pictures of the objects recognized as worth considering. While
naturally, there is difference of opinion, the following may be taken as
the approximate list of captures conferring ceremonial rights:—horses,
guns, shields, lances, bows and quivers, shot-pouches and powder horns,
daggers, war-bonnets, and all medicine objects. The following order or
rank, was given by an informant recognized by the Piegan as an authority
in heraldry:—gun, lance, bow, the enemy’s life, cutting a horse loose
from a tipi, leading a war party, acting as a scout, shields,
war-bonnets, a medicine pipe, and driving off loose horses. The most
significant point is that while the life of an enemy is fourth, the
capture of his gun is first. When a man was seen to fall with a gun, it
was not unusual for one or more young men to rush boldly out to snatch
the prize. To ride up, jerk a gun from an enemy’s hand and get away
without injury to either party was the greatest deed possible. While in
picturing such deeds realistic forms are used, as the symbol for a
shield (Fig. 3d), they are often greatly conventionalized. Blankets, if
counted, are shown as rectangles with one or two cross lines for the
stripes on most trade blankets. Horses taken in open fight, when not
pictured, are represented by track symbols, Fig. 5d and under the sketch
of a mule in Fig. 1. The rectangular variant as found among many other
tribes is not used as an equivalent.
[Illustration: Fig 4. Methods of recording the capture of Horses.]
Stealing a horse tied up in the enemies’ camp is a deed of special
importance and naturally has a definite symbolism. This case is of some
interest here because we find among our collection practically all the
steps between the full pictured form and the bare symbol. Thus, we find
drawings showing the adventurer cutting loose horses picketed near the
tipis, Fig. 4; again, the cutting represented by a knife and a hand, the
pickets alone representing the horses so taken, and finally, a series of
crossed lines. The last is the simplest form but may be said to be an
alternate with the preceding one, some persons representing the picket
stake one way, some the other. The Hidatsa[35] are reported to use the
crossed lines for a coup and the Teton use it as a rescue symbol (a coup
saved from the enemy); hence, its substitution in Blackfoot records for
the more realistic form of picket stake may have been due to suggestion.
A war party intrenched is indicated by a circle (Fig. 5c); sheltered in
a wind brake, by an open circle (Fig. 2). A camp may be represented by a
series of tripods, signs for tipis (Fig. 1).
Two functions of the warpath are honored by distinct symbols; that of
leader and scout. The symbol for leader is shown in Fig. 5a and is given
once for each party led. In like manner, the sign in Fig. 5b indicates
having been detailed as a scout. The origin of these cannot be
definitely traced, but the second is said to be a diagrammatic
representation of the course taken by a scout with reference to the main
body. Thus, the curve represents the war party waiting and the zigzag
line the course always taken by the scout to conceal their true
position. This seems probable, but no rational theory for the origin of
the leader’s sign was encountered.
The coup stick, striped like a barber’s pole, used by the Cheyenne,
seems not to have been known among the Blackfoot except its analogous
form in a boy’s game. The Dakota stick made by binding together two long
rods with spiral decorations and four pendants of feathers with scalp
locks was seen in the hands of an old man; he, however, frankly avowed
having made it in imitation of those seen by him when visiting the
Assiniboine.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Highly conventionalized symbols.]
In a general way, it appears that the Blackfoot show some individuality
in the conventions of picture writing. Some data we collected from the
Gros Ventre show many of the same forms, however, and in the absence of
good data from the Crow and other neighboring tribes, it may be that
this individuality is more apparent than real. On the other hand, the
Blackfoot make little use of such writing for the presentation of
religious experiences as is the case among many Central Algonkin tribes
and to a much less degree among the Dakota. While the Dakota have
developed some heraldic symbols as conventional as those just described
by us, they have, in addition, a very complex and highly developed
feather symbolism, a feature almost lacking among the Blackfoot. Yet,
the latter showed a tendency to use the white weasel skins for the same
purpose. More than this can scarcely be said until additional data are
at hand.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. A sand Map showing the Course of a War Party.]
In this connection, it may be well to note that by a system of signs, a
war party left definite information for the guidance of stragglers or
other parties of their tribe on similar errands. On leaving a camp site,
a willow bent V-like was stuck in the ground, the apex in the direction
taken; if the distance to the next camping place was small, the angle
was quite acute, etc. Another sign, used chiefly on the trail, was the
mark of a travois, or two converging lines, the apex toward the
direction taken. Indeed, the twig is spoken of as a travois sign.
