erected elsewhere, as the Blackfoot believe the ghost of the deceased
haunts the spot. Should a young child die, the house will be abandoned
for a time only. In former times, the tipi was abandoned or used as a
burial-tipi.
When all hope for the patient is abandoned, he is painted and dressed in
his best costume and, at present, often taken out of the house to a tipi
so that it may not be necessary to tear down the building. After death
the body is wrapped in a blanket, formerly in a robe, and buried within
a few hours.[32]
In recent years, the Indians have been forced to use coffins and to
practise interment. These are placed upon high hills and barely covered
with earth and stones. No effort is made to mark the spot and fear keeps
all the mourners far from the place. Indeed, it is difficult to persuade
any one to go near a known burial site. Some distinguished chiefs rest
in houses built on lonely hills. In former times, tree burial was common
but now rare, only one example having come under our observation. A
person of some importance was placed in a tipi on some high place. The
edges of the tipi cover were often weighted down with stones, circles of
which are often met with on elevated positions. Persons usually make
requests of their families that certain personal belongings are to be
buried with them. Sometimes the request is for a horse; in this event,
one will be killed at the burial place. It was quite usual for the tail
and mane of a man’s favorite horse to be cut at his death.
At death, or its announcement, there is great wailing among the women,
who gash their legs and often their arms. Their hair is cut short, a
practice often followed by the men. Such hair should be thrown away and
not handled or used for any practical purpose. Women may wear a single
bead over one ankle for a time. In former times, a man would take to the
warpath and go along indifferently, neither seeking enemies nor avoiding
them if encountered. At present, they go on a long visit to some distant
relative. If a man owning an important medicine bundle loses a dear
relative he may be moved to cast it into the fire or otherwise desecrate
it because of its failure to prevent death; hence, a person once owning
such a bundle takes it away at once. After a time, medicine men approach
the mourner with suggestions that it is well to take up the care of his
bundle now. When he consents, a sweat house is made and after the
ceremony, the mourner is painted and newly dressed. The medicine bundle
is then brought into his tipi and he resumes his former functions. While
the preceding is the normal order of events, men have been known to
destroy medicine bundles in the face of great opposition.
During the mourning period—an indefinite time—the man may dress in the
meanest possible clothes, neglect his hair and person, and live in a
small dilapidated tipi. However, there seems to be less formality in
this than among the Dakota, and the spectacular abandonment of the
mourning state often observed among the Teton is wanting.
In this connection, may be mentioned a practice not unlike “running
a-mok,” though apparently without mania. A man realizing that he is the
victim of an incurable disease may with more or less deliberation arm
himself and attempt the life of all persons he may meet. He will
announce that as he must die, he expects to take as many with him as
possible. The records of the reservations will show a number of killings
brought about in this way. Thus, a man took his wife out to a small
hill, shot her and took his stand against his pursuers, whom he held at
bay to his last cartridge with which he, though badly wounded, took his
own life. An attempt of this kind came under the observation of the
writer while camping with a Blood band. A young man suffering from
consumption, slightly intoxicated and threatened with arrest for
disorderly conduct, announced to his family one night that he expected
to kill all of them and as many of the camp as possible. Fortunately,
while he attacked his wife with a knife, his rifle was spirited away and
the camp aroused; yet, as he kept out of reach, it was necessary to hold
him off with guns until dawn, when he fled in terror of capture alive.
Many officials attribute such outbreaks entirely to intoxication, but
the evidence we have gathered indicates that there is a conventional
side to the practice and a strong probability that it is a variant, and
in some respects a survival, of taking to the warpath. Officials and
many Indians, respect the convention to such an extent that every effort
is made to prevent persons fatally afflicted becoming aware of the fact
until near the hour of death. The writer found a similar practice among
the Teton, though it seemed that one life is regarded as sufficient, the
doomed man usually taking his own life after a short interval.
-----
[32] See Maximilian, Vol. 23, 121.
TALES OF ADVENTURE.
