[1] Neutral carbonate of sodium, Na2CO3, found at the natron lakes in
the Libyan desert, and at El Hegs, in Upper Egypt.
EMBANKMENT, in engineering, a mound of earth or stone, usually narrow in
comparison with its length, artificially raised above the prevailing
level of the ground. Embankments serve for two main classes of purpose.
On the one hand, they are used to preserve the level of railways, canals
and roads, in cases where a valley or piece of low-lying ground has to
be crossed. On the other, they are employed to stop or limit the flow of
water, either constituting the retaining wells of reservoirs constructed
in connexion with water-supply schemes, or protecting low-lying tracts
of land from river floods or the encroachments of the sea. The word
embankment has thus come to be used for the mass of material, faced and
supported by a stone wall and protected by a parapet, placed along the
banks of a river where it passes through a city, whether to guard
against floods or to gain additional space. Such is the Thames
Embankment in London, which carries a broad roadway, while under it runs
the Underground railway. In this sense an embankment is distinguished
from a quay, though the mechanical construction may be the same, the
latter word being confined to places where ships are loaded and
unloaded, thus differing from the French _quai_, which is used both of
embankments and quays, e.g. the _Quais_ along the Seine at Paris.
EMBARGO (a Spanish word meaning "stoppage"), in international law, the
detention by a state of vessels within its ports as a measure of public,
as distinguished from private, utility. In practice it serves as a mode
of coercing a weaker state. In the middle ages war, being regarded as a
complete rupture between belligerent states, operated as a suspension of
all respect for the person and property of private citizens; an article
of Magna Carta (1215) provided that "... if there shall be found any
such merchants in our land in the beginning of a war, they shall be
attached, without damage to their bodies or goods, until it may be known
unto us, or our Chief Justiciary, how our merchants are treated who
happen to be in the country which is at war with us; and if ours be safe
there, theirs shall be safe in our lands" (art. 48).
Embargoes in anticipation of war have long since fallen into disuse, and
it is now customary on the outbreak of war for the belligerents even to
grant a respite to the enemy's trading vessels to leave their ports at
the outbreak of war, so that neither ship nor cargo is any longer
exposed to embargo. This has been confirmed in one of the Hague
Conventions of 1907 (convention relative to the status of enemy merchant
ships at the outbreak of hostilities, Oct. 18, 1907), which provides
that "when a merchant ship belonging to one of the belligerent powers is
at the commencement of hostilities in an enemy port, _it is desirable_
that it should be allowed to depart freely, either immediately, or after
a reasonable number of days of grace, and to proceed, after being
furnished with a pass, direct to its port of destination, or any other
port indicated" (art. 1). The next article of the same convention limits
the option apparently granted by the use of the word "desirable,"
providing that "a merchant ship unable, owing to circumstances of _force
majeure_, to leave the enemy port within the period contemplated (in the
previous article), or which was not allowed to leave, _cannot_ be
confiscated. The belligerent may only detain it, without compensation,
but subject to the obligation of restoring it after the war, or
requisition it on payment of compensation" (art. 2). (T. Ba.)
EMBASSY, the office of an ambassador, or, more generally, the mission on
which an ambassador of one power is sent to another, or the body of
official personages attached to such a mission, whether temporary or
permanent. Hence "embassy" is often quite loosely used of any mission,
diplomatic or otherwise. The word is also used of the official residence
of an ambassador. "Embassy" was originally "ambassy," the form used in
the 17th century, but by the time of Johnson considered quite obsolete.
"Ambassy" is from the O. Fr. _ambassee_, derived through such forms as
the Port. _ambassada_, Ital. _ambasciata_ from a lost Med. Lat.
_ambactiata_, _ambactiare_, to go on a mission. (See further AMBASSADOR,
EXTERRITORIALITY and DIPLOMACY.)
EMBER DAYS and EMBER WEEKS, the four seasons set apart by the Western
Church for special prayer and fasting, and the ordination of clergy,
known in the medieval Church as _quatuor tempora_, or _jejunia quatuor
temporum_. The Ember weeks are the complete weeks next following Holy
Cross day (September 14), St Lucy's day (December 13), the first Sunday
in Lent and Whitsun day. The Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays of these
weeks are the Ember days distinctively, the following Sundays being the
days of ordination. These dates are given in the following memorial
distich with a frank indifference to quantity and metre--
"Vult Crux, Lucia, Cinis, Charismata dia
Quod det vota pia quarta sequens feria."
The word has been derived from the A.S. _ymb-ren_, a circuit or
revolution (from _ymb_, around, and _rennen_, to run); or by process of
agglutination and phonetic decay, exemplified by the Ger. _quatember_,
Dutch _quatertemper_ and Dan. _kvatember_, from the Lat. _quatuor
tempora_. The occurrence of the Anglo-Saxon compounds _ymbren-tid_,
_ymbren-wucan_, _ymbren-faestan_, _ymbren-dagas_ for Ember tide, weeks,
fasts, days, favours the former derivation, which is also confirmed by
the use of the word _imbren_ in the acts of the council of Aenham, A.D.
1009 ("jejunia quatuor tempora quae _imbren_ vocant"). It corresponds
also with Pope Leo the Great's definition, "jejunia ecclesiastica per
totius anni circulum distributa."
The observance of the Ember days is confined to the Western Church, and
had its origin as an ecclesiastical ordinance in Rome. They were
probably at first merely the fasts preparatory to the three great
festivals of Christmas, Easter and Pentecost. A fourth was subsequently
added, for the sake of symmetry, to make them correspond with the four
seasons, and they became known as the _jejunium vernum_, _aestivum_,
_autumnale_ and _hiemale_, so that, to quote Pope Leo's words, "the law
of abstinence might apply to every season of the year." An earlier
mention of these fasts, as four in number--the first known--is in the
writings of Philastrius, bishop of Brescia, in the middle of the 4th
century. He also connects them with the great Christian festivals (_De
haeres._ 119). In Leo's time, A.D. 440-461, Wednesday, Friday and
Saturday were already the days of special observance. From Rome the
Ember days gradually spread through the whole of Western Christendom.
