Fig. 10.--CELTIC CHAMPLEVE ENAMELLED CROZIER. (Irish, 9th century.)]

In the manufacture of the substance enamel a much greater advance has

been made, for whereas the colours, and consequently the schemes of

colour, were extremely limited, we now possess an infinite gradation in

the colours, as well as the transparency and opacity, the hardness and

softness of enamels. There are only two colours which cannot yet be

obtained; these are opaque vermilion and lemon yellow in a vitrified

state. Many of the colours we now employ were not known by enamellers

such as Leonard Limosin. Our enamels are also perfect in purity,

brilliancy and durability, qualities which are largely due to the

perfect knowledge of the proportion of parts composing an enamel and

their complete combination. It is this complete combination, together

with the absence of any destructible matter, which gives the enamel its

lasting quality.

The base of enamel is a clear, colourless, transparent vitreous compound

called flux, which is composed of silica, minium and potash. This flux

or base--termed _fondant_ in France--is coloured by the addition of

oxides of metals while in a state of fusion, which stain the flux

throughout its mass. Enamels are either hard or soft, according to the

proportion of the silica to the other parts in its composition. They are

termed hard when the temperature required to fuse them is very high. The

harder the enamel the less liable is it to be affected by atmospheric

agencies, which in soft enamels produce a decomposition of the surface

first and ultimately of the whole enamel. It is therefore advisable to

use hard enamels in all cases. This involves the employment of pure--or

almost pure--metals for the plates, which are in most respects the best

to receive and retain the enamel. For if there is an excess of alloy,

either the metal will possibly melt before the enamel is fused or

afterwards they will part company. To the inferior quality of old silver

may be attributed the fact that in all cases the enamel has flown off

it; if it has not yet wholly disappeared it will scale off in time. It

is therefore essential that metals should be pure and the enamels hard.

It is also noteworthy that enamels composed of a great amount of soda or

potash, as compared with those wherein red lead is in greater

proportion, are more liable to crack and have less cohesion to the

metals. It is better not to use silver as a base, although it is capable

of reflecting a higher and more brilliant white light than any other

metal. Fine gold and pure copper as thin as possible are the best metals

upon which to enamel. If silver is to be used, it should be fine silver,

treated in the methods called _champleve_ and _cloisonne_.

The brilliancy of the substance enamel depends upon the perfect

combination and proportion of its component parts. The intimacy of the

combination depends upon an equal temperature being maintained

throughout its fusion in the crucible. For this purpose it is better to

obtain a flux which has been already fused and most carefully prepared,

and afterwards to add the colouring oxides, which stain it dark or light

according to the amount of oxide introduced. Many of the enamels are

changed in colour by the difference of the proportion of the parts

composing the flux, rather than by the change of the oxides. For

instance, turquoise blue is obtained from the black oxide of copper by

using a comparatively large proportion of carbonate of soda, and a

yellow green from the same oxide by increasing the proportionate amount

of the red lead. All transparent enamels are made opaque by the addition

of calx, which is a mixture of tin and lead calcined. White enamel is

made by the addition of stannic and arsenious acids to the flux. The

amount of acid regulates the density or opacity of the enamel.

To elucidate the development which has occurred, it will be necessary to

describe some of the processes. After the enamel has been procured in

the lump, the next stage in the process, common to all methods of

enamelling, is to pulverize it. To do this properly the enamel must

first be placed in an agate mortar and covered with water; next, with a

wooden mallet a number of sharp blows must be given to a pestle held

vertically over the enamel, to break it; then holding the mortar firmly

in the left hand, the pestle must be rotated with the right, with as

much pressure as possible on the enamel, grinding it until the particles

are reduced to a fine grain. The powder is then subjected to a series of

washings in distilled water, until all the floury particles are removed.

After this the metal is cleaned by immersion in acid and water. For

copper, nitric acid is used; for silver, sulphuric, and for gold

hydrochloric acid. All trace of acid is then removed, first by

scratching with a brush and water, and finally by drying in warm oak

sawdust. After this the pulverized enamel is carefully and evenly spread

over those parts of the metal designed to receive it, in sufficient

thickness just to cover them and no more. The piece is then dried in

front of the furnace, and when dry is placed gently on a fire-clay or

iron _planche_, and introduced carefully into the muffle of the furnace,

which is heated to a bright pale red. It is now attentively watched

until the enamel shines all over, when it is withdrawn from the furnace.

The firing of enamel, unlike that of glass or pottery, takes only a few

minutes, and in nearly all processes no annealing is required.

The following are the different modes of enamelling: _champleve,

cloisonne, basse-taille, plique-a-jour, painted enamel, encrusted,_ and

_miniature-painted_. These processes were known at successive periods of

ancient art in the order in which they are named. To-day they are known

in their entirety. Each has been largely developed and improved. No new

method has been discovered, although variations have been introduced

into all. The most important are those connected with painted enamels,

encrusted enamels and _plique-a-jour_.

_Champleve enamelling_ is done by cutting away troughs or cells in the

plate, leaving a metal line raised between them, which forms the outline

of the design. In these cells the pulverized enamel is laid and then

fused; afterwards it is filed with a corundum file, then smoothed with a

pumice stone and polished by means of crocus powder and rouge. An

example is shown in Plate II. fig. 8.

In _cloisonne enamel_, upon a metal plate or shape, thin metal strips

are bent to the outline of the pattern, then fixed by silver solder or

by the enamel itself. These strips form a raised outline, giving cells

as in the case of _champleve_. The rest of the process is identical with

that of _champleve_ enamelling. An example is shown in Plate I. fig. 4.

The _basse-taille_ process is also a combination of metal work in the

form of engraving, carving and enamelling. The metal, either silver or

gold, is engraved with a design, and then carved into a bas-relief

(below the general surface of the metal like an Egyptian bas-relief) so

that when the enamel is fused it is level with the uncarved parts of the

design enamel, and the design shows through the transparent enamel.

_Painted enamels_ are different from any of these processes both in

method and in result. The metal in this case is either copper, silver or

gold, but usually copper. It is cut with shears into a plate of the size

required, and slightly domed with a burnisher or hammer, after which it

is cleaned by acid and water. Then the enamel is laid equally over the

whole surface both back and front, and afterwards "fired." The first

coat of enamel being fixed, the design is carried out, first by laying

it in white enamel or any other which is opaque and most advantageous

for subsequent coloration.

In the case of a _grisaille painted enamel_ the white is mixed with

water or turpentine, or spike oil of lavender, or essential oil of

petroleum (according to the taste of the artist) and the white is

painted thickly in the light parts and thinly in the grey ones, whereby

a slight sense of relief is obtained and a great degree of light and

shade.

In _coloured painted enamels_ the white is coloured by transparent

enamels spread over the _grisaille_ treatment, parts of which when fired

are heightened by touches of gold, usually painted in lines. Other parts

can be made more brilliant by the use of foil, over which the

transparent enamels are placed and then fired. An example is shown in

Plate I. fig. 7.

Enamels by the _plique-a-jour_ method might be best described as

_translucent cloisonne_ enamels; for they are similar to cloisonne,

except that the ground upon which they are fired is removed, thus making

them transparent like stained glass.

Two new processes have been the subject of the present writer's study

and experiment for several years, which he has lately brought to

fruition. The first is an inlay of transparent enamels similar to

_plique-a-jour_ without cloisons to divide the colours. For if enamels

do not run together whilst in a melted state, as is seen in the case of

painted and _basse-taille_ enamels, there should be no necessity for it

in this process. The result is a clear transparent subject in colour.

The other process consists of a coloured enamel relief. It resembles the

della Robbia relief, with this important difference, that the colour of

the enamel by its nature permeates the whole depth of the relief,

whereas in the della Robbia ware it is only on the surface. It also has

a fresco surface, instead of one highly glazed. The quality of the

enamel is as rare and unlike anything else as it is beautiful. It is in

point of fact the only coloured sculpture in which the whole of its

parts are one solid homogeneous mass, and through which the colour is

one with the substance and is not applied. The process consists of the

shapes of the various parts of the relief being selected for the

different enamels, and these enamels melted together, in the mould of

the relief, which is finished with lapidary's tools.

_Miniature enamel painting_ is not true enamelling, for after the white

enamel is fired upon the gold plate, the colours used are not vitreous

compounds--not enamels in fact--as is the case in any other form of

metal enamelling; but they are either raw oxides or other forms of

metal, with a little flux added, not combined. These colours are painted

on the white enamel, and afterwards made to adhere to the surface by

partially fusing the enamel, which when in a state of partial fusion

becomes viscous.

There are many of these so-called enamels to-day, which are much easier

of accomplishment than the true enamel, but they possess none of the

beautiful quality of the latter. It is most apparent when parts of a

work are true enamels and parts are done in the manner described above.

These enamel paintings on enamel are afterwards coated over with a

transparent flux, which gives them a surface of enamel. Many are done in

this way for the market.

All these methods were used formerly, before the present revival; but

they were not so completely understood or carried so far as they are

to-day. Nor were the whole methods practised by any artist as they are

now. The greatest advance has been in painted enamels. This process

requires that both sides of the metal plate shall be covered with

enamel; for this reason the plate is made convex on the top, so that the

concave side does not touch the _planche_ on which it is supported for

firing, but rests on its edges throughout. There are several reasons why

these plates are _bombe_, the principal one being that in the firing

they resist the tendency to warp and curl up at the edges as a flat thin

plate would do. Further, the enamel having been fused to both sides is

not so liable to crack or to splint in subsequent firings. This is most

important, for otherwise the white which is placed on afterwards would

be a network of cracks. The manner of firing has also to do with this,

but not nearly so much as the preliminary care and mechanical perfection

with which a plate is prepared. Nearly all the old enamels are seen to

be cracked in the white if minutely examined. To obviate this the

following points must be observed: The plate must be of an excellent

quality of metal, equal in thickness throughout, and perfectly regular

in shape. It must be arched equally from end to end. The first coat of

enamel must be of a perfectly regular equal thickness on both sides,

entirely covering the plate. Whatever the medium employed in painting

the white on to the enamel, it must be completely evaporated before the

plate is placed in the furnace. The furnace must be heated to a bright

red heat, and the _planche_ must be red-hot before being taken out for

the enamel to be placed upon it, and then quickly returned to the

furnace and the muffle door shut tight so as to allow no draught of cool

air to enter it. Then as soon as it has begun to fuse, which if a small

piece, it would do in a minute or so, the muffle door is slightly opened

to afford a view of it. As soon as it shines all over its surface, it is

withdrawn from the muffle.