Explicit directions were often left for a second party by a kind of map
marked in the sand or in bare earth. A sketch by the writer from such a
map made at his request is shown in Fig. 6. Two branches of a river are
represented easily recognized by one having a knowledge of the country.
The travois marks indicate the direction of movement. Pebbles painted
black or pieces of charcoal mark the proposed camping places, the number
in each case indicating the length of stop. Thus, the sketch would imply
that the next camp would be one day’s journey from the nearest river;
whence, after a stay of two nights, they camped one night on the nearest
fork and two nights on the second. To indicate that they were joined by
a second party, the travois signs are used to denote two paths
converging on a camp site. A sketch giving more details is shown in Fig.
7. By the travois signs leading to _a_ we know that two parties of
Blackfoot combined and camped two nights, thence moved to a second camp,
_b_. While here, they met and fought enemies, indicated by two sticks
painted red. Between the two sticks are two bones (shoulder blades) upon
which the result of the engagement is pictured. Then the party moved on
to _d_ where this sketch was left.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Map recording a Battle.]
In cases where the stops were by day and travel by night, yellow pebbles
were used instead of black. Mountains were indicated by small heaps of
pebbles. Marks were often made on stones and other objects along the
trail. In case a peaceful meeting occurred, instead of the red painted
sticks, black ones were chewed on one end and tobacco tied on the other.
The practical value of all these marks is obvious. When a war party was
over due, search was made by following the trail whence from the signs
its career could be determined, even to the identity of the wounded or
killed, etc.
We did not gather much information as to signalling codes, though the
system seems to have been highly developed. When a war party returned
the members paused for a time upon a hill in sight of the camp until
attention to them was noted.[36] Then, if a victory was won at small
cost they sang songs for a while and came to camp slowly. If the leader
or an important man was killed, a robe was held up on a stick and then
dropped. If ordinary men were killed, one of the party stepped aside and
threw down a robe, once for each. For a wounded leader, a robe was held
aloft but not dropped. They then entered the camp silently while the
women began wailing and performed the usual acts of mourning.
-----
[33] Grinnell, 248. Also American Anthropologist, Vol. 12, 296.
[34] For a complete series for one individual with illustration, see
Maclean, (a), 119.
[35] Hoffman, 73; Maximilian, Vol. 23, 287.
[36] See Maximilian, Vol. 23, 118.
RECKONING TIME.
As far as our information goes, the time of day was noted by the sun and
the night by the position of Ursa major, the Seven Stars. The year was
designated by the winter, each winter constituting a new year. Two
divisions or seasons were recognized; spring and autumn were regarded as
originating with the whites. Each season was considered as composed of
moons; the period during which the moon was invisible taken as the
beginning of another moon. We found little consistency in the
nomenclature of moons, our information implying that they were
considered more by numerals than by names. The tendency was to count the
moons from about October, the beginning of winter or the new year.
Variation seems to have been due to the fact that calendar counts were
kept by a few individuals, usually medicine men, who modified the system
according to their own theories. One man who kept a calendar gave the
following list:—
Winter Moons. Summer Moons.
1. Beginning winter moon Beginning summer’s moon
2. Wind moon Frog moon
3. Cold moon Thunder moon
4. Two-big-Sunday moon Big-Sunday moon
5. Changeable moon Berry moon
6. Uncertain moon Chokecherry moon
7. Geese moon
The references to Sunday are to the Christmas and July holidays of our
own calendar. The year is generally regarded as comprising fourteen
moons equally divided among the two seasons. As calendars were usually
in the keeping of men owning beaver bundles and the number seven was
employed in enumerating parts of their rituals, this division of the
year into moons may be a matter of convention rather than observation.
They claim to have reckoned twenty-six days to a moon. Some, however,
assert that thirty days were counted; but in this case the year could
not have comprised fourteen moons.
