming two groups,

namely, the curled or narrow-leaved (var. _crispa_), and the Batavian or

broad-leaved (var. _latifolia_), the leaves of which are not curled. The

former varieties are those most used for salads, the latter being grown

chiefly for culinary purposes. The plant requires a light, rich and dry

soil, in an unshaded situation. In the climate of England sowing for the

main crop should begin about the second or third week in June; but for

plants required to be used young it may be as early as the latter half

of April, and for winter crops up to the middle of August. The seed

should be finely spread in drills 4 in. asunder, and then lightly

covered. After reaching an inch in height the young plants are thinned;

and when about a month old they may be placed out at distances of 12 or

15 in., in drills 3 in. in depth, care being taken in removing them from

the seed-bed to disturb their roots as little as possible. The Batavian

require more room than the curled-leaved varieties. Transplantation,

where early crops are required, has been found inadvisable. Rapidity of

growth is promoted by the application of liquid manures. The bleaching

of endive, in order to prevent the development of the natural bitter

taste of the leaves, and to improve their appearance, is begun about

three months after the sowing, and is best effected either by tying the

outer leaves around the inner, or, as in damp seasons, by the use of the

bleaching-pot. The bleaching may be completed in ten days or so in

summer, but in winter it takes three or four weeks. For late crops,

protection from frost is requisite; and to secure fine winter endive, it

has been recommended to take up the full-grown plants in November, and

to place them under shelter, in a soil of moderately dry sand or of

half-decayed peat earth. Where forcing-houses are employed, endive may

be sown in January, so as to procure by the end of the following month

plants ready for use.

ENDOEUS, an early sculptor, who worked at Athens in the middle of the

6th century B.C. We are told that he made an image of Athena dedicated

by Callias the contemporary of Pisistratus at Athens about 564 B.C. An

inscription bearing his name has been found at Athens, written in Ionian

dialect. The tradition which made him a pupil of Daedalus is apparently

misleading, since Daedalus had no connexion with Ionic art.

ENDOGAMY (Gr. [Greek: endon], within, and [Greek: gamos], marriage),

marriage within the tribe or community, the term adopted to express the

custom compelling those of a tribe to marry among themselves. Endogamy

was probably characteristic of the very early stages of social

organization (see FAMILY), and is to-day found only among races low in

the scale of civilization. As a custom it is believed to have been

preceded in most lands by the far more general rule of Exogamy (q.v.).

Lord Avebury (_Origin of Civilisation_, p. 154) points out that "there

is not the opposition between exogamy and endogamy which Mr McLennan

supposed." Some races which are endogamous as regards the tribe are

exogamous as regards the gens. Thus the Abors, Kochs, Hos and other

peoples of India, are forbidden to marry out of the tribe; but the tribe

itself is divided into "keelis" or clans, and no man is allowed to take

as wife a girl of his own "keeli". Endogamy must have in most cases

arisen from racial pride, and a contempt, either well or ill founded,

for the surrounding peoples.

