[1] _Verney Papers_, 189 note.
[2] Evelyn's _Diary_, June 8th, 1654.
[3] _Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections_, ii. 394.
[4] _Diary_, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.
CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. The house of Lindsay, of which the earl of Crawford
is the head, traces its descent back to the barons of Crawford who
flourished in the 12th century, and has included a number of men who
have played leading parts in the history of Scotland. It is said that
"though other families in Scotland may have been of more historic, none
can in genealogical importance equal that of Lindsay," and the Lindsays
claim that "the predecessors of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at
the period of the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact,
they were never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among
the _pares_, of which kings are _primi_, from the commencement of
recorded history." Again we are told, "the earldom of Crawford,
therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others of
the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an
_imperium in imperio_." Moreover, the earls "had also a _concilium_, or
petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom, with
whose advice they acted on great and important occasions."
Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire, was
the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c. 1357), and was
related to King Robert II.; he was descended from Sir Alexander Lindsay
of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained Crawford and other estates in 1297
and who was high chamberlain of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at
Otterburn, and Froissart tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was
succeeded by his cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir
Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who
married a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford.
The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th and the
5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454), called the "tiger
earl," was, like his father David the 3rd earl, who was killed in 1446,
one of the most powerful of the Scottish nobles; for some time he was in
arms against King James II., but he submitted in 1452. His son David,
the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495), was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain;
he went frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of
Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son. Montrose
fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and his son John,
the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.
David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of Alexander, the 7th
earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of Crawford (d. 1542),
called the "wicked master," who quarrelled with his father and tried to
kill him. Consequently he was sentenced to death, and the 8th earl
conveyed the earldom to his kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558),
a descendant of the 3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and
his descendants, and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the
9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked master's
son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the earldom came back to
the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl being called the
"interpolated earl."
David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter of Mary
Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David (c. 1547-1607) as 11th
earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal Beaton, was concerned in some
of the risings under James VI.; he was converted to Roman Catholicism
and was in communication with the Spaniards about an invasion of
England. After his death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621),
a lawless ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or
Charteris (d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry's three
sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic, succeeding
in 1639.
Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part in the
strange plot of 1641 called the "incident." Having joined Charles I. at
Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at Newbury and elsewhere
during the Civil War; in 1644, just after Marston Moor, the Scottish
parliament declared he had forfeited his earldom, and, following the
lines laid down when this was regranted in 1642, it was given to John
Lindsay, 1st earl of Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in
1644 and was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out,
and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served until the
surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in Ireland and in Spain
and he died probably in France in 1652. He left no issue.
The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman, belonged to the
family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the Lindsays descended from
Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c. 1355), the grandfather of the 1st
earl of Crawford. Sir David's descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres
(d. 1482), was created a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres
in 1445, and his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James
III. at the battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this
line was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of John
the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the reforming
party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish nobles to join the
reformers, and he was also one of the most violent. He fought against
the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the French; then during a temporary
reconciliation he assisted Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern
rebels at Corrichie in 1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he
took part in the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against
Bothwell, whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at
Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and ally of the
regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and obtained her
signature to the deed of abdication; he fought against her at Langside,
and after Murray's murder he was one of the chiefs of the party which
supported the throne of James VI. In 1578, however, he was among those
who tried to drive Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the
person of the king in the plot called the "raid of Ruthven," afterwards
escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when he died on
the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son, James the 7th lord
(d. 1601).
Patrick's great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford and 1st
earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert Lindsay, 9th Lord
Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as 10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he
was created earl of Lindsay, and having become a leader of the
Covenanters he marched with the Scottish army into England in 1644 and
was present at Marston Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of
Crawford in the manner already mentioned. In the same year he became
lord high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the
parliament. Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of
Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647 he signed
the "engagement" for the release of Charles I., losing all his offices
by the act of classes when his enemy, the marquess of Argyll, obtained
the upper hand. After the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar, however,
Crawford regained his influence in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to
1660 he was a prisoner in England. In 1661 he was restored to his former
dignities, but his refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to
resign them two years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and
2nd earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent
covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament. Mr
Andrew Lang says this earl was "very poor, very presbyterian, and his
letters, almost alone among those of the statesmen of the period, are
rich in the texts and unctuous style of an older generation."