The method of laying a white upon the enamel ground is a matter of

individual taste, so far as the medium is concerned. By some, pure

distilled water is preferred to any other liquid for mixing the enamel.

Otherwise, turpentine and the fat oil of turpentine, as well as spike

oil of lavender. The oil mixture takes longer to dry, and thus gives a

greater chance for modelling into fine shades than the water. But it has

several drawbacks. Firstly, there is the difficulty of drying the oil

out--a process which takes some time and increases the risk of cracking

in the drying process; and secondly, the enamel is not so fresh and

clear after it is fired as when pure water has been employed. Besides

there is a great difference in the result; the water involves a quick,

decided, direct touch and method, which carries with it its own charm.

The oil medium, besides giving an effect of laborious rounded stippled

surfaces, is apt partly to reduce the enamel, thus giving it a dull

surface. The coloration of the white is comparatively simple and is done

by transparent enamels finely ground and evenly spread over the white

after the latter has been fused. The only danger to be avoided is that

of over-firing, which is produced by too great heat of a prolonged

duration of firing, which causes the stannic and arsenious acids in the

white to volatilize.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Modern French plique-a-jour bowl, by Fernand

Thesmar.]

_Plique-a-jour_ enamelling is done in the same way as _cloisonne_

enamelling, except that the wires or strips of metal which enclose the

enamel are not soldered to the metal base, but are soldered to each

other only. Then these are simply placed upon a sheet of platinum,

copper, silver, gold or hard brass, which, after the enamel is fused and

sufficiently annealed and cooled, is easily removed. For small pieces of

_plique-a-jour_ there is no necessity to apply any metallic base, as the

particles of enamel quickly fuse, become viscous, and when drawn out set

quite hard. Neither is there any need for annealing, as would be the

case in larger work. For an example, see fig. 2.

Commercially there has lately been an activity in enamels such as has

never before occurred. This has been the case throughout Europe, Japan

and the United States of America. In London there has been a demand for

a cheap form of gaudy coloured enamel, fused into sunk spaces of metal

obtained by stamping with a steel die; this has been applied to small

objects of cheap jewelry, in the form of brooches, bracelets and the

like. There has also been a great demand for enamel watch-cases and

small pendants, done mainly by hand, of a better class of work. Many of

these have been produced in Birmingham, Berlin, Paris and London. In

Paris copies of pictures in black and white enamel, with a little gold

paint in the draperies and background, have been manufactured in very

large quantities and sometimes of great dimensions. Another curious

demand, followed by as astonishing a production, is that of the

imitations (a harder name for which is "forgeries") of old enamels, made

with much skill, giving all the technical excellence of the originals,

even to the cracks and scratches incidental to age. These are duly

signed, and will deceive the most expert. They are copies of enamels by

Nardon and Jean Penicaud, Leonard Limosin, Pierre Raymond, Courtois and

others. The same artificers also produce copies of old Chinese

_cloisonne_ and _champleve_ enamels, as well as old Battersea enamel

snuff-boxes, patch-boxes, and indeed every kind of enamelling formerly

practised. It is advisable for the collector never to purchase any piece

of enamelling as the work of an old master without having a pedigree

extending at least over forty years. From Japan there has been a

continuous flow of _cloisonne_ enamelled vases, boxes and plates, either

entirely covered with enamel or applied in parts. Compared with this

enormous output, only a few small pieces of jewelry have come from

Jaipur and other towns in India. There has also been a great quantity of

_plique-a-jour_ enamelling manufactured in Russia, Norway and Sweden.

And finally, it has been used in an unprecedented manner in large pieces

upon iron and copper for purposes of advertisement.

Amongst the chief workers in the modern revival of this art are Claudius

Popelin, Alfred Meyer, Paul Grandhomme, Fernand Thesmar, Hubert von

Herkomer and Alexander Fisher. The work of Claudius Popelin is

characterized by good technical skill, correctness, and a careful

copying of the work of the old masters. Consequently it suffers from a

lack of invention and individuality. His work was devoted to the

rendering of mythological subjects and fanciful portraits of historical

people. Alfred Meyer and Grandhomme are both accomplished and careful

enamellers; the former is a painter enameller and the author of a book

dealing technically with enamelling. Grandhomme paints mythological

subjects and portraits in a very tender manner, with considerably more

artistic feeling than either Meyer or Popelin. There is a specimen of

his work in the Luxemburg Museum. Fernand Thesmar is the great reviver

of _plique-a-jour_ enamelling in France. Specimens of his work are

possessed by the art museums throughout Europe, and one is to be seen in

the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. They are principally valued on

account of their perfect technical achievement. Lucien Falize was an

employer of artists and craftsmen, and to him we are indebted for the

production of specimens of _basse-taille_ enamel upon silver and gold,

as well as for a book reviewing the revival of the art in France,

bearing particularly on the work of Claudius Popelin. Until within

recent years there was a clear division between the art and the crafts

in the system of producing art objects. The artist was one person and

the workman another. It is now acknowledged that the artist must also be

the craftsman, especially in the higher branches of enamelling. M.

Falize initiated the production of a gold cup which was enamelled in the

_basse-taille_ manner. The band of figures was designed by Olivier

Merson, the painter, and carved by a metal carver and enamelled by an

enameller, both able craftsmen employed by M. Falize. Other pieces of

enamelling in _champleve_ and _cloisonne_ were also produced under his

supervision and on this system; therefore lacking the one quality which

would make them complete as an expression of artistic emotion by the

artist's own hands. M. Rene Lalique is among the jewellers who have

applied enamelling to their work in a peculiarly technically perfect

manner. In England, Professor Hubert von Herkomer has produced painted

enamels of considerable dimensions, aiming at the execution of pictures

in enamel, such as have been generally regarded as peculiar to the

province of oil or water-colour painting. Among numerous works is a

large shield, into which plaques of enamel are inserted, as well as

several portraits, one of which, made in several pieces, is 6 ft.

high--a portrait of the emperor William II. of Germany. The present

writer rediscovered the making of many enamels, the secrets of which had

been jealously guarded. He has worked in all these processes, developing

them from the art side, and helping to make enamelling not only a

decorative adjunct to metal-work, but raising it to a fine art. His work

may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and Brussels Museum.

Others who have been enamelling with success in various branches, and

who have shown individuality in their work, are Mr John Eyre, Mrs Nelson

Dawson, Miss Hart.

LITERATURE.--Among older books on enamelling, apart from the works of

Neri and Benvenuto Cellini, are J.-P. Ferrand, _L'Art du feu, ou de

peindre en email_ (1721); Labarte, _Recherches sur la peinture en

email_ (Paris, 1856); Marquis de Laborde, _Notice des emaux du Louvre_

(Paris, 1852); Reboulleau, _Nouveau manuel complet de la peinture en

verre, sur porcelaine et sur email_ (ed. by Magnier, Paris, 1866);

Claudius Popelin, _L'Email des peintres_ (Paris, 1866); Emil Molinier,

_Dictionnaire des emailleurs_ (1885). Among useful recent books are H.

Cunynghame's _Art of Enamelling on Metals_ (1906); L. Falize,

_Claudius Popelin et la renaissance des emaux peints_; L. Dalpayrat,

_Limoges Enamels_; Alexander Fisher, _The Art of Enamelling upon

Metal_ (1906, "The Studio," London). (A. Fi.*).

ENCAENIA, a festival commemorating a dedication, in Greek [Greek: ta

henkainia] ([Greek: kainos], new), particularly used of the anniversary

of the dedication of a church (see DEDICATION). The term is also used at

the university of Oxford of the annual Commemoration, held in June, of

founders and benefactors (see OXFORD).

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. The name _encaustic_ (from the Greek for "burnt in")

is applied to paintings executed with vehicles in which wax is the chief

ingredient. The term was appropriately applied to the ancient methods of

painting in wax, because these required heat to effect them. Wax may be

used as a vehicle for painting without heat being requisite;

nevertheless the ancient term _encaustic_ has been retained, and is

indiscriminately applied to all methods of painting in wax. The

durability of wax, and its power of resisting the effects of the

atmosphere, were well known to the Greeks, who used it for the

protection of their sculptures. As a vehicle for painting it was

commonly employed by them and by the Romans and Egyptians; but in recent

times it has met with only a limited application. Of modern encaustic

paintings those by Schnorr in the Residenz at Munich are the most

important. Modern paintings in wax, in their chromatic range and in

their general effect, occupy a middle place between those executed in

oil and in fresco. Wax painting is not so easy as oil, but presents

fewer technical difficulties than fresco.

Ancient authors often make mention of _encaustic_, which, if it had been

described by the word _inurere_, to burn in, one might have supposed to

have been a species of enamel painting. But the expressions "incausto

pingere," "pictura encaustica," "ceris pingere," "pictura inurere," used

by Pliny and other ancient writers, make it clear that some other

species of painting is meant. Pliny distinguishes three species of

encaustic painting. In the first they used a stylus, and painted either

on ivory or on polished wood, previously saturated with some certain

colour; the point of the stylus or stigma served for this operation, and

its broad or blade end cleared off the small filaments which arose from

the outlines made by the stylus in the wax preparation. In the second

method it appears that the wax colours, being prepared beforehand, and

formed into small cylinders for use, were smoothly spread by the spatula

after the outlines were determined, and thus the picture was proceeded

with and finished. By the side of the painter stood a brazier which was

used to heat the spatula and probably the prepared colours. This is the

method which was probably used by the painters who decorated the houses

of Herculaneum and of Pompeii, as artists practising this method of

painting are depicted in the decorations. The third method was by

painting by a brush dipped into wax liquefied by heat; the colours so

applied attained considerable hardness, and could not be damaged either

by the heat of the sun or by the effects of sea-water. It was thus that

ships were decorated; and this kind of encaustic was therefore styled

"ship-painting."