Uniformity of practice, however, was of somewhat slow growth. Neither in
Gaul nor Spain do they seem to have been generally recognized much
before the 8th century. Their introduction into Britain appears to have
been earlier, dating from Augustine, A.D. 597, acting under the
authority of Gregory the Great. The general period of the four fasts
being roughly fixed, the precise date appears to have varied
considerably, and in some cases to have lost its connexion with the
festivals altogether. The _Ordo Romanus_ fixes the spring fast in the
first week of March (then the first month); the summer fast in the
second week of June; the autumnal fast in the third week of September;
and the winter fast in the complete week next before Christmas eve.
Other regulations prevailed in different countries, until the
inconveniences arising from the want of uniformity led to the rule now
observed being laid down under Pope Urban II. as the law of the church,
in the councils of Piacenza and Clermont, A.D. 1095.
The present rule which fixes the ordination of clergy in the Ember weeks
cannot be traced farther back than the time of Pope Gelasius, A.D.
492-496. In the early ages of the church ordinations took place at any
season of the year whenever necessity required. Gelasius is stated by
ritual writers to have been the first who limited them to these
particular times, the special solemnity of the season being in all
probability the cause of the selection. The rule once introduced
commended itself to the mind of the church, and its observance spread.
We find it laid down in the pontificate of Archbishop Ecgbert of York,
A.D. 732-766, and referred to as a canonical rule in a capitulary of
Charlemagne, and it was finally established as a law of the church in
the pontificate of Gregory VII., c. 1085.
AUTHORITIES.--Muratori, _Dissert. de jejun. quat. temp._, c. vii.,
anecdot. tom. ii. p. 262; Bingham, _Antiq. of the Christ. Church_, bk.
iv. ch. vi. S 6, bk. xxi. ch. ii. SS 1-7; Binterin,
_Denkwurdigkeiten_, vol. v. part 2, pp. 133 ff.; Augusti, _Handbuch
der christlich. Archaol._ vol. i. p. 465, iii. p. 486. (E. V.)
EMBEZZLEMENT (A.-Fr. _embesilement_, from _beseler_ or _besillier_, to
destroy), in English law, a peculiar form of theft, which is
distinguished from the ordinary crime in two points:--(1) It is
committed by a person who is in the position of clerk or servant to the
owner of the property stolen; and (2) the property when stolen is in the
possession of such clerk or servant. The definition of embezzlement as a
special form of theft arose out of the difficulties caused by the legal
doctrine that to constitute larceny the property must be taken out of
the possession of the owner. Servants and others were thus able to steal
with impunity goods entrusted to them by their masters. A statute of
Henry VIII. (1529) was passed to meet this case; and it enacted that it
should be felony in servants to convert to their own use caskets,
jewels, money, goods or chattels delivered to them by their masters.
"This act," says Sir J.F. Stephen (_General View of the Criminal Law of
England_), "assisted by certain subtleties according to which the
possession of the servant was taken under particular circumstances to be
the possession of the master, so that the servant by converting the
goods to his own use took them out of his own possession _qua_ servant
(which was his master's possession) and put them into his own possession
_qua_ thief (which was a felony), was considered sufficient for
practical purposes for more than 200 years." In 1799 a clerk who had
converted to his own use a cheque paid across the counter to him by a
customer of his master was held to be not guilty of felony; and in the
same year an act was passed, which, meeting the difficulty in such
cases, enacted that if any clerk or servant, or any person employed as
clerk or servant, should, by virtue of such employment, receive or take
into his possession any money, bonds, bills, &c., for or in the name or
on account of his employers, and should fraudulently embezzle the same,
every such offender should be deemed to have stolen the same. The same
definition is substantially repeated in a Consolidation Act passed in
1827. Numberless difficulties of interpretation arose under these acts,
e.g. as to the meaning of "clerk or servant," as to the difference
between theft and embezzlement, &c.
The law now in force, or the Larceny Act 1861, defines the offence thus
(section 68):--"Whosoever, being a clerk or servant, or being employed
for the purpose or in the capacity of a clerk or servant, shall
fraudulently embezzle any chattel, money or valuable security which
shall be delivered to or received or taken into possession by him for or
in the name or on the account of his master or employer, or any part
thereof, shall be deemed to have feloniously stolen the same from his
master or employer, although such chattel, money or security was not
received into the possession of such master or employer otherwise than
by the actual possession of his clerk, servant or other person so
employed, and being convicted thereof shall be liable, at the discretion
of the court, to be kept in penal servitude for any time not exceeding
fourteen years, and not less than three years," or imprisonment with or
without hard labour for not more than two years. To constitute the
offence thus described three things must concur:--(1) The offender must
be a clerk or servant; (2) he must receive into his possession some
chattel on behalf of his master; and (3) he must fraudulently embezzle
the same. A clerk or servant has been defined to be a person bound
either by an express contract of service or by conduct implying such a
contract to obey the orders and submit to the control of his master in
the transaction of the business which it is his duty as such clerk or
servant to transact. (Stephen's _Digest of the Criminal Law_, Art. 309.)
The Larceny Act 1901, amending sections 75 and 76 of the Larceny Act
1861, also describes similar offences on the part of persons, not being
clerks or servants, to which the name embezzlement is not uncommonly
applied. The act makes the offence of fraudulently misappropriating
property entrusted to a person by another, or received by him on behalf
of another a misdemeanour punishable by penal servitude for a term not
exceeding seven years, or to imprisonment, with or without hard labour,
for a term not exceeding two years. So also trustees fraudulently
disposing of trust property, and directors of companies fraudulently
appropriating the company's property or keeping fraudulent accounts, or
wilfully destroying books or publishing fraudulent statements, are
misdemeanants punishable in the same way.
In the United States the law of embezzlement is founded mainly on the
English statute passed in 1799, but the statutes of most states are so
framed that larceny includes embezzlement. The latter is sometimes
denominated statutory larceny. The punishment varies in the different
states, otherwise there is little substantive difference in the laws of
the two countries.
Statutes have been passed in some states providing that one indicted for
larceny may be convicted of embezzlement. But it is doubtful whether
such statutes are valid where the constitution of the state provides
that the accused must be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him. (See also LARCENY.)
EMBLEM (Gr. [Greek: emblema], something put in or inserted, from [Greek:
emballein], to throw in), a word originally applied in Greek and Latin
(_emblema_) to a raised or inlaid ornament on vases and other vessels,
&c., and also to mosaic or tessellated work. It is in English confined
to a symbolical representation of some object, particularly when used as
a badge or heraldic device.
