2. CRATES, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of the 4th
century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the last great
representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his ample fortune
owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more probable story is that he
sacrificed it in accordance with his principles, directing the banker,
to whom he entrusted it, to give it to his sons if they should prove
fools, but to the poor if his sons should prove philosophers. He gave up
his life to the attainment of virtue and the propagation of ascetic
self-control. His habit of entering houses for this purpose, uninvited,
earned him the nickname [Greek: Thyrepanoiktes] ("Door-opener"). His
marriage with Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in
curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by the
nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and ugliness,
she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her father's commands.
The date of his death is unknown, though he seems to have lived into the
3rd century. His writings were few. According to Diogenes Laertius, he
was the author of a number of letters on philosophical subjects; but
those extant under the name of Crates (R. Hercher, _Epistolographi
Graeci_, 1873) are, spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes
Laertius credits him with a short poem, [Greek: Paignia], and several
philosophic tragedies. Plutarch's life of Crates is lost. The great
importance of Crates' work is that he formed the link between Cynicism
and the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.
See N. Postumus, _De Cratete Cynico_ (1823); F. Mullach, _Frag.
Philosophorum Graecorum_, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and
Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_; Diog. Laert. vi. 85-93, 96-98.
CRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher
of the 2nd century B.C., leader of the literary school and head of the
library of Pergamum. His principles were opposed to those of
Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian school. He was the chief
representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, and maintained
that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical truths in the
form of poetry. About 170 B.C. he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus
II., king of Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to
stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the first
impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans
(Suetonius, _De grammaticis_, 2). His chief work was a critical and
exegetical commentary on Homer.
See C. Wachsmuth, _De Cratete Mallota_ (1860), containing an account
of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of
Class. Schol._ i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).
CRATINUS (c. 520-423 B.C.), Athenian comic poet, chief representative of
the old, and founder of political, comedy. Hardly anything is known of
his life, and only fragments of his works have been preserved. But a
good idea of their character can be gained from the opinions of his
contemporaries, especially Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly
distinguished by their direct and vigorous political satire, a marked
exception being the burlesque [Greek: Odysseis], dealing with the story
of Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was
in force forbidding all political references on the stage. They were
also remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius
calls the author "the bold," and even Pericles at the height of his
power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the _Nemesis_ and
_Archilochi_, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently
deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus was in
sympathy. The _Panoptae_ was a satire on the sophists and omniscient
speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last comedy the plot has
come down to us. It was occasioned by the sneers of Aristophanes and
others, who declared that he was no better than a doting drunkard.
Roused by the taunt, Cratinus put forth all his strength, and in 423
B.C. produced the [Greek: Pytine], or _Bottle_, which gained the first
prize over the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. In this comedy, good-humouredly
making fun of his own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as
the faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival--the
bottle--has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from the archon;
but her husband's love is not dead and he returns penitent to her side.
In Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, iv. (1904), containing a
further instalment of their edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by
them in 1896-1897, one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper
bearing the argument of a play by Cratinus,--the _Dionysalexandros_
(i.e. Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the
epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of Cratinus
has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes, in the
_Knights_, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to have been
fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most successful in the
lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the popular festal songs
of his day. According to the statement of a doubtful authority, which is
not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus increased the number of actors in
comedy to three. He wrote 21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.
Fragments in Meineke, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, or Kock,
_Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_. A younger Cratinus flourished in the
time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that some of the
comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the work of the
younger.
CRATIPPUS (fl. c. 375 B.C.), Greek historian. There are only three or
four references to him in ancient literature, and his importance is due
to the fact that he has been identified by several scholars (e.g. Blass)
with the author of the historical fragment discovered by Grenfell and
Hunt, and published by them in _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. It may be
regarded as a fairly certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (_De
Gloria Atheniensium_, p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was
an Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and
Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, from
the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 B.C.) down to the
battle of Cnidus (394 B.C.).
The fragments are published in C. Muller's _Fragmenta Historicorum
Graecorum_. For authorities see under THEOPOMPUS.