About the year 1749 Count Caylus and J.J. Bachelier, a painter, made

some experiments in encaustic painting, and the count undertook to

explain an obscure passage in Pliny, supposed to be the following (xxxv.

39):--"Ceris pingere ac picturam inurere quis primus excogitaverit non

constat. Quidam Aristidis inventum putant, postea consummatum a

Praxitele; sed aliquanto vetustiores encausticae picturae exstitere, ut

Polygnoti et Nicanoris et Arcesilai Pariorum. Lysippus quoque Aeginae

picturae suae inscripsit [Greek: enekausen], quod profecto non fecisset

nisi encaustica inventa." There are other passages in Pliny bearing upon

this subject, in one of which (xxi. 49) he gives an account of the

preparation of "Punica cera." The nature of this Punic wax, which was

the essential ingredient of the ancient painting in encaustic, has not

been definitely ascertained. The chevalier Lorgna, who investigated the

subject in a small but valuable tract, asserts that the _nitron_ which

Pliny mentions is not the nitre of the moderns, but the _natron_ of the

ancients, viz. the native salt which is found crystallized in Egypt and

other hot countries in sands surrounding lakes of salt water. This

substance the Carthaginians, according to Pliny, used in preparing their

wax, and hence the name Punic seems to be derived. Lorgna made a number

of experiments with this salt, using from three to twenty parts of white

melted wax with one of natron. He held the mixture in an iron vessel

over a slow fire, stirring it gently with a wooden spatula, till the

mass assumed the consistency of butter and the colour of milk. He then

removed it from the fire, and put it in the shade in the open air to

harden. The wax being cooled liquefied in water, and a milky emulsion

resulted from it like that which could be made with the best Venetian

soap.

Experiments, it is said, were made with this wax in painting in

encaustic in the apartments of the Count Giovanni Battista Gasola by the

Italian painter Antonio Paccheri, who dissolved the Punic wax when it

was not so much hardened as to require to be "igni resoluta," as

expressed by Pliny, with pure water slightly infused with gum-arabic,

instead of sarcocolla, mentioned by Pliny. He afterwards mixed the

colours with this wax so liquefied as he would have done with oil, and

proceeded to paint in the same manner; nor were the colours seen to run

or alter in the least; and the mixture was so flexible that the pencil

ran smoother than it would have done with oil. The painting being dry,

he treated it with caustic, and rubbed it with linen cloths, by which

the colours acquired peculiar vivacity and brightness.

About the year 1755 further experiments were made by Count Caylus and

several French artists. One method was to melt wax with oil of

turpentine as a vehicle for the colours. It is well known that wax may

be dissolved in spirit and used as a medium, but it dries too quickly to

allow of perfect blending, and would by the evaporation of the spirit be

prejudicial to the artist's health. Another method suggested about this

time, and one which seems to tally very well with Pliny's description,

is the following. Melt the wax with strong solution of salt of tartar,

and let the colours be ground up in it. Place the picture when finished

before the fire till by degrees the wax melts, swells, and is bloated up

upon the picture; the picture is then gradually removed from the fire,

and the colours, without being injuriously affected by the operation of

the fire, become unalterable, spirits of wine having been burnt upon

them without doing the least harm. Count Caylus's method was different,

and much simpler: (1) the cloth or wood designed for the picture is

waxed over, by rubbing it simply with a piece of beeswax; (2) the

colours are mixed up with pure water; but as these colours will not

adhere to the wax, the whole ground must be rubbed over with chalk or

whiting before the colour is applied; and (3) when the picture is dry it

is put near the fire, whereby the wax is melted and absorbs the colours.

It must be allowed that nothing could well be simpler than this process,

and it was thought that this kind of painting would be capable of

withstanding the weather and of lasting longer than oil painting. This

kind of painting has not the gloss of oil painting, so that the picture

may be seen in any light, a quality of the very first importance in all

methods of mural painting. The colours too, when so secured, are firm,

and will bear washing, and have a property which is perhaps more

important still, viz. that exposure to smoke and foul vapours merely

leaves a deposit on the surface without injuring the work. The "encausto

pingendi" of the ancients could not have been enamelling, as the word

"inurere," taken in its rigorous sense, might at first lead one to

suppose, nor could it have been painting produced in the same manner as

encaustic tiles or encaustic tesserae; but that it must have been

something akin to the count's process would appear from the words of

Pliny already quoted, "Ceris pingere ac picturam inurere."

Werner of Neustadt found the following process very effectual in making

wax soluble in water. For each pound of white wax he took twenty-four

ounces of potash, which he dissolved in two pints of water, warming it

gently. In this ley he boiled the wax, cut into little bits, for half an

hour, after which he removed it from the fire and allowed it to cool.

The wax floated on the surface of the liquor in the form of a white

saponaceous matter; and this being triturated with water produced a sort

of emulsion, which he called wax milk, or encaustic wax. This

preparation may be mixed with all kinds of colours, and consequently can

be applied in a single operation.

Mrs Hooker of Rottingdean, at the end of the 18th century, made many

experiments to establish a method of painting in wax, and received a

gold palette from the Society of Arts for her investigations in this

branch of art. Her account is printed in the tenth volume of the

Society's Transactions (1792), under the name of Miss Emma Jane

Greenland.

See also Lorgna, _Un Discorso sulla cera punica_; Pittore Vicenzo

Requeno, _Saggi sul ristabilimento dell' antica arte de' Greci e

Romani_ (Parma, 1787); _Phil. Trans_. vol. xlix. part 2; Muntz on

_Encaustic Painting_; W. Cave Thomas, _Methods of Mural Decoration_

(London, 1869); Cros and Henry, _L'Encaustique_, &c. (1884); Donner

von Richter, _Uber Technisches in der Malerei der Alten_ (1885).

(W. C. T.)

ENCEINTE (Lat. _in_, within, _cinctus_, girdled; to be distinguished

from the word meaning "pregnant," from _in_, not, and _cinctus_, i.e.

with girdle loosened), a French term used technically in fortification

for the inner ring of fortifications surrounding a town. Strictly the

term was applied to the continuous line of bastions and curtains forming

the "body of the place," this last expression being often used as

synonymous with _enceinte_. The outworks, however, close to the enceinte

were not considered as forming part of it. In modern fortification the

enceinte is usually simply the innermost continuous line of

fortifications. In architecture generally an enceinte is the close or

precinct of a cathedral, abbey, castle, &c.

ENCINA, JUAN DEL (1469-c. 1533), often called the founder of the Spanish

drama, was born in 1469 near Salamanca probably at Encinas. On leaving

the university of Salamanca he became a member of the household of the

second duke of Alva. In 1492 the poet entertained his patron with a

dramatic piece, the _Triunfo de la fama_, written to commemorate the

fall of Granada. In 1496 he published his _Cancionero_, a collection of

dramatic and lyrical poems. Some years afterwards he visited Rome,

attracted the attention of Alexander VI. by his skill in music, and was

appointed choirmaster. About 1518 Encina took orders, and made a

pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he said his first mass. Since 1509 he had

held a lay canonry at Malaga; in 1519 he was appointed prior of Leon and

is said to have died at Salamanca about 1533. His _Cancionero_ is

preceded by a prose treatise (_Arte de trobar_) on the condition of the

poetic art in Spain. His fourteen dramatic pieces mark the transition

from the purely ecclesiastical to the secular stage. The _Aucto del

Repelon_ and the _Egloga de Fileno_ dramatize the adventures of

shepherds; the latter, like _Placida y Vitoriano_, is strongly

influenced by the _Celestina_. The intrinsic interest of Encina's plays

is slight, but they are important from the historical point of view, for

the lay pieces form a new departure, and the devout eclogues prepare the

way for the _autos_ of the 17th century. Moreover, Encina's _lyrical

poems_ are remarkable for their intense sincerity and devout grace.

Bibliography.--_Teatro completo de Juan del Encina_ (Madrid, 1893),

edited by F. Asenjo Barbieri; _Cancionero musical de los siglos XV y

XVI_ (Madrid, 1894), edited by F. Asenjo Barbieri; R. Mitjana, _Sobre

Juan del Encina, musico y poeta_ (Malaga, 1895); M. Menendez y Pelayo,

_Antologia depoetas liricos castellanos_ (Madrid, 1890-1903), vol.

vii.

ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ (1791-1865), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg

on the 23rd of September 1791. Matriculating at the university of

Gottingen in 1811, he began by devoting himself to astronomy under Carl

Friedrich Gauss; but he enlisted in the Hanseatic Legion for the

campaign of 1813-14, and became lieutenant of artillery in the Prussian

service in 1815. Having returned to Gottingen in 1816, he was at once

appointed by Benhardt von Lindenau his assistant in the observatory of

Seeberg near Gotha. There he completed his investigation of the comet of

1680, for which the Cotta prize was awarded to him in 1817; he correctly

assigned a period of 71 years to the comet of 1812; and discovered the

swift circulation of the remarkable comet which bears his name (see

Comet). Eight masterly treatises on its movements were published by him

in the Berlin _Abhandlungen_ (1829-1859). From a fresh discussion of the

transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 he deduced (1822-1824) a solar

parallax of 8".57, long accepted as authoritative. In 1822 he became

director of the Seeberg observatory, and in 1825 was promoted to a

corresponding position at Berlin, where a new observatory, built under

his superintendence, was inaugurated in 1835. He directed the

preparation of the star-maps of the Berlin academy 1830-1859, edited

from 1830 and greatly improved the _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_, and issued

four volumes of the _Astronomische Beobachtungen_ of the Berlin

observatory (1840-1857). Much labour was bestowed by him upon

facilitating the computation of the movements of the asteroids. With

this end in view he expounded to the Berlin academy in 1849 a mode of

determining an elliptic orbit from three observations, and communicated

to that body in 1851 a new method of calculating planetary perturbations

by means of rectangular co-ordinates (republished in W. Ostwald's

_Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No. 141, 1903). Encke visited

England in 1840. Incipient brain-disease compelled him to withdraw from

official life in November 1863, and he died at Spandau on the 26th of

August 1865. He contributed extensively to the periodical literature of

astronomy, and was twice, in 1823 and 1830, the recipient of the Royal

Astronomical Society's gold medal.