EMBLEMENTS (from O. Fr. _emblavence de bled_, i.e. corn sprung up above
ground), a term applied in English law to the corn and other crops of
the earth which are produced annually, not spontaneously, but by labour
and industry. Emblements belong therefore to the class of _fructus
industriales_, or "industrial growing crops" (Sale of Goods Act 1893, S
62). They include not only corn and grain of all kinds, but everything
of an artificial and annual profit that is produced by labour and
manuring, e.g. hemp, flax, hops, potatoes, artificial grasses like
clover, but not fruit growing on trees, which come under the general
rule _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_. Emblements are included
within the definition of goods in s. 62 of the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
Where an estate of uncertain duration terminates unexpectedly by the
death of the tenant, or some other event due to no fault of his own, the
law gives to the personal representative the profits of crops of this
nature as compensation for the tilling, manuring and sowing of the land.
If the estate, although of uncertain duration, is determined by the
tenant's own acts, the right to emblements does not arise. The right to
emblements has become of no importance in England since 1851, when it
was provided by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 (s. 1) that any tenant
at rack-rent, whose lease was determined by the death or cesser of the
estate, of a landlord entitled only for his life, or for any other
uncertain interest, shall, instead of emblements, be entitled to hold
the lands until the expiration of the current year of his tenancy. The
right to emblements still exists, however, in favour of (a) a tenant not
within the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, whose estate determines by an
event which could not be foreseen, (b) the executor, as against the heir
of the owner in fee of land in his own occupation, (c) an execution
creditor under a writ directing seizure of goods and chattels. A person
entitled to emblements may enter upon the lands after the determination
of the tenancy for the purpose of cutting and carrying away the crops.
Emblements are liable to distress by the landlord for arrears of rent,
or rent during the period of holding on under the act of 1851 (the
Distress for Rent Act 1737; see Bullen on _Distress_, 4th ed., 1893).
The term "emblements" is unknown in _Scots law_, but the heir or
representative of a life-rent tenant, a liferenter of lands, has an
analogous right to reap the crop (on paying a proportion of the rent)
and a right to recompense for labour in tilling the ground. The Landlord
and Tenant Act 1851 (s. 1) was in force in _Ireland_ till 1860, when it
was replaced by the Land Act 1860, which gave to the tenant an almost
identical right to emblements (s. 34).
In the _United States_ the English common law of emblements has been
generally preserved. In North Carolina there has been legislation on the
lines of the English Landlord and Tenant Act 1851. In some states the
tenant is entitled to compensation also from the person succeeding to
the possession.
Under the French Code Civil, the outgoing tenant is entitled to
convenient housing for the consumption of his fodder and for the
harvests remaining to be got in (art. 1777). The same rule is in force
in Belgium (Code Civil, art. 1777); and in Holland (Civil Code, art.
1635) and Spain (art. 1578). Similar rights are secured to the tenant
under the German Civil Code (arts. 592 et seq.). French law is in
force in Mauritius. The common law of England and the Landlord and
Tenant Act 1851 (14 & 15 Vict., c. 25, s. 1) are in force in many of
the British colonies acquired by settlement. In other colonies they
have been recognized by statute (e.g. Victoria, Landlord and Tenant
Act 1890, No. 1108, ss. 45-48: Tasmania, Landlord and Tenant Act 1874,
38 Vict. No. 12).
AUTHORITIES.--English Law: Fawcett on the _Law of Landlord and Tenant_
(3rd ed., London, 1905); Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (4th ed., London,
1907). Scots Law: Bell's _Principles_ (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899).
Irish Law: Noland and Kanes, _Statutes relating to the Law of Landlord
and Tenant in Ireland_ (10th ed.), by Kelly (Dublin, 1898). American
Law: Stimson, _American Statute Law_ (Boston, 1886); Bouvier, _Law
Dictionary_, ed. by Rawle (Boston and London, 1897); _Ruling Cases_
(London and Boston, 1894-1901), tit. "Emblements" (American Notes).
(A. W. R.)
EMBOSSING, the art of producing raised portions or patterns on the
surface of metal, leather, textile fabrics, cardboard, paper and similar
substances. Strictly speaking, the term is applicable only to raised
impressions produced by means of engraved dies or plates brought
forcibly to bear on the material to be embossed, by various means,
according to the nature of the substance acted on. Thus raised patterns
produced by carving, chiselling, casting and chasing or hammering are
excluded from the range of embossed work. Embossing supplies a
convenient and expeditious medium for producing elegant ornamental
effects in many distinct industries; and especially in its relations to
paper and cardboard its applications are varied and important. Crests,
monograms, addresses, &c., are embossed on paper and envelopes from dies
set in small handscrew presses, a force or counter-die being prepared in
leather faced with a coating of gutta-percha. The dies to be used for
plain embossing are generally cut deeper than those intended to be used
with colours. Colour embossing is done in two ways--the first and
ordinary kind that in which the ink is applied to the raised portion of
the design. The colour in this case is spread on the die with a brush
and the whole surface is carefully cleaned, leaving only ink in the
depressed parts of the engraving. In the second variety--called cameo
embossing--the colour is applied to the flat parts of the design by
means of a small printing roller, and the letters or design in relief is
left uncoloured. In embossing large ornamental designs, engraved plates
or electrotypes therefrom are employed, the force or counterpart being
composed of mill-board faced with gutta-percha. In working these,
powerful screw-presses, in principle like coining or medal-striking
presses, are employed. Embossing is also most extensively practised for
ornamental purposes in the art of bookbinding. The blocked ornaments on
cloth covers for books, and the blocking or imitation tooling on the
cheaper kinds of leather work, are effected by means of powerful
embossing or arming presses. (See BOOK-BINDING.) For impressing embossed
patterns on wall-papers, textiles of various kinds, and felt, cylinders
of copper, engraved with the patterns to be raised, are employed, and
these are mounted in calender frames, in which they press against
rollers having a yielding surface, or so constructed that depressions in
the engraved cylinders fit into corresponding elevations in those
against which they press. The operations of embossing and colour
printing are also sometimes effected together in a modification of the
ordinary cylinder printing machine used in calico-printing, in which it
is only necessary to introduce suitably engraved cylinders. For many
purposes the embossing rollers must be maintained at a high temperature
while in operation; and they are heated either by steam, by gas jets, or
by the introduction of red-hot irons within them. The stamped or
struck ornaments in sheet metal, used especially in connexion with the
brass and Britannia-metal trades, are obtained by a process of
embossing--hard steel dies with forces or counterparts of soft metal
being used in their production. A kind of embossed ornament is formed on
the surface of soft wood by first compressing and consequently sinking
the parts intended to be embossed, then planing the whole surface level,
after which, when the wood is placed in water, the previously depressed
portion swells up and rises to its original level. Thus an embossed
pattern is produced which may be subsequently sharpened and finished by
the ordinary process of carving (see CHASING and REPOUSSE).