William's grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and 4th earl of
Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a soldier. He held a
command in the Russian army, seeing service against the Turk, and he
also served against the same foe under Prince Eugene. Having returned to
the English army he led the life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished
himself at Fontenoy; later he served against France in the Netherlands.
He left no sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George
Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a descendant of
the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and 5th earl of Lindsay.
When George's son, George, the 22nd earl (1758-1808), died unmarried in
January 1808, the earldoms of Crawford and Lindsay were separated,
George's kinsman, David Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord
Lindsay of the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his
successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the House of
Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart. (1827-1894), also a
descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, was entitled to the
earldom. In 1894 John's cousin, David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became
11th earl of Lindsay.
The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when this separation
took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords adjudged it to James
Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.
The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord Menmuir
(1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th earl of Crawford. John,
who bought the estate of Balcarres in Fifeshire, became a lord of
session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he was a member of the Scottish privy
council and one of the commissioners of the treasury called the
Octavians. He had great influence with James VI., helping the king to
restore episcopacy after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy
seal and a secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual
attainments, left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the family
estates on his brother's death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641), a notable
alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1633, and in 1651
his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.
Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the "Rupert of the
Covenant," fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor, at Alford and at
Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists, signing the "engagement" for
the release of the king in 1647, and having been created earl of
Balcarres took part in Glencairn's rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks
very highly of the earl, who died at Breda in August 1659. His son
Charles (d. 1662) became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin
(c. 1654-1722), became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most trusted
of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable _Memoirs touching the
Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690_; these were first published in 1714,
and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the 25th earl of Crawford in
1841. Having been allowed to return to Scotland after an exile in
France, the earl joined the Jacobite rising in 1715. His successor was
his son Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another
son, James, the 5th earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at
Sheriffmuir. Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army,
serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some _Memoirs of
the Lindsays_, which were completed by his son Alexander, the 6th earl
(1752-1825). Alexander was with the English troops in America during the
struggle for independence, and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to
1801, filling a difficult position with great credit to himself. He
became a general in 1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he
had received through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the
27th of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford,
although he became earl _de jure_ in 1808, but in 1843 his son James
Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by the
House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and 7th earl of
Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the United Kingdom as
Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.
His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of Crawford
(1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, on the 16th of
October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He travelled much in
Europe and the East, and was most learned in genealogy and history. His
more important works include _Lives of the Lindsays_ (3 vols., 1849),
_Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land_ (1838), _Sketches of the
History of Christian Art_ (1847 and 1882), _Etruscan Inscriptions
Analysed_ (1872), and _The Earldom of Mar during 500 years_ (1882). He
succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence on the
13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered that the family
vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the body stolen. It was not
until the 18th of July 1882 that the police, acting on the confession of
an eye-witness of the desecration, found the remains, which were then
reinterred at Haigh Hall, Wigan.
His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford (1847- ),
British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye,
France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge, he devoted himself to astronomy, in which he early achieved
distinction. In 1870 he went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun,
and, in 1874, to Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the
interval, with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory
at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented, together with his
unique library of astronomical and mathematical works, to the New Royal
Observatory on Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, where they were installed in
1895. His services to science were recognized by his election to the
presidentship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in
succession to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal
Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh
University in 1882, and in the following year was nominated honorary
associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. An enthusiastic
bibliophile, he became a trustee of the British Museum, and acted for a
term as president of the Library Association. To the free library of
Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a series of oriental and English MSS. of the
9th to the 19th centuries in illustration of the progress of
handwriting, while for the use of specialists and students he issued the
invaluable _Bibliotheca Lindesiana_. He represented Wigan in the House
of Commons from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.
Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir Alexander
Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in 1590, being a younger
son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd Lord Spynie was Alexander's
son, Alexander (d. 1646), who served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus
and assisted Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd
lord was the latter's son, George. When George, a royalist who was taken
prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title became
extinct.