See _Johann Franz Encke, sein Leben und Wirken_, von Dr C. Bruhns

(Leipzig, 1869), to which a list of his writings is appended. Also,

_Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxvi. 129; _V.J.S. Astr.

Gesellschaft_, iv. 227; Berlin. _Abhandlungen_ (1866), i., G. Hagen;

_Sitzungsberichte_, Munich Acad. (1866), i. p. 395, &c. (A. M. C.)

ENCLAVE (a French word from _enclaver_, to enclose), a term signifying a

country or, more commonly, an outlying portion of a country, entirely

surrounded by the territories of a foreign or other power, such as the

detached portions of Prussia, Saxony, &c, enclosed in the Thuringian

States. (From the point of view of the states possessing such detached

portions of territory these become "exclaves.") "Enclave" is, however,

generally used in a looser sense to describe a colony or other territory

of a state, which, while possessing a seaboard, is entirely surrounded

landward by the possession of some other power; or, if inland territory,

nearly though not entirely so enclosed, e.g. the Lado Enclave in

equatorial Africa.

ENCOIGNURE, in furniture, literally the angle, or return, formed by the

junction of two walls. The word is now chiefly used to designate a small

armoire, commode, cabinet or cupboard made to fit a corner; a _chaise

encoignure_ is called in English a three-cornered chair. In its origin

the thing, like the word, is French, and the delightful Louis Quinze or

Louis Seize _encoignure_ in lacquer or in mahogany elaborately mounted

in gilded bronze is not the least alluring piece of the great period of

French furniture. It was made in a vast variety of forms so far as the

front was concerned; in other respects it was strictly limited by its

destination. As a rule these delicate and dainty receptacles were in

pairs and placed in opposite angles; more often than not the top was

formed of a slab of coloured marble.

ENCYCLICAL (from Late Lat. _encyclicus_, for _encyclius_ = Gr. [Greek:

enkyklios], from [Greek: en] and [Greek: kyklos], "a circle"), an

ecclesiastical epistle intended for general circulation, now almost

exclusively used of such letters issued by the pope. The forms

_encyclica_ and _encyclic_ are sometimes, but more rarely, used. The old

adjectival use of the word in the sense of "general" (encircling) is now

obsolete, though it survives in the term "encyclopaedia."

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The Greeks seem to have understood by encyclopaedia

([Greek: enkyklopaideia], or [Greek: enkyklios paideia]) instruction in

the whole circle ([Greek: en kyklo]) or complete system of

learning--education in arts and sciences. Thus Pliny, in the preface to

his _Natural History_, says that his book treated of all the subjects of

the encyclopaedia of the Greeks, "Jam omnia attingenda quae Graeci

[Greek: tes enkyklopaideias] vocant." Quintilian (_Inst. Orat_. i. 10)

directs that before boys are placed under the rhetorician they should be

instructed in the other arts, "ut efficiatur orbis ille doctrinae quam

Graeci [Greek: enkyklopaideian] vocant." Galen (_De victus ratione in

morbis acutis_, c. 11) speaks of those who are not educated [Greek: en

te enkyklopaideia]. In these passages of Pliny and Quintilian, however,

from one or both of which the modern use of the word seems to have been

taken, [Greek: enkyklios paideia] is now read, and this seems to have

been the usual expression. Vitruvius (lib. vi. praef.) calls the

encyclios or [Greek: enkyklios paideia] of the Greeks "doctrinarum

omnium disciplina," instruction in all branches of learning. Strabo

(lib. iv. cap. 10) speaks of philosophy [Greek: kai ten allen paideian

enkyklion]. Tzetzes (_Chiliades_, xi. 527), quoting from Porphyry's

_Lives of the Philosophers_, says that [Greek: enkyklia mathemata] was

the circle of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and the four arts under it,

arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. Zonaras explains it as

grammar, poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics and simply every art

and science ([Greek: aplos pasa techne kai episteme]), because sophists

go through them as through a circle. The idea seems to be a complete

course of instruction in all parts of knowledge. An epic poem was called

cyclic when it contained the whole mythology; and among physicians

[Greek: kyklo therapeuein], _cyclo curare_ (Vegetius, _De arte

veterinaria_, ii. 5, 6), meant a cure effected by a regular and

prescribed course of diet and medicine (see Wower, _De polymathia_, c.

24, S 14).

The word encyclopaedia was probably first used in English by Sir Thomas

Elyot. "In an oratour is required to be a heape of all maner of lernyng:

whiche of some is called the worlde of science, of other the circle of

doctrine, whiche is in one worde of greke Encyclopedia" (_The

Governour_, bk. i. chap. xiii.). In his Latin dictionary, 1538, he

explains "Encyclios et Encyclia, the cykle or course of all doctrines,"

and "Encyclopedia, that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall

science and studies." The term does not seem to have been used as the

title of a book by the ancients or in the middle ages. The edition of

the works of Joachimus Fortius Ringelbergius, printed at Basel in 1541,

is called on the title-page _Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima_

[Greek: kyklopaideia]. Paulus Scalichius de Lika, an Hungarian count,

wrote _Encyclopaediae seu orbis disciplinarum epistemon_ (Basileae,

1599, 4to). Alsted published in 1608 _Encyclopaedia cursus

philosophici_, and afterwards expanded this into his great work, noticed

below, calling it without any limitation _Encyclopaedia_, because it

treats of everything that can be learned by man in this life. This is

now the most usual sense in which the word encyclopaedia is used--a book

treating of all the various kinds of knowledge. The form "cyclopaedia"

is not merely without any appearance of classical authority, but is

etymologically less definite, complete and correct. For as Cyropaedia

means "the instruction of Cyrus," so cyclopaedia may mean "instruction

of a circle." Vossius says, "Cyclopaedia is sometimes found, but the

best writers say encyclopaedia" (_De vitiis sermonis_, 1645, p. 402).

Gesner says, "[Greek: kyklos] est _circulus_, quae figura est

simplicissima et perfectissima simul: nam incipi potest ubicunque in

illa et ubicunque cohaeret. _Cyclopaedia_ itaque significat omnem

doctrinarum scientiam inter se cohaerere; _Encyclopaedia_ est

institutio in illo circulo." (_Isagoge_, 1774, i. 40).

In a more restricted sense, encyclopaedia means a system or

classification of the various branches of knowledge, a subject on which

many books have been published, especially in Germany, as Schmid's

_Allgemeine Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Wissenschaften_ (Jena,

1810, 4to, 241 pages). In this sense the _Novum Organum_ of Bacon has

often been called an encyclopaedia. But it is "a grammar only of the

sciences: a cyclopaedia is not a grammar, but a dictionary; and to

confuse the meanings of grammar and dictionary is to lose the benefit of

a distinction which it is fortunate that terms have been coined to

convey" (_Quarterly Review_, cxiii. 354). Fortunius Licetus, an Italian

physician, entitled several of his dissertations on Roman altars and

other antiquities encyclopaedias (as, for instance, _Encyclopaedia ad.

Aram mysticam Nonarii,_ Pataviae, 1631, 4to), because in composing them

he borrowed the aid of all the sciences. The _Encyclopaedia moralis_ of

Marcellinus de Pise (Paris, 1646, fol., 4 vols.) is a series of sermons.

Encyclopaedia is often used to mean a book which is, or professes to be,

a complete or very full collection or treatise relating to some

particular subject, as Blaine's work, _The Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports_

(London, 1852); _The Encyclopaedia of Wit_ (London, 1803); _The Vocal

Encyclopaedia_ (London, 1807, 16mo), a collection of songs, catches, &c.

The word is frequently used for an alphabetical dictionary treating fully

of some science or subject, as Murray, _Encyclopaedia of Geography_

(London, 1834); Lefebvre Laboulaye, _Encyclopedie technologique:

Dictionnaire des arts et manufactures_ (Paris, 1845-1847). Whether under

the name of "dictionary" or "encyclopaedia" large numbers of this class

of reference-work have been published. These are essentially

encyclopaedic, being _subject books_ and not _word-books_. The important

books of this character are referred to in the articles dealing with the

respective subjects, but the following may be mentioned here: the _Jewish

Encyclopedia_, in 12 vols. (1901), a descriptive record of the history,

religion, literature and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest

times; the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_, 2 vols. (1897-1898); Holtzendorff's

_Encyklopadie der Rechtswissenschaft_ (1870; an edition in 2 vols.,

1904); the _Dictionary of Political Economy_, edited by R.H. Inglis

Palgrave, 3 vols. (1894; reprinted 1901); the Encyclopaedia Biblica,

edited by T.K. Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black, 4 vols. (1899-1903); the

_Dictionary of the Bible_, edited by James Hastings, 4 vols., with a

supplementary volume (1904); an interesting series is the _Repertoire

general du commerce_, dealing with the foreign trade of France, of which

one part, the _Encyclopaedia of Trade between the United States of

America and France_, with a preface by M. Gabriel Hanotaux, appeared, in

French and English, in 1904.

The great Chinese encyclopaedias are referred to in the article on

CHINESE LITERATURE. It will be sufficient to mention here the _Wen hien

t'ung k'ao_, compiled by Ma Twa-lin in the 14th century, the

encyclopaedia ordered to be compiled by the Emperor Yung-loh in the 15th

century, and the _Ku Kin t'u shu thi ch'eng_ prepared for the Emperor

K'ang-hi (d. 1721), in 5020 volumes. A copy of this enormous work, bound

in some 700 volumes, is in the British Museum.

The most ancient encyclopaedia extant is Pliny's _Natural History_ in 37

books (including the preface) and 2493 chapters, which may be thus

described generally:--book 1, preface; book 2, cosmography, astronomy

and meteorology; books 3 to 6, geography; books 7 to 11, zoology,

including man, and the invention of the arts; books 12 to 19, botany;

books 20 to 32, medicines, vegetable and animal remedies, medical

authors and magic; books 33 to 37, metals, fine arts, mineralogy and

mineral remedies. Pliny, who died A.D. 79, was not a naturalist, a

physician or an artist, and collected his work in his leisure intervals

while engaged in public affairs. He says it contains 20,000 facts (too

small a number by half, says Lemaire), collected from 2000 books by 100

authors. Hardouin has given a list of 464 authors quoted by him. His

work was a very high authority in the middle ages, and 43 editions of it

were printed before 1536.