EMBRACERY (from the O. Fr. _embraseour_, an embracer, i.e. one who
excites or instigates, literally one who sets on fire, from _embraser_,
to kindle a fire; "embrace," i.e. to hold or clasp in the arms, is from
O. Fr. _embracer_, Lat. _in_ and _bracchia_, arms), in law, the
attempting to influence a juryman corruptly to give his verdict in
favour of one side or the other in a trial, by promise, persuasions,
entreaties, money, entertainments and the like. It is an offence both at
common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and imprisonment. As a
statutory offence it dates back to 1360. The offence is complete,
whether any verdict has been given or not, and whether the verdict is in
accordance with the weight of evidence or otherwise. The person making
the attempt, and any juryman who consents, are equally punishable. The
false verdict of a jury, whether occasioned by embracery or otherwise,
was formerly considered criminal, and jurors were severely punished,
being proceeded against by writ of attaint (q.v.). The Juries Act of
1825, in abolishing writs of attaint, made a special exemption as
regards jurors guilty of embracery (S 61). Prosecution for the offence
has been so extremely rare that when a case occurred in 1891 (_R. v.
Baker_, 113, Cent. Crim. Ct. Sess. Pap. 374) it was stated that no
precedent could be found for the indictment. The defendant was fined
L200, afterwards reduced to L100.
EMBRASURE, in architecture, the opening in a battlement between the two
raised solid portions or merlons, sometimes called a crenelle (see
BATTLEMENT, CRENELLE); also the splay of a window.
EMBROIDERY (M.E. _embrouderie_, from O. Fr. _embroder_, Mod. Fr.
_broder_), the ornamentation of textile fabrics and other materials with
needlework. The beginnings of the art of embroidery probably date back
to a very primitive stage in the history of all peoples, since plain
stitching must have been one of the earliest attainments of mankind, and
from that it is but a short step to decorative needlework of some kind.
The discovery of needles among the relics of Swiss lake-dwellings shows
that their primitive inhabitants were at least acquainted with the art
of stitching.
[Illustration: PLATE I.
FIG. 6.--PANEL OF PETIT-POINT EMBROIDERY, WITH A REPRESENTATION OF
COURTLY FIGURES IN A LANDSCAPE. English work of the end of the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. Scale: 1/6th.
FIG. 7.--PORTION OF THE "BAYEUX TAPESTRY," A BAND OF EMBROIDERY WITH
THE STORY OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND. In the museum at Bayeux,
11th century work. Scale: 1/4th.]
[Illustration: PLATE II.
FIG. 8.--HANGING OF WOOLLEN CLOTH, EMBROIDERED WITH THE FIVE WISE AND
THE FIVE FOOLISH VIRGINS. German work, dated 1598. Scale: 1/10th.
FIG. 9.--PORTION OF THE ORPHREY OF THE "SYON COPE," EMBROIDERED WITH
SHIELDS OF ARMS. The cope, formerly in the monastery of Syon near
Isleworth, is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. English work of
the 13th century. Scale: 5/16ths.
FIG. 10.--PORTION OF A BAND OF LOOSE LINEN, EMBROIDERED IN WHITE
THREAD WITH FIGURES AND ANIMALS. German work of the later part of the
14th century. Scale: 2/7ths.]
In concerning ourselves solely with those periods of which examples
survive, we must pass over a wide gap and begin with the
anciently-civilized land of Egypt. The sandy soil and dry climate of
that country have led to the preservation of woven stuffs and
embroideries of unique historic interest. The principal, and by far the
earliest, known pieces which have a bearing on the present subject,
found in 1903 in the tomb of Tethmosis (Thoutmosis, or Thothmes) IV. at
Thebes, are now in the Cairo Museum. There are three fragments, entirely
of linen, inwrought with patterns in blue, red, green and black (fig.
1). A kind of tapestry method is used, the patterns being wrought upon
the warp threads of the ground, instead of upon the finished web or
woven material. Such a process, generally supplemented, as in this case,
by a few stitches of fine needlework, was still in common use at a far
later time. The largest of the three fragments at Cairo bears, in
addition to rows of lotus flowers and papyrus inflorescences, a
cartouche containing the name of Amenophis (Amenhotep) II. (c. 15th
century B.C.); another is inwrought with the name of Tethmosis III.
(c. 16th century B.C.).[1]
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fragment of a linen robe, found in the tomb of
Tethmosis (Thothmes) IV. at Thebes, and now in the Cairo Museum. The
cartouche has the name of Amenophis (Amenhotep) II. (c. 15th century
B.C.).]
No other embroidered stuffs which can be assigned to so early a date
have hitherto come to light in the Nile valley (nor indeed elsewhere),
and the student who wishes to gain a fuller knowledge of the textile
patterns of the ancient Egyptians must be referred to the wall-paintings
and sculptured reliefs which have been preserved in considerable
numbers.
From the ancient civilizations of Babylon and Assyria no fragments of
embroidery, nor even of woven stuffs, have come down to us. The fine
series of wall-reliefs from Nineveh in the British Museum give some idea
of the geometrical and floral patterns and diapers which adorned the
robes of the ancient Assyrians. The discovery of the ruins of the palace
of Darius I. (521-485 B.C.) at Susa in 1885 has thrown some light upon
the textile art of the ancient Persians. They evidently owed much to the
nations whom they had supplanted. The famous relief from this palace
(now in the Louvre) represents a procession of archers, wearing long
robes covered with small diaper patterns, perhaps of embroidery.