Among the Ahtena of Alaska, though the tribes are extremely militant and

constantly at war, the captured women are never made wives, but are used

as slaves. Endogamy also prevails among tribes of Central America. With

the Yerkalas of southern India a custom prevails by which the first two

daughters of a family may be claimed by the maternal uncle as wives for

his sons. The value of a wife is fixed at twenty pagodas (a 16th-century

Indian coin equivalent to about five shillings), and should the uncle

forgo his claim he is entitled to share in the price paid for his

nieces. Among some of the Karen tribes marriages between near relatives

are usual. The Douignaks, a branch of the Chukmas, seem to have

practised endogamy; and they "abandoned the parent stem during the

chiefship of Janubrix Khan about 1782. The reason of this split was a

disagreement on the subject of marriages. The chief passed an order that

the Douignaks should intermarry with the tribe in general. This was

contrary to an ancient custom and caused discontent and eventually a

break in the tribe" (Lewin's _Hill Tracts of Chittagong_, p. 65). This

is interesting as being one of the few cases in which evidence of a

change in this respect is available. The Kalangs of Java are endogamous,

and every man must first prove his common descent before he can enter a

family. The Manchu Tatars prohibit those who have the same family names

from marrying. Among the Bedouins "a man has an exclusive right to the

hand of his cousin." Hottentots seldom marry out of their own kraal, and

David Livingstone quotes other examples. Endogamy seems to have existed

in the Sandwich Islands and in New Zealand. A community of Javans near

Surabaya, on the Teugger Hills, numbering about 1200 persons,

distributed in about forty villages, and still following the ancient

Hindu religion, is endogamous. Good examples of what biologists call

"in-and-in breeding" are to be found in various fishing villages in

Great Britain, such as Itchinferry, near Southampton, Portland Island,

Bentham in Yorkshire, Mousehole and Newlyn in Mountsbay, Cornwall,

Boulmer near Alnwick (where almost all the inhabitants are called

Stephenson, Stanton or Stewart), Burnmouth, Ross and (to some extent)

Eyemouth in Berwickshire, Boyndie in Banffshire, Rathen in

Aberdeenshire, Buckhaven in Fifeshire, Portmahomack and Balnabruach in

Eastern Ross. In France may be mentioned the commune of Batz, near Le

Broisic in Loire-Inferieur, many of the central cantons of Bretagne, and

the singular society called Foreatines--supposed to be of Irish

descent--living between St Arnaud and Bourges. Many other European

examples might be mentioned, such as the Marans of Auvergne, a race of

Spanish converted Jews accused of introducing syphilis into France; the

Burins and Sermoyers, chiefly cattle-breeders, scattered over the

department of Ain and especially in the arrondissement of

Bourg-en-Bresse; the Vaqueros, shepherds in the Asturias Mountains; and

the Jewish Chuetas of Majorca.

See Gilbert Malcolm Sproat's _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_;

Westermarck's _History of Human Marriage_ (1894); Lord Avebury's

_Origin of Civilisation_ (1902); J.F. McLennan's _Primitive Marriage_

(1865).

ENDOR, an ancient town of Palestine, chiefly memorable as the abode of

the sorceress whom Saul consulted on the eve of the battle of Gilboa, in

which he perished (1 Sam. xxviii. 5-25). According to a psalmist (Ps.

lxxxiii. 9) it was the scene of the rout of Jabin and Sisera. Although

situated in the territory of the tribe of Issachar, it was assigned to

Manasseh. In the time of Eusebius and Jerome Endor existed as a large

village 5 m. south of Mount Tabor; there is still a poor village of the

same name on the slope of Jebel Dahi, near which are numerous caves.

For a description of the locality see Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_,

p. 337.

ENDOSPORA, a natural group or class of the Sporozoa, consisting of the

orders Myxosporidia, Actinomyxidia, Sarcosporidia and Haplosporidia,

together with various insufficiently-known forms (Sero- and

Exosporidia), regarded at present as Sporozoa _incertae sedis_. The

distinguishing feature of the group is that the spore-mother-cells

(pansporoblasts) arise in the interior of the body of the

parent-individual; in other words, sporulation is endogenous. Another

very general character--though not so universal--is that the adult

trophozoite possesses more than one nucleus, usually many (i.e. it is

multinucleate). In the majority of forms, though apparently not in all

(e.g. certain Microsporidia), sporulation goes on coincidently with

growth and trophic life. With regard to the origin of the group, the

probability is greatly in favour of a Rhizopod ancestry. The entire

absence, at any known period, of a flagellate or even gregariniform

phase; on the other hand, the amoeboid nature of the trophozoites in

very many cases together with the formation of pseudopodia; and, lastly,

the simple endogenous spore-formation characteristic of the primitive

forms,--are all points which support this view, and exclude any

hypothesis of a Flagellate origin, such as, on the contrary, is probably

the case in the Ectospora (q.v.).