Martianus Minneus Felix Capella, an African, wrote (early in the 5th

cent.), in verse and prose, a sort of encyclopaedia, which is important

from having been regarded in the middle ages as a model storehouse of

learning, and used in the schools, where the scholars had to learn the

verses by heart, as a text-book of high-class education in the arts. It

is sometimes entitled _Satyra_, or _Satyricon_, but is usually known as

_De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_, though this title is sometimes

confined to the first two books, a rather confused allegory ending with

the apotheosis of Philologia and the celebration of her marriage in the

milky way, where Apollo presents to her the seven liberal arts, who, in

the succeeding seven books, describe their respective branches of

knowledge, namely, grammar, dialectics (divided into metaphysics and

logic), rhetoric, geometry (geography, with some single geometrical

propositions), arithmetic (chiefly the properties of numbers), astronomy

and music (including poetry). The style is that of an African of the 5th

century, full of grandiloquence, metaphors and strange words. He seldom

mentions his authorities, and sometimes quotes authors whom he does not

even seem to have read. His work was frequently copied in the middle

ages by ignorant transcribers, and was eight times printed from 1499 to

1599. The best annotated edition is by Kopp (Frankfort, 1836, 4to), and

the most convenient and the best text is that of Eysserhardt (Lipsiae,

1866, 8vo).

Isidore, bishop of Seville from 600 to 630, wrote _Etymologiarum libri

XX_. (often also entitled his _Origines_) at the request of his friend

Braulio, bishop of Saragossa, who after Isidore's death divided the work

into books, as it was left unfinished, and divided only into titles.

The tenth book is an alphabet of 625 Latin words, not belonging to his

other subjects, with their explanations as known to him, and often

with their etymologies, frequently very absurd. The other books

contain 448 chapters, and are:--1, grammar (Latin); 2, rhetoric and

dialectics; 3, the four mathematical disciplines--arithmetic,

geometry, music and astronomy; 4, medicine; 5, laws and times

(chronology), with a short chronicle ending in 627; 6, ecclesiastical

books and offices; 7, God, angels and the orders of the faithful; 8,

the church and sects; 9, languages, society and relationships; 11, man

and portents; 12, animals, in eight classes, namely, pecora et

jumenta, beasts, small animals (including spiders, crickets and ants),

serpents, worms, fishes, birds and small winged creatures, chiefly

insects; 13, the world and its parts; 14, the earth and its parts,

containing chapters on Asia, Europe and Libya, that is, Africa; 15,

buildings, fields and their measures; 16, stones (of which one is

echo) and metals; 17, de rebus rusticis; 18, war and games; 19, ships,

buildings and garments; 20, provisions, domestic and rustic

instruments.

Isidore appears to have known Hebrew and Greek, and to have been

familiar with the Latin classical poets, but he is a mere collector, and

his derivations given all through the work are not unfrequently absurd,

and, unless when very obvious, will not bear criticism. He seldom

mentions his authorities except when he quotes the poets or historians.

Yet his work was a great one for the time, and for many centuries was a

much valued authority and a rich source of material for other works, and

he had a high reputation for learning both in his own time and in

subsequent ages. His _Etymologies_ were often imitated, quoted and

copied. MSS. are very numerous: Antonio (whose editor, Bayer, saw nearly

40) says, "plures passimque reperiuntur in bibliothecarum angulis." This

work was printed nine times before 1529.

Hrabanus Maurus, whose family name was Magnentius, was educated in the

abbey of Fulda, ordained deacon in 802 ("Annales Francorum" in Bouquet,

_Historiens de la France_, v. 66), sent to the school of St Martin of

Tours, then directed by Alcuin, where he seems to have learned Greek,

and is said by Trithemius to have been taught Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldee

by Theophilus an Ephesian. In his _Commentaries on Joshua_ (lib. ii. c.

5) he speaks of having resided at Sidon. He returned to Fulda and taught

the school there. He became abbot of Fulda in 822, resigned in April

842, was ordained archbishop of Mainz on the 26th of July 847, and died

on the 4th of February 856. He compiled an encyclopaedia _De universo_

(also called in some MSS. _De universali natura, De natura rerum,_ and

_De origine rerum_) in 22 books and 325 chapters. It is chiefly a

rearrangement of Isidore's _Etymologies_, omitting the first four

books, half of the fifth and the tenth (the seven liberal arts, law,

medicine and the alphabet of words), and copying the rest, beginning

with the seventh book, verbally, though with great omissions, and adding

(according to Ritter, _Geschichte der Philosophie_, vii. 193, from

Alcuin, Augustine or some other accessible source) the meanings given in

the Bible to the subject matter of the chapter; while things not

mentioned in Scripture, especially such as belong to classical

antiquity, are omitted, so that his work seems to be formed of two

alternating parts. His arrangement of beginning with God and the angels

long prevailed in methodical encyclopaedias. His last six books follow

very closely the order of the last five of Isidore, from which they are

taken. His omissions are characteristic of the diminished literary

activity and more contracted knowledge of his time. His work was

presented to Louis the German, king of Bavaria, at Hersfeld in October

847, and was printed in 1473, fol., probably at Venice, and again at

Strassburg by Mentelin about 1472-1475, fol., 334 pages.

Michael Constantine Psellus, the younger, wrote [Greek: Didaskalia

pantodape], dedicated to the emperor Michael Ducas, who reigned

1071-1078. It was printed by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_

(1712), vol. v., in 186 pages 4to and 193 chapters, each containing a

question and answer. Beginning with divinity, it goes on through natural

history and astronomy, and ends with chapters on excessive hunger, and

why flesh hung from a fig-tree becomes tender. As collation with a Turin

MS. showed that 35 chapters were wanting, Harles has omitted the text in

his edition of Fabricius, and gives only the titles of the chapters (x.

84-88).

The author of the most famous encyclopaedia of the middle ages was

Vincent (q.v.) of Beauvais (c. 1190-c. 1264), whose work _Bibliotheca

mundi_ or _Speculum majus_--divided, as we have it, into four parts,

_Speculum naturale_, _Speculum doctrinale_, _Speculum morale_ (this part

should be ascribed to a later hand), and _Speculum historiale_--was the

great compendium of mid-13th century knowledge. Vincent of Beauvais

preserved several works of the middle ages and gives extracts from many

lost classics and valuable readings of others, and did more than any

other medieval writer to awaken a taste for classical literature.

Fabricius (_Bibl. Graeca_, 1728, xiv. pp. 107-125) has given a list of

328 authors, Hebrew, Arabic, Greek and Latin, quoted in the _Speculum

naturale_. To these should be added about 100 more for the _doctrinale_

and _historiale_. As Vincent did not know Greek or Arabic, he used Latin

translations. This work is dealt with separately in the article on

VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS.

Brunetto Latini of Florence (born 1230, died 1294), the master of Dante

and Guido Cavalcanti, while an exile in France between 1260 and 1267,

wrote in French _Li Livres dou Tresor_, in 3 books and 413 chapters.

Book i. contains the origin of the world, the history of the Bible and

of the foundation of governments, astronomy, geography, and lastly

natural history, taken from Aristotle, Pliny, and the old French

Bestiaries. The first part of Book ii., on morality, is from the

_Ethics_ of Aristotle, which Brunetto had translated into Italian. The

second part is little more than a copy of the well-known collection of

extracts from ancient and modern moralists, called the _Moralities of

the Philosophers_, of which there are many MSS. in prose and verse. Book

iii., on politics, begins with a treatise on rhetoric, chiefly from

Cicero _De inventione_, with many extracts from other writers and

Brunetto's remarks. The last part, the most original and interesting of

all, treats of the government of the Italian republics of the time. Like

many of his contemporaries, Brunetto revised his work, so that there are

two editions, the second made after his return from exile. MSS. are

singularly numerous, and exist in all the dialects then used in France.

Others were written in Italy. It was translated into Italian in the

latter part of the 13th century by Bono Giamboni, and was printed at

Trevigi, 1474, fol., Venice, 1528 and 1533. The _Tesoro_ of Brunetto

must not be confounded with his _Tesoretto_, an Italian poem of 2937

short lines. Napoleon I. had intended to have the French text of the

_Tesoro_ printed with commentaries, and appointed a commission for the

purpose. It was at last published in the _Collection des documents

inedits_ (Paris, 1863, 4to, 772 pages), edited by Chabaille from 42 MSS.

Bartholomew de Glanville, an English Franciscan friar, wrote about 1360

a most popular work, _De proprietatibus rerum_, in 19 books and 1230

chapters.

Book 1 relates to God; 2, angels; 3, the soul; 4, the substance of the

body; 5, anatomy; 6, ages; 7, diseases; 8, the heavens (astronomy and

astrology); 9, time; 10, matter and form; 11, air; 12, birds

(including insects, 38 names, Aquila to Vespertilio); 13, water (with

fishes); 14, the earth (42 mountains, Ararath to Ziph); 15, provinces

(171 countries, Asia to Zeugia); 16, precious stones (including coral,

pearl, salt, 104 names, Arena to Zinguttes); 17, trees and herbs (197,

Arbor to Zucarum); 18, animals (114, Aries to Vipera); 19, colours,

scents, flavours and liquors, with a list of 36 eggs (Aspis to

Vultur). Some editions add book 20, accidents of things, that is,

numbers, measures, weights and sounds. The Paris edition of 1574 has a

book on bees.

There were 15 editions before 1500. An English translation was completed

11th February 1398 by John Trevisa, and printed by Wynkyn de Worde,

Westminster, 1495? fol.; London, 1533, fol.; and with considerable

additions by Stephen Batman, a physician, London, 1582, fol. It was

translated into French by Jehan Corbichon at the command of Charles V.

of France, and printed 14 times from 1482 to 1556. A Dutch translation

was printed in 1479, and again at Haarlem, 1485, fol.; and a Spanish

translation by Padre Vincente de Burgos, Tholosa, 1494, fol.