Many Blackfoot men now but a half-century old took part in raids and
fights, or went on the warpath, so that now, as of old, deeds of war are
important social assets. In former times, only men of great deeds were
called upon to perform certain public and ceremonial functions, a custom
still in force but naturally less binding. While there are other social
ideals, such as owning important medicines, becoming a head man and
possessing wealth, that of being a successful warrior can scarcely be
over-estimated. The tale of adventure as told by the chief actor is the
delight of the fireside and entrances old and young alike when delivered
by a skilful narrator. Other tales, those of tradition and hearsay, are
seldom offered as it is the custom for one to narrate his own
experiences, a rather high ideal of truthfulness being entertained. Of
course, there are historical traditions, but they are usually given in
brief without much life. Adventures with animals and of the hunt have a
place, but are of far less social significance. The following is offered
as a type of war narrative and also because it gives a very clear
picture of just how an expedition for plunder was conducted. It was
narrated by Strangle Wolf, a very old man, and recorded by Mr. Duvall.
It was in the fall of the year. I was living with Lazy Boy, for
he was an uncle of mine. Lazy Boy was one of the chiefs of the
Blackfoot Indians. In the evening, Lazy Boy said to me,
“Strangle Wolf, we will go out for some Assiniboine horses.”
This meant, of course, to steal them. “I have plenty of extra
pairs of moccasins. We shall need them, for we are going to
travel on foot.”
Somehow, Lazy Boy’s father-in-law, Heavy Shield, heard of this,
came over that night, and said to him, “Lazy Boy, you must not
go this time. You can come over in the morning and take my best
horses; I don’t want you to go. I have had bad dreams.”
Then the old man returned to his lodge. Lazy Boy only laughed
and said to his wife: “Go tell your father that I won’t listen
to him this time. I must go and get some horses to give him, for
the Indians never give him any even when they have many. Another
thing is that I have my party ready and will start in the
morning.”
In the morning, we all started. There were thirty of us in the
party. Lazy Boy was the leader. He was noted as a fast walker,
and asked me to take the lead with him. Lazy Boy fell to telling
me about things he said I ought to learn. He said, “Whenever you
are out with a war party, as we are now, and all are on foot,
you should keep close to the leader, for if you hang back at the
tail end you will always be in a trot to keep up with the
others; but if you are in the lead you can keep the gait and not
become tired so soon.” Another thing he said to me was, “When we
get to the Assiniboine camps, you must try to get the horses
tied close to the lodges for they are the best horses. The
Assiniboine always keep up their best horses at night while they
drive the others out to the hills.”
We went down the Missouri River. The game was plentiful. Buffalo
and elk we saw on our way, so we did not go hungry. Everyone had
a little pack of meat on his back and his extra pairs of
moccasins. When the sun went down we camped for the night. We
made three lodges with sticks and bark. After we had cooked and
eaten some meat, the chief said we must sing the wolf songs.
These songs are supposed to give us good luck, on a trip, i. e.,
if we truthfully tell what our sweethearts said when we left
them. Each man is supposed to sing a song in which are a few
words his sweetheart said to him.
After we got through singing, all went to sleep. In the morning,
we all started out again. When the sun was high, we saw
something a long way off resembling a person. The Chief said,
“It must be an Assiniboine. We must go after him and kill him.”
So we all ran toward him, and as we approached he seemed to be
making signs to us. When we got up to it, we found out that it
was a black stump with its black branches sticking out like
arms. As we all went on, I heard some of the men say that it was
a bad sign.
We travelled many days and nights, until we came to a lot of
timber along the river. It was snowing and very cold. The Chief
always kept two men ahead to look over the tops of the high
hills, so that we would not run into some of the Assiniboine
that might be waiting for us. At this place we all stopped and
the chief called out to two men, “You go across the river to see
if you can find out just where the Assiniboine camps are. We
must be close to them now. We will wait for you here.” The two
men took off their clothes, tied their leggings and shirts
around their heads so as to be able to put them on dry when they
got across. The river was wide and deep and the two men swam
across. We all waited. When the sun was getting down close to
the mountains, Chief Lazy Boy said to one of the men, “Why can
we not cross and wait for them there? It is too cold for the two
men to swim back again.”
So we all got a few poles, tied them together and put a rawhide
on top of them. Then we put our clothes and guns on top of that.