1. Order Myxosporidia. The Myxosporidia, or, more correctly, the dense

masses formed by their spores, were well known to the earlier zoological

observers. The parasites in fishes were called by Muller

"fish-psorosperms," a name which has stuck to them ever since, although,

as is evident from the meaning of the term ("mange-seed"), Muller had

little idea of the true nature of the bodies. Other examples, infesting

silkworms, have also long been known as "Pebrine-corpuscles," from the

ravaging disease which they produce in those caterpillars in France, in

connexion with which Pasteur did such valuable work. The foundation of

our present morphological and biological knowledge of the order was well

laid by the admirable researches of Thelohan in 1895. In spite, however,

of the contributions of numerous workers since then (e.g. Doflein, Cohn,

Stempell and others), there are still one or two very important points,

such as the occurrence of sexual conjugation, upon which light is

required.

Occurrence and habitat.

Although pre-eminently parasites of fishes, Myxosporidia also occur, in a

few cases, in other Vertebrates (frogs and reptiles); no instance of their

presence in a warm-blooded Vertebrate has, however, yet been described.

One suborder (the Microsporidia or Cryptocystes) is pretty equally

distributed between fishes on the one hand and Invertebrates--chiefly, but

not exclusively, Arthropods--on the other. The parasites are frequently

the cause of severe and fatal illness in their hosts, and devastating

epidemics of myxosporidiosis have often been reported (e.g. among carp and

barbel in continental rivers, due to a _Myxobolus_, and among crayfish in

France, to _Thelohania_).

The seat of the invasion and the mode of parasitism are extremely

varied. Practically any organ or tissue may be attacked, excepting,

apparently, the testis and cartilage and bone. In one instance at least

(that of _Nosema bombycis_ of the silkworm) the parasites penetrate into

the ova, so that true hereditary infection occurs, the progeny being

born with the disease. The parasites may be either free in some lumen,

such as that of the gall bladder or urinary bladder (not of the

alimentary canal, or the body-cavity itself), when they are known as

_coelozoic_ forms; or in intimate relation with some tissue,

intracellular while young but becoming intercellular in the adult phase

(_histozoic_ forms); or entirely intracellular (_cytozoic_ forms). Among

the histozoic and cytozoic types, moreover, two well-defined conditions,

_concentration_ and _diffuse infiltration_, occur. In the former, the

parasitic zone is strictly limited, and well-marked cysts are formed; in

the latter, the infection spreads throughout the neighbouring tissue,

and the parasitic development becomes inextricably commingled with the

host's cells. Sometimes, as shown by Woodcock (45), there may be an

attempt on the part of the host's tissue to circumscribe and check the

growth of these parasitic areas, which results in the formation of

_pseudocysts_, quite different in character from true cysts.

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa,

from Wasielewski, after Thelohan.

FIG. 1.--Transverse section of a stickle-back (_Gasterosteus

aculeatus_), showing two cysts of _Glugea anomala_, Moniez (kk), in the

body musculature on the right side.]

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa.

FIG. 2.--Portion of a section through a muscle fibre of _Cottus

scorpius_ invaded by _Pleistophora typicalis_, Gurley. m, f, Muscle

fibrils, retaining their striation. myx, Cysts of the parasite, lying

between the fibrils.]

Morphology.