From one man we secured a set of 179 sticks used for keeping track of
time. Red sticks were used for years. Another used a bag with two parts;
one faced with red, the other with blue. Fourteen pebbles were used to
mark the moons; each time the moon became invisible he moved a pebble to
the other side. Calendars, or winter counts, were kept by memory rather
than by sticks, or paintings. We get the impression, however, that there
was less interest in such records than among the Dakota and Kiowa. The
following is Elk-horn’s winter count, beginning about 1845:—
1. Camped down at Mouth River; Gambles killed; sun dance at Crow Garden
(a place).
2. Camped near Fort Benton; moved to Yellowstone country; some Crow
escaped by letting themselves down from a rock with a rope; Yellow
River, the place of the sun dance; camped at a place where Bad-tail
killed a Sioux.
3. Crossed Missouri River to camp; traded at Ft. Benton and spent most
of the winter on the Marias; a fight with the Snake; the ice broke up in
the winter (unusual); sun dance near this place; some Piegan killed by
enemies.
4. On the Marias; man named Goose killed; in autumn hunted south of Ft.
Benton; traded at Ft. Benton.
5. Wintered on the Teton; spring, moved down the Missouri; killed a man
named High-ridge; made two sun dances; went to Bear Paw Mountains; went
toward Crow country; John Monroe came up to tell Piegan that soldiers
were near to issue ammunition and some Piegan did not go because they
were skeptical; six Flathead came there for ammunition, some Nez Perce,
two North Blackfoot, a few Blood, four North Piegan and some Gros
Ventre, but no Sarcee.
6. Camped on Two Medicine River.
7. Missouri River; deep snow winter; sun dance at Yellow River.
8. Slippery winter; some Piegan killed by the Snake.
9. Camped on Cut Bank; went toward Missouri; Some-bull killed by fall
from a horse (chief of the tribe); traded at Sun River.
10. Sweet Grass Hills; spent spring on the Marias; in summer went
south; Big-snakes (chief) killed; ammunition issued.
11. South of the Missouri; Blood fought among themselves; first time
steamboats came to Ft. Teton.
12. Camped at Bad Waters; Sioux after Piegan; this camp north of the
Missouri; killed 7 Cree; a fight with the Crow and lost two chiefs,
Good-raven and Mad-plume.
13. On the Marias; first fight with Gros Ventre; summer camp on the
northeast side of Sweet Grass Hills (Canada).
14. A few cases of smallpox; fight with the Kootenai in which many were
killed; during the summer Mountain-chief was attacked by Sioux; a Piegan
was killed by a number of Gros Ventre.
15. Captured a double barrel shot gun; sun dance at High Ridge.
16. Flies-low was killed.
17. Many Piegan visited the Southern Gros Ventre (?); ammunition
issued; summer camp above Sweet Grass Hills; a fight with the Flathead;
also with the Gros Ventre; returned to Two Medicine River.
18. Eagle-chief killed; in summer killed Eagle-horse.
19. Fought with the Crow, Gros Ventre, and Flathead.
20. Straggling-wolf killed near camp; Piegan killed Crow in revenge.
21. Assiniboine (name of a chief) killed.
22. Big-prairies’ father killed by his own people.
23. Body-sticking-out killed by his own people.
24. Three-eagles killed by his own people.
25. Many-horses (the chief) died.
26. Many buffalo and many trading posts on the Marias.
27. Man tried to kill his wife, she (Sarcee woman) stabbed him, he
killed her; in summer, Home-chief died.
28. Chief Old-woman-child dies; an open winter.
29. Killed seven Assiniboine.
30. Crossed the Missouri; Sitting-bull killed many Piegan.
31. Camped south of the Missouri.
32. Camped on Two Medicine River; White-dry, chief of Assiniboine,
killed by Piegan; after this the Piegan were confined to the
reservation.
33. Wolf-eagle shot in the arm by Cree.
34. Many Indians died of sore throat; Chief Birch-bark died.
35. Crow-big-foot visited Piegan; Crow came to steal horses.
36. Eagle-child died.
37. Many cattle died.
38. Stallions issued.
39. Mares issued.
40. Two Indians arrested and died in prison; in summer cattle were
issued.