Then four men tied ropes to the raft and taking the ends of the
ropes in their mouths swam across. When we all got across the
chief said, “Although we are very cold we must not make a fire,
for we are close to the camps. They would see the smoke.”
The sun had just gone down when the two scouts came back, saying
to the chief, “We saw two men leading their horses down to the
river. Their horses were loaded with meat, so the camps cannot
be far off.” We waited here a long time until it stopped
snowing. The moon was shining brightly. A little later on we
heard dogs barking. It was nearly morning when the Chief said,
“Come, let us go, it is nearly daylight.” All went on until the
Chief stopped, when we all stopped beside him. He took a stick
and, beating time with it on the barrel of his gun, sang his war
song, looking up at the moon. Once he used the following words:
“Elk woman, try your best.” When the Chief had finished, the
others in turn sang their war songs. Then we all started again.
After we got close to the camps the Chief told me to go back and
tell two of the men to come with him, but for me to stay back
with the others. He said, “We shall go through the camp to find
out where the best horses are. Then we shall come back to inform
you, and then we can all go together.” I told the two men and
they went off with him, while the rest of us stayed in the
brush. About daybreak, we heard a sound as if someone were
riding along. Some of the men said it was a loose horse. One of
the men went out to look for signs of our party. At the time the
chief left us, four men from our party followed him. Thus there
were seven. It is believed to be unlucky when there are only
seven in a war party. Any way, it proved to be at this time. It
was just daylight when we heard three shots, and at the same
time the men who went out came back to us saying, “You said that
was a loose horse we heard, here is what its rider lost.” He
carried a gun-sack, ramrod, and a saddle blanket. We all got up
and ran up the river as fast as we could. We had not gone far
when we heard more shooting, war whoops, and galloping horses.
We kept on until we got to a place where there was thick timber.
We stayed there all day. We heard no more noise for we were now
too far away. When night came we all crossed the river and
travelled part of the night until we came to one of our old
camping places. Our brush lodges were still there. We had
planned to meet there after we got our horses. We saw a light in
one of them and when we went in we saw one of the men who was
with our Chief. He got up, shook hands with us all, and then
began to tell about it. He said, “When we all got near the
camps, we met an Assiniboine who ran back into the camp. Then we
started back to where we had left you. We had not gone far
before we heard three shots. We did not go fast, but when we got
to where we had left you we saw that you were gone. Then the
chief said that you must have crossed the river. So we began to
cross too. We were just about in the middle, when the
Assiniboine came upon us, and began to fire. When we got across
a number of the enemy were there for their horses could swim
faster than we and of course they headed us off. Then we had a
fight. There were only three guns for us to fight with for while
we were crossing four of the men lost their guns in the water.
Two of our men were killed at the beginning of the fight. Our
Chief kept encouraging us saying that we must fight and die
bravely for some day our people would hear of our sad end. All
this time dirt was flying around us where the bullets struck.
The smoke of the guns was like a fog a little above our heads.
The Chief was shooting and talking to the Assiniboine, telling
them that many of them would fall before the last of us. We kept
them away as much as we could, but sometimes they would try to
run us down with their horses. After we wounded several of them,
they kept at a distance. When the sun was getting close to the
mountains, our Chief was killed. Our ammunition was nearly all
gone. There was a loose horse near by. I jumped on him and rode
away. Then the Assiniboine took after me. When I got to some
thick brush, I jumped off the horse and ran into the brush. They
took the horse and went back. Then I came on afoot. That is how
I come to be here with you now.”
We all lay down to rest for the night and about daybreak started
home. Just then the other three men came along. They got away
from the Assiniboine after dark. We travelled on for many nights
and days until we reached home.
When we got home we stopped on a hill near the camp, but did not
sing the song of victory. We gave the sad sign that three
warriors had been killed. One of our men stood out alone, took
three robes and, while the people in the camp were watching,
threw them away one by one. Then the Indians all knew that three
of our party had been lost and came running out to meet us.