The most noticeable feature about the Myxosporidian trophozoite is its

amoeboid and Rhizopod-like character. Pseudopodia of various kinds, from

long slender ones (fig. 3, B) to short blunt lobose ones, are of general

occurrence, being most easily observed, of course, in the free-living

forms. The pseudopodia serve chiefly for movement and attachment, and

never, it should be noted, for the injection of solid food-particles, as

in the case of _Amoebae_. The general protoplasm is divisible into

ectoplasm and endoplasm. The former is a clear, finely-granular layer,

of which the pseudopodia are mainly constituted (fig. 3, A). In one or

two instances (e.g. _Myxidium lieberkuhnii_) the ectoplasm shows a

vertical striation, and in the older trophozoites breaks down partially,

appearing like a fur of delicate, non-motile filaments. A somewhat

similar modification is found in _Myxocystis_. The endoplasm is more

fluid, and contains numerous inclusions of a granular nature, as well as

vacuoles of varying size. In the endoplasm are lodged the nuclei, of

which in an adult trophozoite there may be very many; they are all

derived by multiplication from the single nucleus with which the young

individuals begin life, the number increasing as growth proceeds.

[Illustration: From Wasielewski, _Sporozoenkunde_.

FIG. 3.--A. Trophozoite of _Sphaerospora divergens_, Thel. (par.

_Blennius_ and _Crenilabrus_), X 750. ec, Ectoplasm; en, endoplasm; sp,

spores, each with four pole capsules.

From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa.

B. Spore-bearing trophozoite of Leptotheca agilis, Thel. (par. Trygon

and Scorpaena), X 750. _ps_, Pseudopodia localized at the anterior end;

f.gr, fatty granules similarly localized; r.gr, refringent granules; sp,

spores, two in number.]

Spore-formation; multiplicative processes.

Spore-formation goes on entirely in the endoplasm. The number of spores

formed is very variable. It may be as low as two (as in free-living

forms, _e.g._ _Leptotheca_), in which case a large amount of trophic

protoplasm is unconverted into spores; or, on the other hand, the number

of spores may be very great (as in tissue-parasites), practically the

whole of the parent-body being thus used up. The sporont may or may not

encyst at the commencement of sporulation. In the free-living forms

there is no cyst-membrane secreted; but in certain _Glugeidae_, on the

other hand, the ectoplasm becomes altered into a firm, enclosing layer,

the _ectorind_, which forms a thick cyst-wall (fig. 5). The process of

sporulation begins by the segregation of small quantities of endoplasm

around certain of the nuclei, to form little, rounded bodies, the

_pansporoblasts_. There may be either very many or only few

pansporoblasts developed; in some cases, indeed, there is only one, the

sporont either itself becoming a pansporoblast (certain

_Microsporidia_), or giving rise to a solitary one (_Ceratomyxidae_).

The pansporoblast constituted, nuclear multiplication goes on

preparatory to the formation of sporoblasts, which in their turn become

spores (see figs. 4 and 5). Not all the nuclei thus formed, however, are

made use of. In the _Phaenocystes_ there are always two sporoblasts

developed in each pansporoblast; in the _Cryptocystes_ there may be from

one to several. Around each sporoblast a spore-membrane is secreted,

which usually has the form of two valves. It has recently been shown by

Leger and Hesse (29b) that, in many Phaenocystes at any rate, each of

these valves is formed by a definite nucleated portion of the

sporoblast.

The spores themselves vary greatly in size and shape (figs. 7 and 8).