41. Wolf-coming-over-hill dies.
42. Chief Walking-through-the-beach dies.
43. Crow-big-foot dies.
44. Yellow-medicine dies.
45. Three-bulls dies.
46. Big-nose dies.
47. Four-bear dies.
48. Gets-paint dies.
50. Black-living-over-tail dies.
51. Old-kicking-woman dies.
52. Lance-chief dies.
53. Fat-buffalo-horse dies.
54. Bites killed in a runaway.
55. Running-rabbit dies.
56. White-calf dies.
This calendar is given as a type and not for the value of its contents,
though it doubtless has its merits from that point of view. The narrator
was somewhat uncertain as to the order of many counts and made frequent
use of a set of improvised counting sticks. We asked him why in later
years the winter counts were designated chiefly by the deaths of the
most prominent men, to which he replied that since his people were
confined to the limits of the reservation nothing else happened worth
remembering, and further, that the count ended with the death of
White-calf because there were now no men living of sufficient worth to
be honored with such mention. From the human point of view we agreed
with him in that the book should be closed, for the old ways have all
but gone. If we were interested in the historical aspect of this account
the dates could doubtless be checked by certain specific references as
Nos. 11, 22, 43, and 56.
For completeness, we add the winter count of Big-brave, covering a span
of sixty-one years, but not giving full representation to the later
years. Since reservation days, there is a general tendency among the
older men to fix their counts in units of residence at a given spot; i.
e., “for five winters, I lived on Two Medicine, then for eight winters
on Cut Bank, etc.”:
1. The fall of the year, Gambler went on the warpath and was killed;
Piegan spent the winter on the Marias River.
2. In the fall of the year, Big-lake, chief of The-don’t-laugh band
died; Piegan wintered on the Marias River which was high and flooded
their camps. In the summer, they had a sun dance at Sweet Grass Hills;
Bobtail-horse was shot and killed; a woman was also killed.
3. Leaves-big-lodge-camp-marks clubbed a Flathead but did not kill him;
in the summer, Piegan killed some Sioux on the Marias.
4. Black-tattoo became crazy; in the spring a man named Goose was
killed by Sioux; in the summer, Goose’s father went to war and killed
some Crow; some of the Crow escaped by letting themselves down a high
cliff with a rope.
5. Still-smoking was killed; the Piegan stole a sorrel race horse from
the Flathead. In the summer some Piegan were on the warpath south of the
Missouri River. They came to some white settlers and there saw a Sioux
Indian whom Last-bull killed with a club. The Sioux had been visiting
with the white men.
6. In the fall, the first treaty was made by the Government at the
mouth of Yellow River; there were seven different tribes there. That
winter, Mountain-chief spent on Belly River. One of his daughter’s
clothes caught fire and she was burnt to death. During the summer
Mountain-chief became ill with the hiccoughs which lasted some time.
7. This winter was called the slippery winter because there was so much
ice. In the summer Mountain-chief and his people went to Canada and
killed thirty Sioux.
8. The Piegan camped on Marias, and one by the name of Blood killed a
Flathead Indian. Lame-bull, a chief, was killed by falling from his
horse in the summer.
9. Mountain-chief spent the winter on Milk River and found an extra
large buffalo dung which was about three feet across when measured.
Chief Big-snake was killed in the summer.
10. Lazy-boy was killed. In the summer, the Blood camped at Yellow
Mountains and fought among themselves; Calf-shirt killed some of his own
people.
11. A man named Peace-maker was killed. Eagle-child was killed in the
summer; a Blood was shot through the face with an arrow by a Sioux but
did not die.
12. Piegan fought with the Gros Ventre and one, Many-butterfly, was
killed. The Piegan killed five Sioux who had a horn spoon.
13. Chief Coward was killed by Crow Indians. In the summer, the Piegan
attacked the camps of the Gros Ventre and killed many of them; also,
some Piegan were killed while out hunting.
14. The Assiniboine attacked Mountain-chiefs camps on Big River in
Canada, at night, but did not kill anyone. The Piegan fought with the
Gros Ventre in the summer and a Piegan, whose name was Half-breed, was
killed.
15. Piegan had what was called red smallpox; in the summer they
attacked the Assiniboine’s seventy lodges and running them out captured
the lodges.
16. At Fort Benton, the Government gave the Piegan clothes, etc.; the
white man who issued the things to them went by the name of
Blackhorse-owner. At this place they also made peace with the Gros
Ventre. In the summer Little-dog was killed and the Piegan fought with a
great number of enemies, with the Crow, Assiniboine, and Gros Ventre who
helped one another in fighting the Piegan; but the Piegan overpowered or
whipped them all.