Of a somewhat different character were the adventures of Many White
Horses as narrated a short time before his death:
The Piegan were in camp at Ft. Benton. Rations gave out, so they
broke camp about sundown and pitched again after dark near some
brush. I planned to go on a raid against the Flathead for
horses. Next morning, a large party joined me and we went on to
High Wood where we met and camped with a white man and his
Indian wife. I traded my black and red blankets for his white
ones. We followed the south bank of the Missouri, the berries
were ripe, game was plenty and fat and the journey was pleasant.
We followed up the Bear Tooth, or South Fork, where the railroad
runs now. When one day’s march from the Flathead country, a
storm came up, and beat the tall grass down flat. In jest, I
said to Calf Necklace, “Let us go on alone. I believe that when
we get out the wind will go down.” Soon we came to an open
country and to a cliff. Looking over we saw a river and a
Flathead camp. We returned to tell our party but lost them. We
could not trail them as the grass was down. Then we gave the
call for having seen an enemy. The party answered and soon
joined us. Then we made a medicine smoke and gave prayers for
success.
I have a war-bonnet with four songs. When transferred to me, my
face was painted and the songs taught. When near the enemy I go
through this in the same way. I painted my powder horn and
bullet pouch. I carried two awls, mending materials and extra
moccasins.
There was no moonlight that night. We walked down to the
Flathead camp and found some of them still awake. Nearly all
were drunk and had not tied up their horses. One horse, however,
was tied to a tipi pole, a striped pinto. My party scattered
every one for himself. Some had guns, some bows. The horses were
wild so they were run up a hill into brush. The men now worked
by twos and threes driving five to ten horses each. After we got
into the brush some were caught. I mounted at last. I decided to
follow the ridge of the mountain. The way was rough and many of
our horses got away. I went in the lead to pick the way. It
snowed and made going slow. At last we lost the way and stopped
to rest and repair moccasins. Soon the weather cleared and we
found the top of the ridge but the snow was very deep. It took
us all the next day to reach the gap at Sun River Pass. The next
night we started down to the plains. Two of my men got very
tired and sleepy so we stopped to rest them. All lay down, but
overslept and awoke at dawn. When I awoke I called out and all
jumped up scared. I was angry with myself. Our horses were gone.
Now, it seems that when the Flathead discovered their loss, a
party set out on our trail. While we slept they passed near and
camped far in advance in a little valley. Our escape was
certainly due to my songs and medicines.
We found most of the horses and started on. As I learned
afterwards, the Flathead saw us going over a ridge. We watered
our horses at Sun River and went on. I went on ahead to look
over a ridge. As I came back the party signalled something
wrong. They had found the tracks of the Flathead party. As we
went on we saw two antelope and stopped for one to pursue them.
Then Calf called out, “Flatheads are after us.”
They dashed out of a valley and killed one of us before we could
mount and soon after, another. Our party began a dash for home.
It was funny to see one fellow’s leggings slip down to his
ankles and get tangled under his horse. My horse was strong so I
rode behind whipping the others. As the Flathead were good shots
we scattered some. I could hear our pursuers talk but not
understand them. After a while, I saw that their horses were
very tired: so I directed our course over the tops of the hills.
As their horses soon gave out, they dismounted to rest. When out
of sight we turned back toward Sun River and hid in the brush.
It seemed a very long day. One of our party was wounded and some
had lost their clothes. When night came we started again. Some
rode double so there would be blankets to cover all. The next
day we spent on the Teton; the next near Dupuyer, where we found
the old camp fires of our people. Finally we got home.
HERALDRY AND PICTURE WRITING.
The term deed as used by us has the same social significance as coup, a
full discussion of which has been given by Grinnell.[33] Without going
into details, it seems that among the Blackfoot, the capture of a weapon
was the coup, or deed, rather than the formal striking of the enemy,
though such was also taken into account. Our impression is, from what we
have heard in the field, that there was no such formal development of
the coup practice as among many other tribes. An old man relating his
deeds seldom mentions scalps but dwells upon the number of guns, horses,
etc. captured; whereas, according to our observation, a Dakota boasts of
his wounds, enemies slain and coups. However, heraldry was a prominent
feature in Blackfoot life. By this term, we mean those conventions by
which deeds are recorded and accredited, with their social privileges
and responsibilities. Anyone with such recognized deeds is likely to be
called upon to name a child, to perform special services in social
functions as well as specific parts of ritualistic ceremonies. In all
cases of this kind the warrior comes forward and in a loud voice states
what deed or deeds he has performed and immediately renders the required
service. For this, he may receive presents unless the occasion is one of
special honor. In theory, at least, the formal announcement is a kind of
challenge for contradiction by any of the assembly in so far that it
implies the eligibility of him who makes it. Women do not ordinarily
perform such deeds but often recount the embroidering of robes, their
resistance of temptation, etc., when about to perform some ceremonial
function, a truly analogous practice.