The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of the 5th earl
of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in the Graham family,
was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of Crawford, but in 1853 the House
of Lords gave judgment against the earl.
The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several prelates.
John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow; Alexander Lindsay (d.
1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay
(d. c. 1641) was bishop of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too,
was deposed in 1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay
(1566-1644), bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow
from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay prelates was
David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the 9th earl of Crawford.
David, who married James VI. to Anne of Denmark at Upsala, was one of
the leaders of the Kirk party; he became bishop of Ross under the new
scheme for establishing episcopacy in 1600.
See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), _Lives of the Lindsays_
(1849); A. Jervise, _History and Traditions of the Land of the
Lindsays_ (1882); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); H.
T. Folkard, _A Lindsay Record_ (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul's edition of
the _Scots Peerage_ of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).
CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909), American author, was born at Bagni
di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August 1854, being the son of the
American sculptor Thomas Crawford (q.v.), and the nephew of Julia Ward
Howe, the American poet. He studied successively at St Paul's school,
Concord, New Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome. In
1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited the
Allahabad _Indian Herald_. Returning to America he continued to study
Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year, contributed to various
periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first novel, _Mr Isaacs_, a
brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life mingled with a touch of
Oriental mystery. This book had an immediate success, and its author's
promise was confirmed by the publication of _Dr Claudius_ (1883). After
a brief residence in New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy,
where he made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact
that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford's books stand apart
from any distinctively American current in literature. Year by year he
published a number of successful novels: _A Roman Singer_ (1884), _An
American Politician_ (1884), _To Leeward_ (1884), _Zoroaster_ (1885), _A
Tale of a Lonely Parish_ (1886), _Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887),
_Saracinesca_ (1887), _Paul Patoff_ (1887), _With the Immortals_ (1888),
_Greifenstein_ (1889), _Sant' Ilario_ (1889), _A Cigarette-maker's
Romance_ (1890), _Khaled_ (1891), _The Witch of Prague_ (1891), _The
Three Fates_ (1892), _The Children of the King_ (1892), _Don Orsino_
(1892), _Marion Darche_ (1893), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), _Katharine
Lauderdale_ (1894), _Love in Idleness_ (1894), _The Ralstons_, (1894),
_Casa Braccio_ (1895), _Adam Johnston's Son_ (1895), _Taquisara_ (1896),
_A Rose of Yesterday_ (1897), _Corleone_ (1897), _Via Crucis_ (1899),
_In the Palace of the King_ (1900), _Marietta_ (1901), _Cecilia_ (1902),
_Whosoever Shall Offend_ (1904), _Soprano_ (1905), _A Lady of Rome_
(1906). He also published the historical works, _Ave Roma Immortalis_
(1898), _Rulers of the South_ (1900)--renamed _Sicily, Calabria and
Malta_ in 1904,--and _Gleanings from Venetian History_ (1905). In these
his intimate knowledge of local Italian history combines with the
romancist's imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in
contemporary literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted narrator,
and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and dramatic
characterization, became widely popular among readers to whom the
realism of "problems" or the eccentricities of subjective analysis were
repellent, for he could unfold a romantic story in an attractive way,
setting his plot amid picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the
reader's intelligence by a style at once straightforward and
accomplished. The _Saracinesca_ series shows him perhaps at his best. _A
Cigarette-maker's Romance_ was dramatized, and had considerable
popularity on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an
original play from his pen, _Francesco da Rimini_, was produced in Paris
by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of April 1909.
CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814-1857), American sculptor, was born of Irish
parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814. He showed at an early age
great taste for art, and learnt to draw and to carve in wood. In his
nineteenth year he entered the studio of a firm of monumental sculptors
in his native city; and in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became
a pupil of Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known as
a man of genius was his group of "Orpheus entering Hades in Search of
Eurydice," executed in 1839. This was followed by other poetical
sculptures, among which were the "Babes in the Wood," "Flora," "Hebe and
Ganymede," "Sappho," "Vesta," the "Dancers," and the "Hunter." Among his
statues and busts are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy,
executed for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the
equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the statue of
Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing and Henry Clay,
and the colossal figure of "Armed Liberty" for the Capitol at
Washington. For this building he executed also the figures for the
pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors, which were
afterwards completed by W. H. Rinehart. The groups of the pediment
symbolize the progress of civilization in America. Crawford's works
include a large number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from
both the Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he
visited several times his native land--first in 1844 (in which year he
married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He died in
London on the 10th of October 1857.