The exact significance of the words used in the book of Exodus in
describing the robes of Aaron (ch. xxviii.) and the hangings and
ornaments of the Tabernacle (ch. xxvi.) cannot be determined, and the
"broidered work" of the prophecy of Ezekiel (ch. xxvii.) at a later time
is also of uncertain meaning. It seems likely that much of this ancient
work was of the tapestry class, such as we have found in the early
fragments from Thebes.
The methods of the ancient Greek embroiderer, or "variegator" ([Greek:
poikiltes]) to whom woven garments were submitted for enrichment, can
only be conjectured. The _peplos_ or woven cloth made every fifth year
to cover or shade the statue of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, and
carried at the Panathenaic festival,[2] was ornamented with the battles
of the gods and giants. The late Dr J.H. Middleton thought that very
possibly most of the elaborate work upon these _peploi_ was done by the
needle. That true embroidery, in the modern sense--the decoration by
means of the needle of a finished woven material--was practised among
the ancient Greeks, has been demonstrated by the finding of some textile
fragments in graves in the Crimea; these are now in the Hermitage at St
Petersburg. One of them, of purple woollen material, from a tomb
assigned to the 4th century B.C., is embroidered in wools of different
colours with a man on horseback, honeysuckle ornament and tendrils.
Another woollen piece, attributed to the following century, has a stem
and arrow-head leaves worked in gold thread.[3]
In turning to ancient Rome, it is well first briefly to notice Pliny's
account of the craft (_Nat. Hist._ viii.), as recording the views
current in Rome at his time (1st century A.D.). After relating that
Homer mentions embroidered garments (_pictas vestes_), he states that
the Phrygians first used the needle for embroidered robes, which were
thence called Phrygionian (_Phrygioniae_), and that Attalic garments
were named from Attalus II., king of Pergamum (159-138 B.C.), the
inventor of the art of embroidering in gold. He further relates that
Babylon gave the name to embroideries of divers colours, for the
production of which that city was famous. By the Romans the art was
designated as "painting with the needle" (_acu pingere_), a term used by
Virgil in speaking of the decoration of robes, by Ovid (who describes it
as an art taught by Minerva), and by Roman writers generally when
referring to embroidery.[4] It is to be regretted that no examples have
been discovered in the neighbourhood of the Roman capital. For
embroideries made under Roman influence we must again look to Egypt.
They formed the decoration of garments[5] and mummy-wrappings from the
cemeteries in Upper and Middle Egypt, which have been so extensively
rifled of late years. Those of Roman type date approximately from the
first five centuries of the Christian era. The earliest represent human
figures, animals, birds, geometrical and interlacing ornaments, vases,
fruit, flowers and foliage (especially the vine). They are generally
done in purple wool and undyed linen thread by the tapestry process
employed in Egypt at least fifteen centuries earlier, as we have seen;
most of the patterns have had the lines more clearly marked out by the
ordinary method of needlework. Towards the end of this period a greater
choice of colours is seen, and Christian symbols appear. At this time
examples worked entirely upon the finished web are found (fig. 2). The
transition is easy from such work to the veritable "needle-paintings,"
representing scenes from the gospels, produced in Egypt shortly after
(fig. 3). Such embroideries are evidently akin to those mentioned by
Bishop Asterius (330-410), who describes the garments worn by effeminate
Christians as painted like the walls of their houses.[6]
From the time of Justinian (527-565) onwards for some centuries, the art
of Europe, embroidery with the rest, was dominated by that of the
Byzantine empire. To trace the progress of the highly conventionalized
Byzantine style, becoming more rigid and stereotyped as time passes,
belongs to the general history of art, and such a task cannot be
attempted here. Perhaps the most remarkable example of all which have
survived to illustrate the work of the Byzantine embroiderers is the
blue silk robe known as the dalmatic of Charlemagne or of Leo III., in
the sacristy of St Peter's at Rome (fig. 4). According to the present
consensus of opinion it belongs to a later time than either of those
dignitaries, dating most probably from the 12th century.[7] In front is
represented Christ enthroned as Judge of the world, a youthful but
majestic figure; on the back is the Transfiguration. These, as well as
the minor subjects, are explained by Greek inscriptions. The wide
influence of Byzantine art gradually died out after the Latin sack of
Constantinople in the year 1204, although the style lingered, and
lingers still, in certain localities, notably at Mount Athos.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Embroidered panel from a linen garment, with a
representation of the Annunciation and the Salutation. Found in a
cemetery in Egypt. Coptic work of the 6th or 7th century A.D.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Embroidered panel from a linen garment, with a
jewelled cross and two birds within a wreath. Found in a cemetery at
Akhmim, Upper Egypt. Egypto-Roman work of the 4th or 5th century A.D.]
Palermo in Sicily succeeded Byzantium as the capital of the arts in
Europe, although its ascendancy was of brief duration. Under the Norman
kings of Sicily the style was strongly oriental, consequent upon the
earlier occupation of the island by the Saracens, and upon the
employment of Saracenic craftsmen by the Normans. The magnificent red
silk mantle at Vienna, embroidered in gold thread with a date-palm and
two lions springing upon camels, and enriched with pearls and enamel
plaques, bears round the edge an Arabic inscription, recording that it
was made in the royal factory of the capital of Sicily (Palermo) in the
year 528 (= A.D. 1134). At that time Roger, the first Norman king, was
on the throne. Another of the imperial coronation-robes--a linen alb
with gold embroidery--is also at Vienna.[8] An inscription in Latin and
Arabic states that it was made in the year 1181, under the reign of
William II. (Norman king of Sicily, 1166-1189).
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Embroidered robe known as the "Dalmatic of
Charlemagne," or of Leo III., preserved in the sacristy of St Peter's at
Rome. Byzantine work, probably of the 12th century.]
From about that time distinct national styles began to develop in
different places. In tracing the progress of the embroiderer's art
during the middle ages we must rely mainly upon the many fine examples
of ecclesiastical work which have been preserved. The costumes of men
and women, as well as curtains and hangings and such articles of
domestic use, were often richly adorned with embroidery. These have
mostly perished; while the careful preservation and comparatively
infrequent use of the vestments and other objects devoted to the service
of the church have given us tangible evidence of the attainments of the
medieval embroiderer. Much of this work was produced in convents, but
old documents show that in monasteries also were to be found men known
for their skill in needlework. Other names, both of men and women, are
recorded, showing that the craft was by no means exclusively confined to
monastic foundations. Gilds of embroiderers existed far back in medieval
times.