CRATIPPUS, of Mitylene (1st century B.C.), Peripatetic philosopher,
contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at Athens, and by whom he
is praised in the _De officiis_ as the greatest of his school. He was
the friend of Pompey also and shared his flight after the battle of
Pharsalia, for the purpose, it is said, of convincing him of the justice
of providence. Brutus, while at Athens after the assassination of
Caesar, attended his lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon
him by Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to him
is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be gauged by the
fact that in 44 B.C. the Areopagus invited him to succeed Andronicus of
Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have held that, while motion, sense and
appetite cannot exist apart from the body, thought reaches its greatest
power when most free from bodily influence, and that divination is due
to the direct action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human
soul which is not dependent on the body.
Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; _De officiis_, i.
1, iii. 2; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 24.
CRAU (from a Celtic root meaning "stone"), a region of southern France,
comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and bounded W. by the
canal from Arles to Port du Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the
Alpines separating it from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by
the hills around Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of
the Mediterranean Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is
a low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden
inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the Durance,
according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface is formed chiefly
of stones varying in size from an egg to a man's head; these, mixed with
a proportion of fine soil, overlie a subsoil formed of stones cemented
into a hard mass by deposits of calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed
of loose stones, once the sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime,
the Crau is adapted for agriculture by the process of warping, carried
out by means of the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of
the 16th century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east
has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the Durance.
The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation and the application
of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated land, which before
supplied only rough and scanty pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted
for the growth of the vine, olive and other fruits; where irrigation is
practicable, water-meadows have been formed. The dryness of the climate
is unfavourable to the production of cereals.
CRAUCK, GUSTAVE (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born and died at
Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works was erected in his
honour. Though little known to the world at large during his long life,
he ranks among the best modern sculptors of France. At Paris his
"Coligny" monument is in the rue de Rivoli; his "Victory" in the Place
des Arts et Metiers; and "Twilight" in the Avenue de l'Observatoire.
Among his finest works is his "Combat du Centaure," on which he was
engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been modelled
after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition of his works was
held in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
CRAUFURD, QUINTIN (1743-1819), British author, was born at Kilwinnock on
the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he went to India, where he
entered the service of the East India Company. Returning to Europe
before the age of forty with a handsome fortune, he settled in Paris,
where he gave himself to the cultivation of literature and art, and
formed a good library and collection of paintings, coins and other
objects of antiquarian interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the
French court, especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who
arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in 1792 he
returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal prisoners. He lived
among the French _emigres_ until the peace of Amiens made it possible to
return to Paris. Through Talleyrand's influence he was able to remain in
Paris after the war was renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of
November 1819.
He wrote, among other works, _The History, Religion, Learning and
Manners of the Hindus_ (1790), _Secret History of the King of France
and his Escape from Paris_ (first published in 1885), _Researches
concerning the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and
Modern India_ (1817), _History of the Bastille_ (1798), _On Pericles
and the Arts in Greece_ (1815), _Essay on Swift and his Influence on
the British Government_ (1808), _Notice sur Marie Antoinette_ (1809),
_Memoires de Mme du Hausset_ (1808).
CRAUFURD, ROBERT (1764-1812), British major-general, was born at Newark,
Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As
captain in the 75th regiment he first saw active service against Tippoo
Sahib in 1790-92. The next year he was employed, under his brother
Charles, with the Austrian armies operating against the French.