They may be as small as 1.5 [mu] by 1 [mu] (as in a species of

_Nosema_), or as large as 100 [mu] by 12 [mu] (as in _Ceratomyxa_). A

conspicuous feature in the structure of a fully-developed spore is the

polar-capsules, of which there may be either 1, 2, or 4 to each. In the

Phaenocystes the polar-capsules are visible in the fresh condition, but

not in the Cryptocystes. The polar-capsule is an organella which recalls

the nematocyst of a Hydrozoan, containing a spirally-coiled filament,

often of great length, which is shot out on the application of a

suitable stimulus. Normally, as was ingeniously shown by Thelohan (43),

the digestive juices of the fresh host serve this purpose, but various

artificial means may suffice. The function of the everted filament is

probably to secure the attachment of the spore to the epithelium of the

new host. In the Phaenocystes, in connexion with each polar-capsule, a

small nuclear body can be generally made out; these two little nuclei

are those of the two "capsulogenous" areas of the protoplasm of the

pansporoblast, which formed the capsules. The sporoplasm, representing

the sporozoite, is always single. Nevertheless, in the Phaenocystes it

is invariably binuclear; and, in the Microsporidia, the nucleus, at

first single, gives rise later to four nuclei, two of which are regarded

by Stempell (42) as corresponding to those of two polar-capsules (of

which only one is developed in the spore), the remaining two

representing germ-nuclei. Hence it is possible that the Myxosporidian

sporoplasm really consists of two, incompletely-divided (sister) germs.

Moreover, it is supposed by some that these two nuclei fuse together

later, this act representing a sexual conjugation; since the earliest

known phases of young trophozoites (amoebulae) have been described as

uninuclear.

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa,

after Thelohan.

FIG. 4.--Stages in spore-formation. All the figures are from _Myxobolus

ellipsoides_, except a and f, which are from _M. pfeifferi_.

a, Differentiation of the pansporoblast (p.sp).

b, Pansporoblast with two nuclei.

c and d, Pansporoblasts with six and ten nuclei respectively; in d,

four of the nuclei are degenerating.

e, Pansporoblast segmented into two definitive sporoblasts, each with

three nuclei. In the next four figures the definitive sporoblast, or

the spore produced from it, is alone figured.

f, Definitive sporoblast segmented into three masses, the

capsulogenous cells (c.g.c) and the sporoplasm (sp.p), within an

envelope, the spore membrane (sp.m).

g, More advanced stage.

h, Spore completely developed, with two polar capsules and sporoplasm

containing an iodinophilous vacuole.

i, Abnormal spore containing six polar capsules.

n, Nuclei.

sp.bl, Definitive sporoblast.

r.n, Residuary nuclei.

vac, Vacuole.

r.p.c, Rudiment of p.c, polar capsule.

n.p.c, Nuclei of polar capsules.

iod.vac, Iodinophilous vacuole.

n.sp, Nuclei of sporoplasm.]

[Illustration: From Woodcock, _Proc. and Trans. of the Liverpool

Biological Society_, 1904.

FIG. 5.--Part of the periphery of a cyst of _Glugea stephani_, in the

intestinal wall of the plaice, showing sporoblast and spore-formation.

ect, Ectorind.

end, Endoplasm.

endoth, Fold of the mucous membrane, normal in character.

p.sp.bl, Various stages in the development of the pansporoblasts.

sp, Ripe spores, filling the greater part of the cyst.

n, Large (vegetative) nuclei.]

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa.

FIG. 6.--Formation of buds by multiple plasmotomy in _Myxidium

lieberkuhnii_, Butschli (par. _Esox_ and _Lota_) after Cohn.

b, Buds.

end, Endoplasm; the clear outer portion represents the ectoplasm.]