See _Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner_, to
which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including
that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas Hicks, _Eulogy
on Thomas Crawford_ (New York, 1865).
CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772-1834), American statesman, was born in
Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of February 1772. When he was
seven his parents moved into Edgefield district, South Carolina, and
four years later into Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father
in 1788 left the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what
he could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at Carmel
Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one of the largest
schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the bar. From 1800 to
1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a digest of the laws of Georgia
from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to 1807 he was a member of the State House
of Representatives, becoming during this period the leader of one of two
personal-political factions in the state that long continued in bitter
strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he killed
his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist. From 1807 to
1813 he was a member of the United States Senate, of which he was
president _pro tempore_ from March 1812 to March 1813. In 1813 he
declined the offer of the post of secretary of war, but from that year
until 1815 was minister to the court of France. He was then secretary of
war in 1815-1816, and secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In
1816 in the congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the
presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a majority being at
first in his favour, but when the vote was finally cast 65 were for
Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824, when the congressional caucus was
fast becoming extinct, Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted
that it should be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of
these, 64 voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew
Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise put in the
field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken with paralysis, and
when the electoral vote was cast Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford
41, and Clay 37. It remained for the house of representatives to choose
from Jackson, Adams and Crawford, and through Clay's influence Adams
became president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as secretary
of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health sufficiently to
become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state, but died while on
circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of September 1834. In his day
he was undoubtedly one of the foremost political leaders of the country,
but his reputation has not stood the test of time. He was of imposing
presence and had great conversational powers; but his inflexible
integrity was not sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of
his winning general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful
political organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of
his time--Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of Albert
Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement in 1811 to
recharter the Bank of the United States; he earned the condemnation of
posterity by his authorship in 1820 of the four-years-term law, which
limited the term of service of thousands of public officials to four
years, and did much to develop the "spoils system." He was a Liberal
Democrat, and advised the calling of a constitutional convention as
preferable to nullification or secession.
CRAWFORDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county,
Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890)
6089; (1900) 6649, including 230 negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910)
9371. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways,
and by interurban electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832
by Presbyterian missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27
instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes. Among
manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages, acetylene lights,
wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and electrical machinery.
North-east of the city there are valuable mineral springs, from which
the city obtains its water-supply. Crawfordsville, named in honour of W.
H. Crawford, was first settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in
1823, and was chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the
home of Gen. Lew Wallace.
CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was born in the island
of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783. After studying at
Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India Company's service. He
afterwards resided for some time at Penang, and during the British
occupation of Java from 1811 to 1817 his local knowledge made him
invaluable to the government. In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and
Cochin-China, and in 1823 became governor of Singapore. His last
political service in the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827.
In 1861 he was elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at
South Kensington on the 11th of May 1868.
Crawfurd wrote a _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (1820),
_Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_
(1856), _Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827_ (1829),
_Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China,
exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms_ (1830),
_Inquiry into the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior
of India_, an attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper
entitled _Taxes on Knowledge_ (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and
dictionary (1852).
CRAYER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp,
and learnt the art of painting from Raphael Coxcie. He matriculated in
the guild of St Luke at Brussels in 1607, resided in the capital of
Brabant till after 1660, and finally settled at Ghent. Amongst the
numerous pictures which he painted in Ghent, one in the town museum
represents the martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A deg.
1668 aet. 86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most
conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to Rubens in
vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly equalling both in
most of the essentials of painting. He was well known and always well
treated by Albert and Isabella, governors of the Netherlands. The
cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a court-painter. His pictures abound
in the churches and museums of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely
a country chapel in Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more
of his canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native country;
and some important pictures of his composition are to be found as far
south as Aix in Provence and as far east as Amberg in the Upper
Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist is shown in the panels
executed for a triumphal arch at the entry of Cardinal Ferdinand into
the Flemish capital, some of which are publicly exhibited in the museum
of Ghent. Crayer died at Ghent. His best works are the "Miraculous
Draught of Fishes" in the gallery of Brussels, the "Judgment of Solomon"
in the gallery of Ghent, and "Madonnas with Saints" in the Louvre, the
Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His portrait by Vandyck
was engraved by P. Pontius.