Pierre Bersuire (Berchorius), a Benedictine, prior of the abbey of St

Eloi in Paris, where he died in 1362, wrote a kind of encyclopaedia,

chiefly relating to divinity, in three parts:--_Reductorium morale super

totam Bibliam_, 428 _moralitates_ in 34 books on the Bible from Genesis

to Apocalypse; _Reductorium morale de proprietatibus rerum_, in 14 books

and 958 chapters, a methodical encyclopaedia or system of nature on the

plan of Bartholomew de Glanville, and chiefly taken from him (Berchorius

places animals next after fishes in books 9 and 10, and adopts as

natural classes _volatilia_, _natatilia_ and _gressibilia_);

_Dictionarius_, an alphabetical dictionary of 3514 words used in the

Bible with moral expositions, occupying in the last edition 1558 folio

pages. The first part was printed 11 times from 1474 to 1515, and the

third 4 times. The three parts were printed together as _Petri Berchorii

opera omnia_ (an incorrect title, for he wrote much besides), Moguntiae,

1609, fol., 3 vols., 2719 pages; Coloniae Agrippinae, 1631, fol., 3

vols.; _ib._ 1730-1731, fol., 6 vols., 2570 pages.

A very popular small encyclopaedia, _Margarita philosophica_, in 12

books, divided into 26 tractates and 573 chapters, was written by Georg

Reisch, a German, prior of the Carthusians of Freiburg, and confessor of

the emperor Maximilian I. Books 1-7 treat of the seven liberal arts; 8,

9, principles and origin of natural things; 10, 11, the soul,

vegetative, sensitive and intellectual; 12, moral philosophy. The first

edition, Heidelberg, 1496, 4to, was followed by 8 others to 1535. An

Italian translation by the astronomer Giovanno Paolo Gallucci was

published at Venice in 1594, 1138 small quarto pages, of which 343

consist of additional tracts appended by the translator.

Raphael Maffei, called Volaterranus, being a native of Volterra, where

he was born in 1451 and died 5th January 1522, wrote _Commentarii

Urbani_ (Rome, 1506, fol., in 38 books), so called because written at

Rome. This encyclopaedia, printed eight times up to 1603, is remarkable

for the great importance given to geography, and also to biography, a

subject not included in previous encyclopaedias. Indeed, the book is

formed of three nearly equal parts,--geographia, 11 books; anthropologia

(biography), 11 books; and philologia, 15 books. The books are not

divided into short chapters in the ancient manner, like those of its

predecessors. The edition of 1603 contains 814 folio pages. The first

book consists of the table of contents and a classed index; books 2-12,

geography; 13-23, lives of illustrious men, the popes occupying book 22,

and the emperors book 23; 24-27, animals and plants; 28, metals, gems,

stones, houses and other inanimate things; 34, de scientiis cyclicis

(grammar and rhetoric); 35, de scientiis mathematicis, arithmetic,

geometry, optica, catoptrica, astronomy and astrology; 36-38,

Aristotelica (on the works of Aristotle).

Giorgio Valla, born about 1430 at Placentia, and therefore called

Placentinus, died at Venice in 1499 while lecturing on the immortality

of the soul. Aldus published his work, edited by his son Giovanni Pietro

Valla, _De expetendis et fugiendis rebus_, Venetiis, 1501, fol. 2 vols.

It contains 49 books and 2119 chapters. Book 1 is introductory, on

knowledge, philosophy and mathematics, considered generally (he

divides everything to be sought or avoided into three kinds--those

which are in the mind, in the body by nature or habit, and thirdly,

external, coming from without); books 2-4, arithmetic; 5-9, music;

10-15, geometry, including Euclid and mechanics--book 15 being in

three long chapters--de spiritualibus, that is, pneumatics and

hydraulics, de catoptricis, and de optice; 16-19, astrology (with the

structure and use of the astrolabe); 20-23, physics (including

metaphysics); 24-30, medicine; 31-34, grammar; 35-37, dialectics; 38,

poetry; 39, 40, rhetoric; 41, moral philosophy; 42-44, economics; 45,

politics; 46-48, de corporis commodis et incommodis, on the good and

evil of the body (and soul); 49, de rebus externis, as glory,

grandeur, &c.

Antonio Zara, born 1574, made bishop of Petina in Istria 1600, finished

on the 17th of January 1614 a work published as _Anatomia ingeniorum et

scientiarum_, Venetiis, 1615, 4to, 664 pages, in four sections and 54

membra. The first section, on the dignity and excellence of man, in 16

membra, considers him in all his bodily and mental aspects. The first

membrum describes his structure and his soul, and in the latter part

contains the author's preface, the deeds of his ancestors, an account of

himself, and the dedication of his book to Ferdinand, archduke of

Austria. Four membra treat of the discovery of character by chiromancy,

physiognomy, dreams and astrology. The second section treats of 16

sciences of the imagination--writing, magic, poetry, oratory,

courtiership (aulicitas), theoretical and mystic arithmetic, geometry,

architecture, optics, cosmography, astrology, practical medicine, war,

government. The third section treats of 8 sciences of intellect--logic,

physics, metaphysics, theoretical medicine, ethics, practical

jurisprudence, judicature, theoretical theology. The fourth section

treats of 12 sciences of memory--grammar, practical arithmetic, human

history, sacred canons, practical theology, sacred history, and lastly

the creation and the final catastrophe. The book, now very rare, is well

arranged, with a copious index, and is full of curious learning.

Johann Heinrich Alsted, born 1588, died 1638, published _Encyclopaedia

septem tomis distincta_, Herbornae Nassoviorum, 1630, fol. 7 vols., 2543

pages of very small type. It is in 35 books, divided into 7 classes,

preceded by 48 synoptical tables of the whole, and followed by an index

of 119 pages.

I. Praecognita disciplinarum, 4 books, hexilogia, technologia,

archelogia, didactica, that is, on intellectual habits and on the

classification, origin and study of the arts. II. Philology, 6 books,

lexica, grammar, rhetoric, logic, oratory and poetry; book 5, lexica,

contains dictionaries explained in Latin of 1076 Hebrew, 842 Syriac,

1934 Arabic, 1923 Greek and 2092 Latin words, and also nomenclator

technologiae, &c., a classified vocabulary of terms used in the arts

and sciences, in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, filling 34 pages; book 6

contains Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin and German grammars; book 10,

poetica, contains a list of 61 Rotwelsch words. III. Theoretic

philosophy, 10 books:--book 11, metaphysics; 12, pneumatics (on

spirits); 13, physics; 14, arithmetic; 15, geometry; 16, cosmography;

17, uranometria (astronomy and astrology); 18, geography (with maps of

the Old World, eastern Mediterranean, and Palestine under the Old and

New Testaments, and a plate of Noah's ark); 19, optics; 20, music. IV.

Practical philosophy, 4 books:--21, ethics; 22, economics (on

relationships); 23, politics, with florilegium politicum, 119 pages of

extracts from historians, philosophers and orators; 24, scholastics

(on education, with a florilegium of 25 pages). V. The three superior

faculties:--25, theology; 26, jurisprudence; 27, medicine (ending with

the rules of the Salernian school). VI. Mechanical arts in

general:--book 28, mathematical mechanical arts; book 29, agriculture,

gardening, care of animals, baking, brewing, preparing medicines,

metallurgy (with mining); book 30, physical mechanical arts--printing,

dialling, &c. Under paedutica (games) is Vida's Latin poem on chess,

and one by Leuschner on the ludus Lorzius. VII. Farragines

disciplinarum, 5 books:--31, mnemonics; 32, history; 33, chronology;

34, architecture; 35, quodlibetica, miscellaneous arts, as magic,

cabbala, alchemy, magnetism, &c., with others apparently distinguished

and named by himself, as, paradoxologia, the art of explaining

paradoxes; dipnosophistica, the art of philosophizing while feasting;

cyclognomica, the art of conversing well de quovis scibili;

tabacologia, the nature, use and abuse of tobacco, &c.--in all 35

articles in this book.

Alsted's encyclopaedia was received with very great applause, and was

highly valued. Lami (_Entretiens_, 1684, p. 188) thought it almost the

only encyclopaedia which did not deserve to be despised. Alsted's

learning was very various, and his reading was very extensive and

diversified. He gives few references, and Thomasius charges him with

plagiarism, as he often copies literally without any acknowledgment. He

wrote not long before the appearance of encyclopaedias in modern

languages superseded his own and other Latin books, and but a short time

before the alphabetical arrangement began to prevail over the

methodical. His book was reprinted, Lugduni, 1649, fol. 4 vols., 2608

pages.

Jean de Magnon, historiographer to the king of France, undertook to

write an encyclopaedia in French heroic verse, which was to fill ten

volumes of 20,000 lines each, and to render libraries merely a useless

ornament. But he did not live to finish it, as he was killed at night by

robbers on the Pont Neuf in Paris, in April 1662. The part he left was

printed as _La Science universelle_, Paris, 1663, fol., 348 pages,--10

books containing about 11,000 lines. They begin with the nature of God,

and end with the history of the fall of man. His verses, say Chaudon and

Delandine, are perhaps the most nerveless, incorrect, obscure and flat

in French poetry; yet the author had been the friend of Moliere, and had

acted with him in comedy.

Louis Moreri (born on the 25th of March 1643 at Bargemont, in the

diocese of Frejus, died on the 10th of July 1680 at Paris) wrote a

dictionary of history, genealogy and biography, _Le Grand Dictionnaire

historique, ou le melange curieux de l'histoire sacree et profane_,

Lyons, 1674, fol. He began a second edition on a larger scale, published

at Lyons in 1681, in two volumes folio; the sixth edition was edited by

Jean le Clerc, Amsterdam, 1691, fol. 4 vols.; the twentieth and last

edition, Paris, 1759, fol. 10 vols. Moreri's dictionary, still very

useful, was of great value and importance, although not the first of the

kind. It superseded the very inferior compilation of Juigne-Broissinere,

_Dictionnaire theologique_, _historique_, _poetique_, _cosmographique_,

_et chronologique_, Paris, 1644, 4to; Rouen, 1668, &c.,--a translation,

with additions, of the _Dictionarium historicum_, _geographicum_, _et

poeticum_ of Charles Estienne, published in 1553, 4to, and often

afterwards. As such a work was much wanted, Juigne's book went through

twelve editions in less than thirty years, notwithstanding its want of

criticism, errors, anachronisms, defects and inferior style.