In addition to spore-formation, two or three modes of endogenous

reproduction, serving for auto-infection, have been made known. One,

termed by Doflein _plasmotomy_, consists either in the division of the

(multinucleate) trophozoite into two, by more or less equal fission

(simple plasmotomy), or in the budding-off, from the parent trophozoite,

of several portions (example: _Myxidium lieberkuhnii_, fig. 6). A

variety of this method has been described by Stempell (40) in the case

of the young trophozoites (meronts) of _Thelohania mulleri_, which may

divide into two while still uninuclear; and by rapid successive

divisions chains of meronts may be formed, the different individuals

being incompletely separated. Another method, which is probably chiefly

responsible for the rapid spread of tissue-parasites and cell-parasites

(such as _Myxobolidae_ and _Glugeidae_) through their host's tissue in

the condition of diffuse infiltration, consists in multiple nuclear

division, and the liberation of amoebulae while the parasite is yet

quite young and possesses only few nuclei. As Woodcock has pointed out

in considering the case of _Glugea stephani_, it is very probable that

this "multiplicative reproduction," in diffuse infiltration, is to be

looked upon as a separation of the pansporoblast-rudiments as

daughter-individuals; i.e. that the pansporoblasts are, in certain

circumstances, capable of independent existence as little sporonts. A

further stage in this direction of evolution is seen, according to

Stempell, in _Thelohania_, _Pleistophora_ and other types where the

whole individual becomes one reproductive organella; such forms are to

be considered as examples of a phylogenetic individualization of the

pansporoblasts, which now exist as solitary sporonts. An extreme case of

this "reduction of the individual" is found, apparently in the genus

_Nosema_, as lately characterized by Perez (34), where vast numbers of

minute entirely independent sporonts (pansporoblasts) are produced, each

of which gives rise to only a single spore.

The Myxosporidia are divided into two suborders, the Phaenocystes and

the Cryptocystes. Some authors have of late years separated these two

divisions and raised each to the rank of a distinct order, considering

that they are not more closely related to each other than to other

Endosporan orders. We think this is a mistake; and it is very

interesting to find that Leger and Hesse (1908) have described (29a) a

new genus of Phaenocystes, _Coccomyxa_, which represents a type

intermediate between these two suborders, and shows that they are

closely connected.

Classification.

Suborder 1: _Phaenocystes_, Gurley. Spores relatively large, with

generally two or four polar-capsules, visible in the fresh condition.

There are nearly always two spores formed in each pansporoblast.

Section (a): _Disporea_. Only two spores (i.e. one pansporoblast)

produced in each individual trophozoite. The greatest length of the

spore is at right angles to the plane of the suture.

One family, _Ceratomyxidae_, including two genera, _Ceratomyxa_ (fig.

3, B) and _Leptotheca_, typically "free" parasites, mostly from the

gall bladders of fishes. The valves of the spore in the former genus

are prolonged into hollow cones. The type-species of this genus is _C.

sphaerulosa_, from _Mustelus_ and _Galeus_; that of _Leptotheca_ is

_L. agilis_, from _Trygon_.

Section (b): _Polysporea_. More than two spores, generally very many,

are produced typically by each individual trophozoite. The greatest

length of the spore is usually in the sutural plane.

Family, _Myxidiidae_. Spores with two polar-capsules, and without an

iodinophilous vacuole in the sporoplasm. Mostly "free" parasites.

Gen. _Sphaerospora_. Four or five species are known, from the kidneys

or gall bladder of fishes (fig. 3, A). One, _S. elegans_, is

interesting in that it affords a transition between the two sections,

being disporous. Gen. _Myxidium_; spores elongated and fusiform, with

a polar capsule at each extremity. The best-known species is _M.

lieberkuhnii_, from the urinary bladder of the pike. One or two

species occur in reptiles. Other genera are _Sphaeromyxa_,

_Cystodiscus_, _Myxosoma_ and _Myxoproteus_.

Family, _Chloromyxidae_. Spores with four polar capsules and no

iodinophilous vacuole. One genus, _Chloromyxum_, of which several

species are known; the type being _C. leydigi_, from the gall bladder

of various Elasmobranchs (fig. 7, B).

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A. Spore of _Ceratomyxa sphaerulosa_, Thel.

(par. _Mustelus_ and _Galeus_), X 750, after Thelohan. sp.p,

Sporoplasm; p.c, polar capsules; s, suture; x, "irregular, pale

masses, of undetermined origin."

From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa.

B. Spores of _Chloromyxidae_, after Thelohan. a, _Chloromyxum

leydigi_, Ming., seen from the sutural aspect, X 2250; b, _C.

caudatum_, Thel., X 1900. p.c, Polar capsules; s, suture; f,

filaments; p.s, tail-like process of the spore envelope.

From Wasielewski's _Sporozoenkunde_.

C. Spores of _Myxobolus ellipsoides_, Thel. The spores on the left and

right are lying with the sutural plane horizontal, that in the middle

with the sutural plane vertical.]