Returning to England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a
lieutenant-colonel, on Lake's staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later
he was British commissioner on Suvarov's staff when the Russians invaded
Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition. From
1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament for East
Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with Whitelock in the
unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was almost the only one of the
senior officers who added to his reputation in this affair, and in 1808
he received a brigade command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were
heavily engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not
present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they returned
to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula, Brigadier-General
Craufurd was three marches or more in rear of Wellesley's army when a
report came in that a great battle was in progress. The march which
followed is one almost unparalleled in military annals. The three
battalions of the "Light Brigade" (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full
marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of
Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning their
career with this famous march, these regiments and their chief, under
whom served such men as Charles and William Napier, Shaw and Colborne,
soon became celebrated as one of the best corps of troops in Europe, and
every engagement added to their laurels. Craufurd's operations on the
Coa and Agueda in 1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew
the quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though
Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time increased
his force to a division by the addition of two picked regiments of
Portuguese _Cacadores_. The conduct of the renowned "Light Division" at
Busaco is described by Napier in one of his most vivid passages. The
winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in England, and his division was
commanded in the interim by another officer, who did not display much
ability. He reappeared on the field of the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro
amidst the cheers of his men, and nothing could show his genius for war
better than his conduct on this day, in covering the strange
readjustment of his line which Wellington was compelled to make in the
face of the enemy. A little later he obtained major-general's rank; and
on the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad
Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell mortally
wounded. His body was carried out of action by his staff officer,
Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see SHAW KENNEDY), and, after lingering
four days, he died. He was buried in the breach of the fortress where he
had met his death, and a monument in St Paul's cathedral commemorates
Craufurd and Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of
Ciudad Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are
amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and Portuguese
armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not the very first,
of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper, which rendered him a
difficult man to deal with, but to the day of his death he possessed the
confidence and affection of his men in an extraordinary degree.
His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir CHARLES CRAUFURD (1761-1821),
entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made captain in the Queen's Bays
in 1785, he became the equerry and intimate friend of the duke of York.
He studied in Germany for some time, and, with his brother Robert's
assistance, translated Tielcke's book on the Seven Years' War (_The
Remarkable Events of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from
1756 to 1763_). As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the
French War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the Austrian
headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden, Caesar's Camp,
Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and lieutenant-colonel in 1794,
he returned to the English army in the latter year, and on one occasion
distinguished himself at the head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and
1000 prisoners. When the British army left the continent Craufurd was
again attached to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on
the Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At the last
battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further service, and cut
short a promising career. He succeeded his brother Robert as member of
parliament for East Retford (1806-1812). He died in 1821, having become
a lieutenant-general and a G.C.B.
CRAVAT (from the Fr. _cravate_, a corruption of "Croat"), the name given
by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the scarf worn by the
Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian regiment. Made of linen
or muslin with broad edges of lace, it became fashionable, and the name
was applied both in England and France to various forms of neckerchief
worn at different times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long
flowing ends, called a "Steinkirk" from the battle of 1692 of that name,
to the elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric
neckcloth worn during the period of Beau Brummell.
CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAE (1808-1891), French author, the
daughter of an _emigre_ Breton nobleman, was born in London on the 12th
of April 1808. Her father, the comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a
close friend of the duc de Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to
France in 1814. He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X.
at the Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made
retirement imperative to the count's sense of honour. He was appointed
ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became foreign minister in
Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in brilliant surroundings, but her
strongest impressions were those which she derived from the group of
Catholic thinkers gathered round Lamennais, and her ardent piety
furnishes the key of her life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and
Pauline, at the suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first
literary essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a
visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la Ferronays
resigned his position, and retired with his family to Naples. Here
Pauline met her future husband, Augustus Craven, who was then attache to
the British embassy. His father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known
supporter of Queen Caroline, objected to his son's marriage with a
Catholic; but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the
marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman Catholic
Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in the _Recit d'une
soeur_ was especially tender and intimate, suffered several severe
bereavements in the years following on her marriage. The Cravens lived
abroad until 1851, when the death of Keppel Craven made his son
practically independent of his diplomatic career, in which he had not
been conspicuously successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to
parliament for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private
life. They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to write
the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between 1830 and
1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story of her brother
Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the _Recit d'une soeur_
(1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically received and was awarded
a prize by the French Academy. Straitened circumstances made it
desirable for Mrs Craven to earn money by her pen. _Anne Severin_
appeared in 1868, _Fleurange_ in 1871, _Le Mot d'enigme_ in 1874, _Le
Valbriant_ (Eng. trans., _Lucia_) in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works
may be mentioned _La Soeur Natalie Narischkin_ (1876), _Deux Incidents
de la question catholique en Angleterre_ (1875), _Lady Georgiana
Fullerton, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1888). Mrs Craven's charming
personality won her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord
Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in Paris on the
1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884, translated the
correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the Prince Consort into French.