Johann Jacob Hofmann (born on the 11th of September 1635, died on the 10th

of March 1706), son of a schoolmaster at Basel, which he is said never to

have left, and where he was professor of Greek and History, wrote _Lexicon

universale historico-geographico-chronologico-poetico-philologicum_,

Basileae, 1677, fol. 2 vols., 1823 pages, a dictionary of history,

biography, geography, genealogies of princely families, chronology,

mythology and philology. At the end is Nomenclator [Greek: Mixoglottos],

an index of names of places, people, &c., in many languages, carefully

collected, and explained in Latin, filling 110 pages; with an index of

subjects not forming separate articles, occupying 34 pages. In 1683 he

published a continuation in 2 vols. fol., 2293 pages, containing, besides

additions to the subjects given in his lexicon, the history of animals,

plants, stones, metals, elements, stars, and especially of man and his

affairs, arts, honours, laws, magic, music, rites and a vast number of

other subjects. In 1698 he published a second edition, Lugduni Batavorum,

fol. 4 vols., 3742 pages, incorporating the continuation with additions.

From the great extent of his plan, many articles, especially in history,

are superficial and faulty.

Etienne Chauvin was born at Nismes on the 18th of April 1640. He fled to

Rotterdam on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and in 1688 supplied

Bayle's place in his lectures on philosophy. In 1695 he was invited by

the elector of Brandenburg to go as professor of philosophy to Berlin,

where he became the representative of the Cartesian philosophy, and died

on the 6th of April 1725. He wrote _Lexicon rationale_, _sive thesaurus

philosophicus ordine alphabetico digestus_, Rotterdami, 1692, fol., 746

pages and 30 plates. An improved and enlarged edition was printed as

_Lexicon philosophicum secundis curis_, Leovardiae, 1713, large folio,

725 pages and 30 plates. This great work may be considered as a

dictionary of the Cartesian philosophy, and was very much used by

Brucker and other earlier historians of philosophy. It is written in a

very dry and scholastic style, and seldom names authorities.

The great dictionary of French, begun by the French Academy on the 7th

of February 1639, excluded all words especially belonging to science and

the arts. But the success of the rival dictionary of Furetiere, which,

as its title-page, as well as that of the Essais published in 1684,

conspicuously announced, professed to give "les termes de toutes les

Sciences et des Arts," induced Thomas Corneille, a member of the

Academy, to compile _Le Dictionnaire des arts et des sciences_, which

the Academy published with the first edition of their dictionary, Paris,

1694, folio, as a supplement in two volumes containing 1236 pages. It

was reprinted at Amsterdam, 1696, fol. 2 vols., and at Paris in 1720,

and again in 1732, revised by Fontenelle. A long series of dictionaries

of arts and sciences have followed Corneille in placing in their titles

the arts before the sciences, which he probably did merely in order to

differ from Furetiere. Corneille professed to quote no author whom he

had not consulted; to take plants from Dioscorides and Matthiolus,

medicine from Ettmuller, chemistry from a MS. of Perrault, and

architecture, painting and sculpture from Felibien; and to give an

abridged history of animals, birds and fishes, and an account of all

religious and military orders and their statutes, heresiarchs and

heresies, and dignities and charges ancient and modern.

Pierre Bayle (born on the 18th of November 1647, died on the 28th of

December 1706) wrote a very important and valuable work, _Dictionnaire

historique et critique_, Rotterdam, 1697, fol. 2 vols. His design was to

make a dictionary of the errors and omissions of Moreri and others, but

he was much embarrassed by the numerous editions and supplements of

Moreri. A second edition with an additional volume appeared at Amsterdam

in 1702, fol. 3 vols. The fourth edition, Rotterdam, 1720, fol. 4 vols.,

was much enlarged from his manuscripts, and was edited by Prosper

Marchand. It contains 3132 pages besides tables, &c. The ninth edition

was published at Basel, 1741, fol. 10 vols. It was translated into

English from the second edition, London, 1709, fol. 4 vols., with some

slight additions and corrections by the author; and again from the fifth

edition of 1730 by Birch and Lockman, London, 1734-1740, fol. 5 vols.

J.G. de Chaufepie published _Nouveau Dictionnaire historique_,

Amsterdam, 1750-1756, fol. 4 vols., as a supplement to Bayle. It chiefly

consists of the articles added by the English translators with many

corrections and additions, and about 500 new articles added by himself,

and contains in all about 1400 articles. Prosper Marchand, editor of the

fourth edition, left at his death on the 14th of January 1756 materials

for a supplementary _Dictionnaire historique_, La Haye, 1758, fol. 2

vols., 891 pages, 136 articles. It had occupied his leisure moments for

forty years. Much of his work was written on small scraps of paper,

sometimes 20 in half a page and no larger than a nail, in such small

characters that not only the editor but the printer had to use powerful

magnifiers. Bayle's dictionary was also translated into German, Leipzig,

1741-1744, fol. 4 vols., with a preface by J.C. Gottsched. It is still a

work of great importance and value.

Vincenzo Maria Coronelli, a Franciscan friar, who was born in Venice

about 1650, made cosmographer to the republic in 1685, became general of

his order in 1702, and was found dead at his study table on the 9th of

December 1718, began in 1701 to publish a general alphabetical

encyclopaedia, written in Italian, at which he had been working for

thirty years, _Biblioteca universale sacro-profana_. It was to explain

more than 300,000 words, to include history and biography as well as all

other subjects, and to extend to 45 volumes folio. Volumes 1-39 were to

contain the dictionary A to Z; 40, 41, the supplement; 42, retractations

and corrections; 43, universal index; 44, index divided into matters;

45, index in various languages. But seven volumes only were published,

Venezia, 1701-1706, fol., 5609 pages, A to Caque. The first six volumes

have each an index of from 28 to 48 pages (in all 224 pages) of

subjects, whether forming articles or incidental. The articles in each

are numbered, and amount to 30,269 in the six volumes, which complete

the letter B. On an average 3 pages contain 22 articles. Each volume is

dedicated to a different patron--the pope, the doge, the king of Spain,

&c. This work is remarkable for the extent and completeness of its plan,

and for being the first great alphabetical encyclopaedia, as well as for

being written in a modern language, but it was hastily written and very

incorrect. Never, perhaps, says Tiraboschi (_Storia della letteratura

italiana_, viii. 546), was there so quick a writer; he composed a folio

volume as easily as others would a page, but he never perfected his

works, and what we have of this book will not induce us to regret the

want of the remainder.

The first alphabetical encyclopaedia written in English was the work of

a London clergyman, John Harris (born about 1667, elected first

secretary of the Royal Society on the 30th of November 1709, died on the

7th of September 1719), _Lexicon technicum_, _or an universal English

Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, London, 1704, fol., 1220 pages, 4

plates, with many diagrams and figures printed in the text. Like many

subsequent English encyclopaedias the pages are not numbered. It

professes not merely to explain the terms used in the arts and sciences,

but the arts and sciences themselves. The author complains that he found

much less help from previous dictionaries than one would suppose, that

Chauvin is full of obsolete school terms, and Corneille gives only bare

explanations of terms, which often relate only to simple ideas and

common things. He omits theology, antiquity, biography and poetry; gives

only technical history, geography and chronology; and in logic,

metaphysics, ethics, grammar and rhetoric, merely explains the terms

used. In mathematics and anatomy he professes to be very full, but says

that the catalogues and places of the stars are very imperfect, as

Flamsteed refused to assist him. In botany he gave from Ray, Morrison

and Tournefort "a pretty exact botanick lexicon, which was what we

really wanted before," with an account of all the "kinds and

subalternate species of plants, and their specific differences" on Ray's

method. He gave a table of fossils from Dr Woodward, professor of

medicine in Gresham College, and took great pains to describe the parts

of a ship accurately and particularly, going often on board himself for

the purpose. In law he abridged from the best writers what he thought

necessary. He meant to have given at the end an alphabet for each art

and science, and some more plates of anatomy and ships, "but the

undertaker could not afford it at the price." A review of his work,

extending to the unusual length of four pages, appeared in the

_Philosophical Transactions_, 1704, p. 1699. This volume was reprinted

in 1708. A second volume of 1419 pages and 4 plates appeared in 1710,

with a list of about 1300 subscribers. Great part of it consisted of

mathematical and astronomical tables, as he intended his work to serve

as a small mathematical library. He was allowed by Sir Isaac Newton to

print his treatise on acids. He gives a table of logarithms to seven

figures of decimals (44 pages), and one of sines, tangents and secants

(120 pages), a list of books filling two pages, and an index of the

articles in both volumes under 26 heads, filling 50 pages. The longest

lists are law (1700 articles), chyrurgery, anatomy, geometry,

fortification, botany and music. The mathematical and physical part is

considered very able. He often mentions his authorities, and gives lists

of books on particular subjects, as botany and chronology. His

dictionary was long very popular. The fifth edition was published in

1736, fol. 2 vols. A supplement, including no new subjects, appeared in

1744, London, fol., 996 pages, 6 plates. It was intended to rival

Ephraim Chambers's work (see below), but, being considered a

bookseller's speculation, was not well received.

Johann Hubner, rector of the Johanneum in Hamburg, born on the 17th of

March 1668, wrote prefaces to two dictionaries written in German, which

bore his name, and were long popular. The first was _Reales Staats

Zeitungs- und Conversations-Lexicon_, Leipzig, 1704, 8vo; second edition,

1706, 947 pages; at the end a register of arms, and indexes of Latin and

French words; fifth edition, 1711; fifteenth edition 1735, 1119 pages.

The thirty-first edition was edited and enlarged by F.A. Ruder, and

published by Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1824-1828, 8vo, 4 vols., 3088 pages. It

was translated into Hungarian by Fejer, Pesten, 1816, 8vo, 5 vols., 2958

pages. The second, published as a supplement, was _Curieuses und reales

Natur- Kunst- Berg- Gewerb- und Handlungs-Lexicon_, Leipzig, 1712, 8vo,

788 pages, frequently reprinted to 1792. The first relates to the

political state of the world, as religion, orders, states, rivers, towns,

castles, mountains, genealogy, war, ships; the second to nature, science,

art and commerce. They were the work of many authors, of whom Paul Jacob

Marpurger, a celebrated and voluminous writer on trade and commerce, born

at Nuremberg on the 27th of June 1656, was an extensive contributor, and

is the only one named by Hubner.