Family, _Myxobolidae_. Spores with two polar-capsules (exceptionally

one), and with a characteristic iodinophilous vacuole in the

sporoplasm. Typically tissue parasites of Teleosteans, often very

dangerous. Genus _Myxobolus_. Spores oval or rounded, without a

tail-like process. Very many species are known, which are grouped into

three subsections: (a) forms with only one polar-capsule, such as _M.

piriformis_, of the tench; (b) forms with two unequal capsules, e.g.

_M. dispar_ from _Cyprinus_ and _Leuciscus_; and (c) the great

majority of species with two equal polar-capsules, including _M.

mulleri_, the type-species, from different fish, _M. cyprini_ and _M.

pfeifferi_, the cause of deadly disease in carp and barbel

respectively and others. Other genera are _Henneguya_ and

_Hoferellus_, differing from _Myxobolus_ in having, respectively, one

or two tail-like processes to the spore. _Lentospora_, according to

Plehn (37), lacks an iodinophilous vacuole.

Family _Coccomyxidae_. The pansporoblasts produce (probably) only one

spore. Spore oval, large (14 [mu] by 5.5 [mu]), with a single very

large polar-capsule. Sporoplasm with no vacuole. Single genus

_Coccomyxa_, with the characters of the family. One species, _C.

morovi_, Leger and Hesse, from the gall bladder of the sardine. The

spore greatly resembles a Cryptocystid spore.

Suborder 2: _Cryptocystes_, Gurley (= _Microsporidia_, Balbiani).

Spores minute, usually pear-shaped, with only one polar-capsule, which

is visible only after treatment with reagents. The number of spores

formed in each pansporoblast varies greatly in different forms.

Section (a): _Polysporogenea_. The trophozoite produces numerous

pansporoblasts, each of which gives rise to many spores. Genus

_Glugea_, with numerous species, of which the best-known is _G.

anomala_, from the stickleback (fig. 1). The genus _Myxocystis_, which

has been shown by Hesse (24) to be a true Microsporidian, is placed by

Perez in this section, but this is a little premature, as Hesse does

not describe the exact character of the sporulation, i.e. with regard

to the number of pansporoblasts and the spores they produce.

Section (b): _Oligosporogenea_. The trophozoite becomes itself the

(single) pansporoblast. In _Pleistophora_, the pansporoblast produces

many spores; _P. typicalis_, from the muscles of various fishes (fig.

2), is the type-species. In _Thelohania_, eight spores are formed;

the different species are parasitic in Crustacea. In _Gurleya_,

parasitic in _Daphnia_, only four are formed; and, lastly, in _Nosema_

(exs. _N. pulvis_, from _Carcinus_, and, most likely, _N. bombycis_,

of the silkworm), each pansporoblast produces only a single spore.

2. Order--Actinomyxidia. This order comprises a peculiar group of

parasites, first described by A. Stolc in 1899, which are restricted to

Oligochaete worms of the family _Tubificidae_. Most forms attack the

intestinal wall, often destroying its epithelium over considerable

areas; but one genus, _Sphaeractinomyxon_, inhabits the body-cavity of

its host. The researches of Caullery and Mesnil (10-12) and of Leger (28

and 29) have shown that the parasites exhibit the typical features of

the Endospora, and the spores possess the characteristic polar-capsules

of the Myxosporidian spore, but differ therefrom by their more

complicated structure.

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. Protozoa.

FIG. 8.--Spores of various _Glugeidae_, X 1500 (after Thelohan).

a and b, _Pleistophora typicalis_, Gurley; a in the fresh condition, b

after treatment with iodine water, causing extrusion of the filament.

c and d, _Thelohania octospora_, Henneguy; c fresh, d treated with

ether.

e, _Glugea depressa_, Thel., fresh.

f, _G. acuta_, Thel.]