17. Bear-chief was killed south of the Missouri and the following
summer the Piegan killed Weasel-horse, a chief of the Blood.
18. Mountain-chief camped south of the Missouri and the Piegan killed
two Flathead near the Piegan camps; in the summer the Piegan killed
thirty Assiniboine who were picking gum off the pine trees.
19. Strangle-wolf was killed by the Gros Ventre while out hunting;
Chief Crow was killed by Gros Ventre while he was out hunting. He had
six women with him.
20. The Piegan had smallpox and the soldiers attacked seventy camps,
killing many old men, women, and children. Running-raven was wounded by
a Gros Ventre.
21. The Piegan fought with the Cree on Belly River in Canada and killed
one hundred of them. In the summer they had a big battle with the
Assiniboine and Big-brave and his horse were wounded.
22. A Piegan, Red-old-man, was killed by the Gros Ventre near Bear Paw
Mountain while he was trying to steal some horses from them;
Black-eagle, a Piegan, killed an Assiniboine and his wife, in the
summer.
23. Bull-chief and High-wolf died; while they were on the warpath in
the summer, White-man’s horse and his war party were nearly all killed.
24. Calf-chief killed two Flathead Indians near the Piegan camps while
they were about to steal some horses. Black-eagle was killed by the
Northern Blackfoot in the summer.
25. The Agent issued hogs’ heads to the Piegan as rations; in the
summer Big-nose took four Assiniboine prisoners.
26. There were plenty of buffalo and many Assiniboine came to visit the
Piegan. In the summer the agent, known as Wood, issued clothing, etc.,
and the Piegan made peace with the Crow at Sweet Grass Hill.
27. A Piegan killed his wife who was a Sarcee woman; in the summer,
Chief Calf-chief died.
28. Open winter, there was no snow all winter; Big-buffalo-rock died
during the summer.
29. Weasel-moccasin was killed by the Assiniboine; had a sun dance;
cattle tongues were first used for sun dance; Agency was moved down
where it now is.
30. Piegan moved and camped south of Missouri; in the summer the
soldiers brought the Piegan back to the Reservation.
31. The Piegan wintered south of the Missouri; Black-cheek was killed
by the Flathead. In the summer, the Piegan moved back to the reservation
and an Indian was accidentally shot by the Agency doctor during the sun
dance.
38. White-dog, an Assiniboine, was killed by the Piegan; Big-brave and
many others lived on Birch Creek seven winters and summers.
39. In the summer Big-brave moved to Blacktail Creek and wintered
there.
40. Mares were issued to the people and Little-dog received two
buckskin mares.
42. Big-brave moved to White Tail Creek and lived there two winters and
summers.
61. Big-brave moved to Blacktail and has been living there ever since,
nineteen winters and summers he has lived there.
Though we failed to find among the Blackfoot such elaborate chronicles
as among the Dakota and Kiowa, what did come to hand were obviously of
the same type and suggest common origins. Further, we get the impression
that in details our material is more like the counts of the Kiowa than
the Dakota.
OATHS.
The sun is called upon in the most solemn oaths. Thus, when women get
into a dispute one may take the other by the chin and say “Now, we will
talk to the sun. If what I say is not true, may I never live to put my
foot into another snow,” etc. A man may appeal to the earth but more
likely it is the sun, as, “The sun hears me,” etc. Men usually make
oaths over pipes. Thus, when a man tells an improbable story he may be
asked if he will smoke upon its truth. This refers to the mode of making
formal oaths. Often when laboring with a man to prevent him from taking
the life of another, the head-men and relatives induce him to take an
oath that he will not do the deed. A medicine man fills a pipe, paints
the stem red and addresses the sun as to the purpose of the ceremony
about to be performed; the one to take the oath then smokes the pipe
which is considered most binding. The same method is often used in
pledging a man to mend his evil ways.
There is another method—something like an ordeal. The point of a knife
is held in the ashes at the fire and extended with the charge, “If you
say what is true, touch the point of this knife with your finger.” The
belief is that one will certainly be killed by a knife or other sharp
instrument, if swearing falsely.
ETIQUETTE.