Johann Theodor Jablonski, who was born at Danzig on the 15th of December

1654, appointed secretary to the newly founded Prussian Academy in 1700,

when he went to Berlin, where he died on the 28th of April 1731,

published _Allgemeines Lexicon der Kunste und Wissenschaften_, Leipzig,

1721, 4to, a short but excellent encyclopaedia still valued in Germany.

It does not include theology, history, geography, biography and

genealogy. He not only names his authorities, but gives a list of their

works. A new edition in 1748 was increased one-third to 1508 pages. An

improved edition, Konigsberg and Leipzig, 1767, 4to, 2 vols., 1852

pages, was edited by J.J. Schwabe, public teacher of philosophy at

Leipzig.

Ephraim Chambers (q.v.) published his _Cyclopaedia; or an Universal

Dictionary of Art and Sciences_, _containing an Explication of the Terms

and an Account of the Things Signified thereby in the several Arts_,

_Liberal and Mechanical_, _and the several Sciences_, _Human and

Divine_, London, 1728, fol. 2 vols. The dedication to the king is dated

October 15, 1727. Chambers endeavoured to connect the scattered articles

relating to each subject by a system of references, and to consider "the

several matters, not only in themselves, but relatively, or as they

respect each other; both to treat them as so many wholes and as so many

parts of some greater whole." Under each article he refers to the

subject to which it belongs, and also to its subordinate parts; thus

Copyhold has a reference to Tenure, of which it is a particular kind,

and other references to Rolls, Custom, Manor, Fine, Charter-land and

Freehold. In his preface he gives an "analysis of the divisions of

knowledge," 47 in number, with classed lists of the articles belonging

to each, intended to serve as table of contents and also as a rubric or

directory indicating the order in which the articles should be read. But

it does so very imperfectly, as the lists are curtailed by many _et

caeteras_; thus 19 occur in a list of 119 articles under Anatomy, which

has nearly 2200 articles in Rees's index. He omits etymologies unless

"they appeared of some significance"; he gives only one grammatical form

of each word, unless peculiar ideas are arbitrarily attached to

different forms, as _precipitate_, _precipitant_, _precipitation_, when

each has an article; and he omits complex ideas generally known, and

thus "gets free of a vast load of plebeian words." His work, he says, is

a collection, not the produce of one man's wit, for that would go but a

little way, but of the whole commonwealth of learning. "Nobody that fell

in my way has been spared, antient or modern, foreign nor domestic,

Christian or Jew nor heathen." To the subjects given by Harris he adds

theology, metaphysics, ethics, politics, logic, grammar, rhetoric and

poetry, but excludes history, biography, genealogy, geography and

chronology, except their technical parts. A second edition appeared in

1738, fol. 2 vols., 2466 pages, "retouched and amended in a thousand

places." A few articles are added and some others enlarged, but he was

prevented from doing more because "the booksellers were alarmed with a

bill in parliament containing a clause to oblige the publishers of all

improved editions of books to print their improvements separately." The

bill after passing the Commons was unexpectedly thrown out by the

Lords; but fearing that it might be revived, the booksellers thought it

best to retreat though more than twenty sheets had been printed. Five

other editions were published in London, 1739 to 1751-1752, besides one

in Dublin, 1742, all in 2 vols. fol. An Italian translation, Venezia,

1748-1749, 4to, 9 vols., was the first complete Italian encyclopaedia.

When Chambers was in France in 1739 he rejected very favourable

proposals to publish an edition there dedicated to Louis XV. His work

was judiciously, honestly and carefully done, and long maintained its

popularity. But it had many defects and omissions, as he was well aware;

and at his death, on the 15th of May 1740, he had collected and arranged

materials for seven new volumes. John Lewis Scott was employed by the

booksellers to select such articles as were fit for the press and to

supply others. He is said to have done this very efficiently until

appointed sub-preceptor to the prince of Wales and Prince Edward. His

task was entrusted to Dr (afterwards called Sir John) Hill, who

performed it very hastily, and with characteristic carelessness and

self-sufficiency, copying freely from his own writings. The _Supplement_

was published in London, 1753, fol. 2 vols., 3307 pages and 12 plates.

As Hill was a botanist, the botanical part, which had been very

defective in the _Cyclopaedia_, was the best.

Abraham Rees (1743-1825), a famous Nonconformist minister, published a

revised and enlarged edition, "with the supplement and modern

improvements incorporated in one alphabet," London, 1778-1788, fol. 2

vols., 5010 pages (but not paginated), 159 plates. It was published in

418 numbers at 6d. each. Rees says that he has added more than 4400 new

articles. At the end he gives an index of articles, classed under 100

heads, numbering about 57,000 and filling 80 pages. The heads, with 39

cross references, are arranged alphabetically. Subsequently there were

reprints.

One of the largest and most comprehensive encyclopaedias was undertaken

and in a great measure completed by Johann Heinrich Zedler, a bookseller

of Leipzig, who was born at Breslau 7th January 1706, made a Prussian

commerzienrath in 1731, and died at Leipzig in 1760,--_Grosses

vollstandiges Universal Lexicon Aller Wissenschaften und Kunste welche

bishero durch menschlichen Verstand und Witz erfunden und verbessert

worden_, Halle and Leipzig, 1732-1750, fol. 64 vols., 64,309 pages; and

_Nothige Supplement_, ib. 1751-1754, vols. i. to iv., A to Caq, 3016

pages. The columns, two in a page, are numbered, varying from 1356 in

vol. li. to 2588 in vol. xlix. Each volume has a dedication, with a

portrait. The first nine are the emperor, the kings of Prussia and

Poland, the empress of Russia, and the kings of England, France, Poland,

Denmark and Sweden. The dedications, of which two are in verse, and all

are signed by Zedler, amount to 459 pages. The supplement has no

dedications or portraits. The preface to the first volume of the work is

by Johann Peter von Ludewig, chancellor of the university of Halle (born

15th August 1690, died 6th September 1743). Nine editors were employed,

whom Ludewig compares to the nine muses; and the whole of each subject

was entrusted to the same person, that all its parts might be uniformly

treated. Carl Gunther Ludovici (born at Leipzig 7th August 1707, public

teacher of philosophy there from 1734, died 3rd July 1778) edited the

work from vol. xix., beginning the letter M, and published in 1739, to

the end, and also the supplement. The work was published by

subscription. Johann Heinrich Wolff, an eminent merchant and shopkeeper

in Leipzig, born there on the 29th of April 1690, came to Zedler's

assistance by advancing the funds for expenses and becoming answerable

for the subscriptions, and spared no cost that the work might be

complete. Zedler very truly says, in his preface to vol. xviii., that

his _Universal Lexicon_ was a work such as no time and no nation could

show, and both in its plan and execution it is much more comprehensive

and complete than any previous encyclopaedia. Colleges, says Ludewig,

where all sciences are taught and studied, are on that account called

_universities_, and their teaching is called _studium universale_; but

the _Universal Lexicon_ contains not only what they teach in theology,

jurisprudence, medicine, philosophy, history, mathematics, &c., but

also many other things belonging to courts, chanceries, hunting,

forests, war and peace, and to artists, artizans, housekeepers and

merchants not thought of in colleges. Its plan embraces not only

history, geography and biography, but also genealogy, topography, and

from vol. xviii., published in 1738, lives of illustrious living

persons. Zedler inquires why death alone should make a deserving man

capable of having his services and worthy deeds made known to the world

in print. The lives of the dead, he says, are to be found in books, but

those of the living are not to be met with anywhere, and would often be

more useful if known. In consequence of this preface, many lives and

genealogies were sent to him for publication. Cross references generally

give not only the article referred to, but also the volume and column,

and, when necessary, such brief information as may distinguish the word

referred to from others similar but of different meaning. Lists of

authorities, often long, exact and valuable are frequently appended to

the articles. This work, which is well and carefully compiled, and very

trustworthy, is still a most valuable book of reference on many

subjects, especially topography, genealogy and biography. The

genealogies and family histories are excellent, and many particulars are

given of the lives and works of authors not easily found elsewhere.

A work on a new plan was published by Dennis de Coetlogon, a Frenchman

naturalized in England, who styled himself "Knight of St Lazare, M.D.,

and member of the Royal Academy of Angers"--_An Universal History of

Arts and Sciences_, London, 1745, fol. 2 vols., 2529 pages, 33 plates

and 161 articles arranged alphabetically. He "endeavours to render each

treatise as complete as possible, avoiding above all things needless

repetitions, and never puzzling the reader with the least reference."

Theology is divided into several treatises; Philosophy into Ethicks,

Logick and Metaphysick, each under its letter; and Physick is subdivided

into Anatomy, Botany, Geography, Geometry, &c. Military Art is divided

into Army, Fortification, Gunnery. The royal licence is dated 13th March

1740-1741, the dedication is to the duke of Gisors, the pages are

numbered, there is an appendix of 35 pages of astronomical tables, and

the two indexes, one to each volume, fill 69 pages, and contain about

9000 subjects. The type is large and the style diffuse, but the subject

matter is sometimes curious. The author says that his work is the only

one of the kind, and that he wrote out with his own hand every line,

even the index. But notwithstanding the novelty of his plan, his work

does not seem ever to have been popular.

Gianfrancesco Pivati, born at Padua in 1689, died at Venice in 1764,

secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Venice, who had published in

1744 a 4to volume containing a _Dizionario universale_, wrote _Nuovo

dizionario scientifico e curioso sacro-profano_, Venezia, 1746-1751,

fol. 10 vols., 7791 pages, 597 plates. It is a general encyclopaedia,

including geography, but not history or biography. He gives frequent

references to his authorities and much curious information. His

preliminary discourse (80 pages) contains a history of the several

sciences from mathematics to geography. The book was published by

subscription, and at the end of the last volume is a _Catalogo dei

Signori Associati_, 252 in number, who took 266 copies. It is also

remarkable for the number of its plates, which are engraved on copper.

In each volume they are placed together at the end, and are preceded by

an explanatory index of subjects referring to the plates and to the

articles they illustrate.