See _Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven_ (1894), by her friend Mrs Mary
Catherine Bishop; also _Paolina Craven_, by T. F. Ravaschieri Fieschi
(1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven's father, "En Emigration,"
in Etienne Lamy's _Temoins des jours passes_ (1907).
CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN, EARL OF (1608-1697), eldest son of Sir William
Craven, lord mayor of London, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman
William Whitmore, was born in June 1608, matriculated at Trinity
College, Oxford, in 1623, and joined the society of the Middle Temple in
1624. He had already inherited his father's vast fortune by the latter's
death in 1618, and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in
the military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was
knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire in
1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of the unfortunate king
and queen of Bohemia, driven from their dominions, and in 1632 joined
Frederick in a military expedition to recover the Palatinate, meeting
Gustavus Adolphus at Hochst, whose praise he gained by being the first,
though wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on the
22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to allow the
elector an independent command for the defence of the Palatinate, and
Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he was placed on the council of
Wales. In 1637 he took part in a second expedition in aid of the
palatine family on the Lower Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis
and his brother Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of
L30,000, but their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded
and taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom in
1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen Elizabeth at
the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously with funds on the
cessation of her English pension owing to the outbreak of the Civil War.
He contributed also large sums in aid of Charles I., and, after his
execution, of Charles II., the amount bestowed upon the latter being
alone computed at L50,000,[1] notwithstanding that since 1651 the
greater part of his estates had been confiscated by the parliament and
his house at Caversham reduced to ruins.[2] At the Restoration he
accompanied Charles to England, regained his estates, and was rewarded
with offices and honours. He was made colonel of several regiments
including the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high
steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy councillor,
but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William Temple's remodelled
council.[3] In 1668 he became a governor of the Charterhouse, was
appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and master of the Trinity House
in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner for Tangier. He was one of the lords
proprietors of Carolina and a member of the Fishery Committee.
In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven. Meanwhile his
devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia was unceasing, and on
her return to England he offered her hospitality at his house in Drury
Lane, where she remained till February 1662. At her death, within a
fortnight afterwards, she bequeathed to Craven her papers and her
valuable collection of portraits, but there is no foundation for the
belief entertained later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the
guardian of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms,
Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and
lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at the
age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall on the 17th
of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived. He refused to withdraw
them at the bidding of Count Solms, the Dutch commander, but obeyed
later James's own orders to retire. His public career now closed and he
filled no office after the revolution. Although his claims upon the
gratitude of the Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been
considered a possible candidate for high political place. His ability
was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect in the
_Verney Papers_ and by the electress Sophia in her _Memoirs_. The latter
retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and Pepys was
disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery Board, where his
"very confused and very ridiculous proceedings" are also censured.[4]
His military prowess, however, his generosity and his public spirit are
undoubted. He showed great activity during the plague and fire of
London. He was a patron of letters and a member of the Royal Society. He
inherited Combe Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased
Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of
Heidelberg Castle.
He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom became
extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his cousin William,
2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven (the earldom being revived
in 1801) is descended from John, a younger brother of the latter. The
first Lord Craven's brother John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton
in Shropshire and who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven
scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first
was awarded in 1649.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (and
Errata); _Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest
daughter of James I.)_, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); _Memoirs
of Elizabeth Stuart_, by Miss Benger (1825); _Memoiren der Herzogin
Sophie_, ed. by A. Kocher in _Publ. aus den k. preussischen
Staatsarchiven_, Bd. iv. (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart" in
_Bibliothek des litterarischen Vereins_ (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157;
G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_ (1889), ii. 404; _Lives and Characters
of the Most Illustrious Persons_ (1713), p. 546; Macaulay's _Hist. of
England_, ii. 584 (1858); _Verney Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1853); _Cal.
of St. Pap. Dom._; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate
in Cat. of the British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists
in the Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey. (P. C. Y.)