In England the craft has been a favourite employment for many centuries,
and persons of all ranks have occupied their spare hours at needlework.
Some embroidered fragments, found in 1826-1827 in the tomb of St
Cuthbert at Durham, and now kept in the cathedral library, were worked,
chiefly in gold thread, by order of Aelfflaeda, queen of Edward the Elder,
for Fridestan, bishop of Winchester, early in the 10th century. In the
later part of the following century the "Bayeux tapestry" was
produced--a work of unique importance (Plate I. fig. 7). It is a band of
linen, more than 230 ft. long, embroidered in coloured wools with the
story of the Norman conquest of England. (See BAYEUX TAPESTRY.)
Some fragments of metallic embroidery on silk, of the 12th and 13th
centuries, may be seen in the library of Worcester cathedral. They were
removed from the coffins of two bishops, William de Blois (1218-1236)
and Walter de Cantelupe (1236-1266). A fragment of gold embroidery from
the tomb of the latter bishop is preserved in the Victoria and Albert
Museum at South Kensington, and others are in the British Museum. In the
13th century English embroidery was famous throughout western Europe,
and many embroidered objects are described in inventories of that time
as being _de opere anglicano_. During that century, and the early part
of the next, English work was at its best. The most famous example is
the "Syon cope" at South Kensington, belonging to the latter half of the
13th century (see COPE, Plate I. fig. 2). It represents the coronation
of the Virgin, the Crucifixion, the archangel Michael transfixing the
dragon, the death and burial of the Virgin, our Lord meeting Mary
Magdalene in the garden, the Apostles and the hierarchies of angels. The
broad orphrey is embroidered with a series of heraldic shields (Plate
II. fig. 9). Other embroideries of the period are at Steeple Aston,
Chesterfield (Col. Butler-Bowden), Victoria and Albert and British
museums, Rome (St John Lateran), Bologna, Pienza, Anagni, Ascoli, St
Bertrand de Comminges, Lyons museum, Madrid (archaeological museum),
Toledo and Vich.
During the course of the 14th and 15th centuries embroideries produced
in England were not equal to the earlier work. Towards the end of the
latter century, and until the dissolution of the monasteries in the
next, much ecclesiastical embroidery of effective design was done, and
many examples are still to be seen in churches throughout the country.
In the Tudor period the costumes of the wealthy were often richly
adorned with needlework. The portraits of King Henry VIII., Queen
Elizabeth and their courtiers show how magnificent was the embroidery
used for such purposes. Many examples, especially of the latter reign,
worked with very effective and beautiful floral patterns, have come down
to these times. A kind of embroidery known as "black work", done in
black silk on linen, was popular during the same reign. A tunic
embroidered for Queen Elizabeth, with devices copied from contemporary
woodcuts, is an excellent example of this work. It now belongs to the
Viscount Falkland. Another class of work, popular at the same time, was
closely worked in wools and silks on open-mesh material like canvas,
which was entirely covered by the embroidery. Figures in rich costume
were often introduced (Plate I. fig. 6). This method was much practised
in France, and the term applied to it in that country, "_au petit
point_," has become generally used. Throughout the 17th and 18th
centuries embroidery in England, though sometimes lacking in good taste,
maintained generally a high standard, and that done to-day, based on the
study of old examples, need not fear comparison with any modern work.
During these three centuries bold floral patterns for hangings, curtains
and coverlets have been usual (Plate III. fig. 13), but smaller works,
such as samplers, covers of work-boxes, and pictorial and landscape
subjects (fig. 5), have been produced in large numbers. In the 18th
century gentlemen's coats and waistcoats and ladies' dresses were
extensively embroidered.
In France, embroidery, like all the arts practised by that nation, has
been characterized by much grace and beauty, and many good specimens
belonging to different periods are known. The vestments associated with
the name of St Thomas of Canterbury at Sens may be either of French or
English work (12th century). To the later part of the following century
belongs a band of embroidery, representing the coronation of the Virgin,
the Adoration of the Magi, the presentation in the Temple, and other
subjects beneath Gothic arches, preserved in the Hotel-Dieu at Chateau
Thierry. The mitre of Jean de Marigny, archbishop of Rouen (1347-1351),
in the museum at Evreux, embroidered with figures of St Peter and St
Eloy, may be regarded as representative of 14th-century work. An
altar-frontal with the Annunciation embroidered in silks and gold and
silver upon a blue silk damask ground, now in the museum at Lille, is a
very beautiful example of Franco-Flemish art in the second half of the
15th century. It was originally in the church at Noyelles-lez-Seclin. An
embroidery more characteristically French, and belonging to the same
century, is in the museum at Chartres. It is a triptych, having in the
middle a _pieta_, on the left wing St John the Evangelist, and on the
right St Catherine of Alexandria. Each leaf has a canopy of architecture
represented in perspective. In the 16th century an effective style of
embroidery was practised in France; the pattern is generally a graceful
combination of floral and scroll forms, cut out of velvet, satin or
silk, and applied to a thick woollen cloth. Later work, chiefly of a
floral character, has served for the decoration of costumes,
ecclesiastical vestments, curtains and hangings, and the seats and backs
of chairs.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Oval picture in silk embroidery: Fame scattering
Flowers over Shakespeare's Tomb. English work of the 18th century.]
Under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy in the 15th century art in the
southern provinces of the Netherlands prospered greatly, and able
artists were found to meet the wishes of those munificent rulers. The
local schools of painting, which flourished under their patronage,
appear to have very considerably influenced the embroiderers' art. Great
care and pains were given to reproduce as accurately as possible the
painted cartoon or picture which served as the model. The heads are
individualized, and the folds of the draperies are laboriously worked
out in detail. The masonry of buildings, the veinings of marble, and the
architectural enrichments are often represented with careful fidelity,
and landscape backgrounds are shown in every detail. As in the case of
the tapestries of the Netherlands--the finest which the world has
seen--there can be no doubt that patrons of art and donors, when
requiring embroideries to be made, secured the services of eminent
painters for the designs. There are many examples of such careful work.