As elsewhere, the graphic recording of deeds was chiefly by picture
writing, upon robes, back-walls and the outsides of tipis. A few might
be indicated upon leggings, but in general, garments were not considered
the place for such records. The outside and inside of the tipi were the
conventional places. Good examples of this are still to be seen. An
unusual tipi was collected by the writer in 1903, bearing several
hundred figures, representing sixty-six distinct deeds most of which
were performed by seven Piegan then living. The tipi was in reality one
of the “painted lodges” to be discussed under another head, but may be
considered here merely as a good example of picture writing and
heraldry.
[Illustration: Fig. 1 (50-4485). Section of a decorated Tipi.[34]]
In the sketches, Fig. 1 is a small vertical section of the tipi cover.
Its entire circumference to about half the height is one continuous
array of sketches. From this series a number of typical groups were
reassembled in Fig. 2. Beginning at the top in Fig. 1, we have Bear
Chief (a) on foot surprised by Assiniboine Indians but he escaped; (b)
Double Runner cut loose four horses; (c) Double Runner captures a Gros
Ventre boy; (d) Double Runner and a companion encounter and kill two
Gros Ventre, he taking a lance from one; (e) even while a boy Double
Runner picked up a war-bonnet dropped by a fleeing Gros Ventre which in
the system counts as a deed; (f) as a man he has two adventures with
Crow Indians, taking a gun from one; (g) he, as leader, met five
Flathead in a pit and killed them; (h) a Cree took shelter in some
cherry brush in a hole, but Big Nose went in for him; (i) not completely
shown, but representing a Cree Indian killed while running off Piegan
horses; (j) Double Runner, carrying a medicine pipe, took a bow from a
Gros Ventre and then killed him; (k) Double Runner took a shield and a
horse from a Crow tipi, a dog barked and he was hotly pursued; (m) he
killed two Gros Ventre and took two guns; (n) he captured a Gros Ventre
woman and a boy; (o) he took four mules. From this sample, it will be
noted that a great deal is left for the memory, though a little practice
will enable one to determine the character of the exploit suggesting
each drawing. Fig. 2 needs less comment as the technical aspect of the
work speaks for itself. The large man with a pipe is symbolic of the
vision in which this type of tipi had its inception and, hence, belongs
in a different category. The drawing was done by a number of
individuals; in some cases, by the hero of the exploits, but often by a
young man under his immediate direction. This is obvious in the varying
degree in execution and conventionality, the range of which is
adequately shown in the sketches. When considered as a system of
recording deeds, it appears that much is left to the whim of the artist,
but that certain general modes of suggesting common types of adventure
are recognized and allowed to control the composition to such an extent
that even a stranger may interpret the sketches with confidence. Of
course, the function of such writing is to objectify the formal
re-counting of deeds, only such performances as are so recognized and
carry with them social and ceremonial values being considered worthy of
a place in the series.
From the many examples collected, we selected the following more or less
conventionalized symbols:
[Illustration: Fig. 2 (50-4485). Selected Figures from a decorated
Tipi.]
Wounds received or given are indicated by a black spot with a dash of
red for bleeding. Enemies killed, when not fully pictured, are
represented by a row of skeleton figures as in Fig. 3a, a form always
used in heraldic horse decorations. In the pictured form, death is often
indicated by three wounds—in the head, heart and thigh, Fig. 3b. A
scalp taken is symbolized by human hair and white weasel skin, except in
painting when the symbol is as in Fig. 3c.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Symbols used in War Records.]