A set of vestments known as the _ornement de la Toison d'Or_, now in the
Hof-museum at Vienna, is embroidered in the most minute manner with
sacred subjects and figures of saints and angels. The stiff disposal of
many of these figures, within flattened hexagons arranged in zones, is
not pleasing, but the needlework is most remarkable for skill and
carefulness. They are of 15th-century work. A cope belonging to the
second half of that century was given to the cathedral of Tournay by
Guillaume Fillatre, abbot of St Bertin at St Omer, and bishop of Tournay
(d. 1473). It is now in the museum there. Upon the orphreys and hood are
represented the seven Works of Mercy. The body of the cope, of plain red
velvet, is powdered with stags' heads and martlets (the heraldic
bearings of the bishop); between the antlers of the stags is worked in
each case the initial letter of the bishop's name, and the morse is
embroidered with his arms. Some panels of embroidery, once decorating an
altar in the abbey of Grimbergen, and now at Brussels, illustrate the
best class of Flemish needlework in the 16th century. The scenes are
taken from the Gospel: the marriage at Cana, Christ in the house of the
Pharisee, Christ in the house of Zacchaeus, the Last Supper, and the
supper at Emmaus. In the museum at Bern there are some embroideries of
great historic and artistic interest, found in the tent of Charles the
Bold, duke of Burgundy, after his defeat at Granson in 1476. They
include some armorial panels and two tabards or heralds' coats. A tabard
of the following century, with the royal arms of Spain in applied work,
and most probably of Flemish origin, is preserved in the archaeological
museum at Ghent.
The later art of Holland was largely influenced by the Dutch conquests
in the East Indies at the end of the 16th century, and the subsequent
founding of the Dutch East India Company. Embroideries were among the
articles produced in the East under Dutch influence for exportation to
Holland.
Much embroidery for ecclesiastical purposes has been executed in Belgium
of late years. It follows medieval models, but is lacking in the
qualities which make those of so much importance in the history of the
art.
There is perhaps little worthy of special notice in Italy before the
beginning of the 14th century, but the embroideries produced at that
time show great skill and are very beautiful. The names of two
Florentine embroiderers of the 14th century--both men--have come down to
us, inscribed upon their handiwork. A fine frontal for an altar, very
delicately worked in gold and silver and silks of many colours, is
preserved in the archaeological museum at Florence. The subject in the
middle is the coronation of the Virgin; on either side is an arcade with
figures of apostles and saints. The embroiderer's name is worked under
the central subject: _Jacobus Cambi de Floretia me fecit MCCCXXXVIII._
The other example is in the basilica at Manresa in Spain. It also is an
altar-frontal, worked in silk and gold upon an embroidered gold ground.
There is a large central panel representing the Crucifixion, with nine
scenes from the Gospel on each side. The embroidered inscription is as
follows: _Geri Lapi rachamatore me fecit in Florentia._ It is of
14th-century work. An embroidered orphrey in the Victoria and Albert
Museum belongs to the early part of the same century. It represents the
Annunciation, the coronation of the Virgin and figures of apostles and
saints beneath arches. In the spandrels are the orders of angels with
their names in Italian. In the best period of Italian art successful
painters did not disdain to design for embroidery. Francesco Squarcione
(1394-1474), the founder of the Paduan school of painting, and master of
Mantegna, is called in a document of the year 1423 a tailor and
embroiderer (_sartor et recamator_). It is recorded that Antonio del
Pollaiuolo painted cartoons which were carried out in embroidery,[9] and
Pierino del Vaga, according to Vasari, did likewise. In the 16th and
17th centuries large numbers of towels and linen covers were embroidered
in red, green or brown silk with borders of floral patterns, sometimes
(especially in the southern provinces) combined with figure subjects and
bird and animal forms (Plate IV. fig. 15). Another type of embroidery
popular at the same time, both in Italy and Spain, is known as applique
(or applied) work. The pattern is cut out and applied to a
bright-coloured ground, frequently of velvet, as in the example
illustrated (Plate III. fig. 14). The later embroidery of Sicily follows
that of the mainland. A remarkable coverlet, quilted and padded with
wool so as to throw the design into relief, is shown to be of Sicilian
origin by the inscriptions which it bears (Plate VI. fig. 18). It
represents scenes from the story of Tristan, agreeing in the main part
with the _novella_ entitled "La Tavola Rotonda o l'istoria di Tristano."
The quilt dates from the end of the 14th century. Many pattern-books for
embroidery and lace were published in Italy in the 16th and 17th
centuries.[10]
[Illustration: PLATE III.
FIG. 11.--SILK PANEL, EMBROIDERED WITH A HANGING LANTERN. Chinese work
of the 17th or 18th century. Scale: 1/4th.
FIG. 12.--PORTION OF A LARGE HANGING, EMBROIDERED WITH FIGURES WITHIN
MEDALLIONS, AND INSCRIPTIONS. From a church in Iceland, probably 17th
century. Scale: 1/8th.
FIG. 13.--PORTION OF A BED-HANGING, EMBROIDERED WITH FLOWERING TREES
GROWING FROM MOUNDS. English work of the later part of the 17th
century. Scale: 1/12th.
FIG. 14.--APPAREL FOR A DALMATIC OF GREEN VELVET, EMBROIDERED WITH AN
APPLIQUE PATTERN. Italian work of the 16th century. Scale: 1/4th.]
[Illustration: PLATE IV.
FIG. 15.--PORTION OF THE BORDER OF A LINEN COVER, EMBROIDERED WITH A
FIGURE OF ST CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA AND KNEELING VOTARIES. Italian
work of the 16th century. Scale: 2/5ths.
FIG. 16.--LINEN BORDER, EMBROIDERED WITH DEBASED FIGURES, BIRDS AND
ANIMALS AMID FLOWERS. Cretan work, dated 1762. Scale: 4/9ths.]
In the greater part of the Spanish peninsula art was for many centuries
dominated by the Arabs, who overran the country in the 8th century, and
were not finally subdued until the end of the 15th. Hispano-Moorish
embroideries of the medieval period usually have interlacing patterns
combined with Arabic inscriptions. In the 15th and 16th centuries
Italian influence becomes evident. Later the effects of the Spanish
conquests in Asia are seen. Eastern influence is, however, stronger in
the case of the Portuguese, who seized Goa, on the west coast of the
Indian peninsula, early in the 16th century, and during the whole of
that century held the monopoly of the eastern trade. Many large
embroideries were produced in the Indies, showing eastern floral
patterns mingled with representations of Europeans, ships and coats of
arms. Embroideries done in Portugal in the 16th and 17th centuries
strongly reflect the influence of oriental patterns.
German embroidery of the 12th and 13th centuries adheres closely to the
traditions of Byzantine art. A peculiarity of much medieval German work
is a tendency to treat the draperies of the figures as flat surfaces to
be covered with diaper patterns, showing no folds. A cope from
Hildesheim cathedral, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a
typical illustration of such work, dating from the end of the 13th
century. It is embroidered in silk upon linen with the martyrdom of
apostles and saints. Other specimens of embroidery in this manner may be
seen at Halberstadt. An altar-frontal from Rupertsburg (Bingen),
belonging to the earlier years of the 13th century, is now in the
Brussels museum. It is of purple silk, embroidered with Christ in
majesty and figures of saints. It was no doubt made in the time of
Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz (1201-1230), who is represented upon it.
A type of medieval German embroidery is done in white linen thread on a
loose linen ground--a sort of darning-work (Plate II. fig. 10). Earlier
specimens of this work are often diversified by using a variety of
stitches tending to form diaper patterns. The use of long scrolling
bands with inscriptions explaining the subjects represented is more
usual in German work than in that of any other country. In the 15th
century much fine embroidery was produced in the neighbourhood of
Cologne. Later German work shows a preference for bold floral patterns,
sometimes mingled with heraldry; the larger examples are often worked in
wool on a woollen cloth ground (Plate II. fig. 8). The embroidery of the
northern nations (Denmark, Scandinavia, Iceland) was later in
development than that of the southern peoples. Figure subjects evidently
belonging to as late a period as the 17th century are still disposed in
formal rows of circles, and accompanied by primitive ornamental forms
(Plate III. fig. 12). A remarkable early embroidered fabric covers the
relics of St Knud (Canute, king of Denmark, 1080-1086) in his shrine in
the church dedicated to him at Odense. It is apparently contemporary
work. The pattern consists of displayed eagles within oval compartments,
in blue on a red ground.
In Greece and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean embroidery has
been much employed for the decoration of costumes, portieres and
bed-curtains. Large numbers have been acquired in Crete (Plate IV. fig.
16), and patterns of a distinctive character are also found in Rhodes,
Cos, Patmos and other islands. Some examples show traces of the
influence of the Venetian trading settlements in the archipelago in the
16th and 17th centuries. Among the Turks a great development of the arts
followed upon the conquest of Asia Minor and the Byzantine territory in
Europe. Their embroideries show a preference for floral forms--chiefly
roses, tulips, carnations and hyacinths--which are treated with great
decorative skill.
The use of embroidery in Asia--especially in India, China, Turkestan and
Persia--dates back to very early times. The conservatism of all these
peoples renders the date of surviving examples often difficult to
establish, but the greater number of such embroideries now to be seen in
Europe are certainly of no great age.
India has produced vast quantities of embroideries of varying
excellence. The fine woollen shawls of Kashmir are widely famed; their
first production is supposed to date back to a remote period. The
somewhat gaudy effect of many Indian embroideries is at times
intensified by the addition of beetles' wings, tinsel or fragments of
looking-glass. China is the original home of the silkworm, and the
textile arts there reached an advanced stage at a date long before that
of any equally skilful work in Europe. Embroideries worked there are
generally in silk threads on a ground of the same material. Such work is
largely used for various articles of costume, and for coverlets,
screens, banners, chair-covers and table-hangings. The ornaments upon
the robes especially are prescribed according to the rank of the wearer.
The designs include elaborate landscapes with buildings and figures,
dragons, birds, animals, symbolic devices, and especially flowers (Plate
III. fig. 11). Dr Bushell states that the stuff to be embroidered is
first stretched upon a frame, on pivots, and that pattern-books with
woodcuts have been published for the workers' guidance. A kind of
embroidery exported in large quantities from Canton to Europe rivals
painting in the variety and gradation of its colours, and in the
smoothness and regularity of its surface.
Embroidery in Japan resembles in many ways that of China, the country
which probably supplied its first models. As a general rule, Japanese
work is more pictorial and fanciful than that of China, and the
stitching is looser. It frequently happens that the brush has been used
to add to the variety of the embroidered work, and in other cases the
needle has been an accessory upon a fabric already ornamented with
printing or painting. Japanese work is characterized generally by bold
and broad treatment, and especial skill is shown in the representation
of landscapes--figures, rocks, waterfalls, animals, birds, trees,
flowers and clouds being each rendered by a few lines. More elaborate
are the large temple hangings, the pattern being frequently thrown into
relief, and completely covering the ground material.
Embroidery in Persia has been used to a great extent for the decoration
of carpets, for prayer or for use at the bath (Plate V. fig. 17). Robes,
hangings, curtains, tablecovers and portieres are also embroidered. A
preference is shown for floral patterns, but the Mahommedans of Persia
had no scruples about introducing the forms of men and animals--the
former engaged in hawking or hunting, or feasting in gardens. Panels
embroidered with close diagonal bands of flowers were made into loose
trousers for women, now obsolete. The embroidered shawls of Kerman are
widely celebrated. Hangings and covers of cloth patchwork have been
embroidered in many parts of Persia, more particularly at Resht and
Ispahan.
In Turkestan, and especially at Bokhara, excellent embroideries have
been, and are, produced, some patterns being of a bold floral type, and
others conventionalized into hooked and serrated outlines. The work is
most usually in bright-coloured silks, red predominating, on a linen
material.
In North Africa the embroidery of Morocco and Algeria deserves notice;
the former inclines more to geometrical forms and the latter to patterns
of a floral character.
[Illustration: PLATE V.
FIG. 17.--LINEN PRAYER CARPET, QUILTED AND EMBROIDERED IN CHAIN STITCH
WITH COLOURED SILKS, CHIEFLY WHITE, YELLOW, GREEN AND RED.
The border consists of a wide band set between two narrow ones, each
with a waved continuous stem with blossoms in the wavings. Similar
floral scrolling and leafy stem ornament fills the space beyond the
pointed shape at the upper end, which is edged with acanthus leaf
devices. The main ground below the niche or pointed shape is a
blossoming plant, with balanced bunches of flowers between which are
leaves, formally arranged in a pointed oval shape. Persian work, 18th
century, 4 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. 11 in. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
[Illustration: PLATE VI.