CRAYFISH (Fr. _ecrevisse_), the name of freshwater crustaceans closely
allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them, belonging to the
order Macrura. They are divided into two families, the _Astacidae_ and
_Parastacidae_, inhabiting respectively the northern and the southern
hemispheres.
The crayfishes of England and Ireland (_Astacus_, or _Potamobius_,
_pallipes_) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or
brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They are
abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a calcareous
nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which they dig for
themselves in the banks and coming out at night in search of food. They
are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating insects, snails, frogs and
other animals, and devouring any carrion that comes in their way. It is
stated that they sometimes come on land in search of vegetable food.
[Illustration: Crayfish (_Cambarus_ sp.) from the Mississippi River.
(After Morse.)]
On the continent of Europe, _Astacus pallipes_ occurs chiefly in the
west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan
Peninsula. It is known in France as _ecrevisse a pattes blanches_ and in
Germany as _Steinkrebs_, and is little used as food. The larger _Astacus
fluviatilis_ (_ecrevisse a pattes rouges_, _Edelkrebs_) is not found in
Britain, but occurs in France and Germany, southern Sweden, Russia, &c.
It is distinguished, among other characters, by the red colour of the
under side of the large claws. It is the species most highly esteemed
for the table. Other species of the genus are found in central and
eastern Europe and as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs
in the distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the
Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending into
northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the genus
_Astacus_ again appears, but east of the watershed it is replaced by the
genus _Cambarus_, which is represented by very numerous species, ranging
from the Great Lakes to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the
subterranean waters of caves. The best known is _Cambarus pellucidus_,
found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or
_Parastacidae_ is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of the
northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come into contact
or overlap in Central America. None is found in any part of Africa,
though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are absent also from the
oriental region of zoologists, but reappear in Australia and New
Zealand. Some of the Australian species, such as the "Murray River
lobster" (_Astacopsis spinifer_), are of large size and are used for
food. In South America crayfishes are found in southern Brazil,
Argentina and Chile. (W. T. CA.)
CRAYON (Fr. _craie_, chalk, from Lat. _creta_), a coloured material for
drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but sometimes also
as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and stony friable
substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a base of pipe or
china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion, umber and other
pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds of magnesium, bismuth and
lead are occasionally used as bases. The required shades of tints are
obtained by adding varying amounts of colouring matter to equal
quantities of the base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings
of colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and
rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in
crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger, with the
assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is produced by
cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in crayon or pastel is
supposed to have originated in Germany in the 17th century. By Johann
Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was carried to great perfection, and in
France it was early practised with much success. Amongst the earlier
pastellists may be mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare
(1707-1792), F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in
recent years the art has been successfully revived. (See PASTEL.)
CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878), English historian, was born at
Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He
became a fellow of King's College in 1834, and having been called to the
bar at Lincoln's Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the
Westminster sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of modern
and ancient history in the university of London, and in 1860 became
chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down in health he returned
to England in 1870, and after a further but short stay in Ceylon died in
London on the 27th of January 1878. Creasy's most popular work is his
_Fifteen decisive Battles of the World_, which, first published in 1851,
has passed through many editions. He also wrote _The History of the
Ottoman Turks_ (London, 1854-1856); _History of England_ (London,
1869-1870); _Rise and Progress of the English Constitution_ (London,
1853, and other editions); _Historical and Critical Account of the
several Invasions of England_ (London, 1852); a novel entitled _Old Love
and the New_ (London, 1870); and various other works.
CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM. Traducianism is the doctrine about the
origin of the soul which was taught by Tertullian in his _De
anima_--that souls are generated from souls in the same way and at the
same time as bodies from bodies: creatianism is the doctrine that God
creates a soul for each body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted
the upholders of original sin with holding Tertullian's opinion, and
called them Traduciani (from _tradux_: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name
which was perhaps suggested by a metaphor in _De an._ 19, where the soul
is described "velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem
deducta." Hence we have formed "traducianist," "traducianism," and by
analogy "creatianist," "creatianism." Augustine denied that traducianism
was necessarily connected with the doctrine of original sin, and to the
end of his life was unable to decide for or against it. His letter to
Jerome (_Epist. Clas._ iii. 166) is a most valuable statement of his
difficulties. Jerome condemned it, and said that creatianism was the
opinion of the Church, though he admitted that most of the Western
Christians held traducianism. The question has never been
authoritatively determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed
in the East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians, and
Peter Lombard's _creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo creat_ was
an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was undecided, but
Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists. Calvin favoured
creatianism.
Peter Lombard's phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it was felt
that some union of the two opinions was needed, and Augustine's
toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism he
thought possible was one in which God _operatur institutas
administrando non novas instituendo naturas_ (_Ep._ 166. 5. 11).
Modern psychologists teach that while "personality" can be discerned
in its "becoming," nothing is known of its origin. Lotze, however, who
may be taken as representing the believers in the immanence of the
divine Being, puts forth--but as a "dim conjecture"--something very
like creatianism (_Microcosmus_, bk. iii. chap. v. ad fin.). It is
still, as in the days of Augustine, a question whether a more exact
division of man into body, soul _and spirit_ may help to throw light
on this subject.
See indices to _Augustine_, vol. xi., and _Jerome_, vol. xi. in
Migne's _Patrologia_, s.v. "Anima"; Franz Delitzsch, _Biblical
Psychology_, ii. S 7; G. P. Fisher, _History of Chr. Doct._ pp. 187
ff.; A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (passim; see Index); Liddon,
_Elements of Religion_, Lect. iii.; Mason, _Faith of the Gospel_, iv.
SS 3, 4, 9, 10. (A. N.*)
CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), French tragic poet, was born
on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon, where his father, Melchior Jolyot,
was notary-royal. Having been educated at the Jesuits' school of the
town, and at the College Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed
in the office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement
of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron's, he produced a _Mort
des enfants de Brutus_, which, however, he failed to bring upon the
stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with _Idomenee_; in 1707 his _Atree et
Thyeste_ was repeatedly acted at court; _Electre_ appeared in 1709; and
in 1711 he produced his finest play, the _Rhadamiste et Zenobie_, which
is his masterpiece and held the stage for a long period, although the
plot is so complicated as to be almost incomprehensible. But his
_Xerxes_ (1714) was only once played, and his _Semiramis_ (1717) was an
absolute failure. In 1707 Crebillon had married a girl without fortune,
who had since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had
died, insolvent. His three years' attendance at court had been
fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him.
Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he surrounded
himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens, which he had befriended;
he became utterly careless of cleanliness or food, and solaced himself
with constant smoking. But in 1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he
was elected member of the French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal
censor; and in 1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of
1000 francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage in
1726 with a successful play, _Pyrrhus_; in 1748 his _Catilina_ was
played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he was
eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, _Le Triumvirat_. Crebillon
died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire maintained that
Crebillon was his superior as a tragic poet. The spirit of rivalry thus
provoked induced Voltaire to take the subjects of no less than five of
Crebillon's tragedies--_Semiramis_, _Electre_, _Catilina_, _Le
Triumvirat_, _Atree_--as subjects for tragedies of his own. The
so-called _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1762), really a depreciation, which
appeared in the year of the poet's death, is generally attributed to
Voltaire, though he strenuously denied the authorship. Crebillon's drama
is marked by a force too often gained at the expense of scenes of
unnatural horror; his pieces show lack of culture and a want of care
which displays itself even in the mechanism of his verse, though fine
isolated passages are not infrequent.
There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be noticed:
_OEuvres_ (1772), with preface and "eloge," by Joseph de la Porte;
_OEuvres_ (1828), containing D'Alembert's _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1775);
and _Theatre complet_ (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu. A complete
bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his _Etude sur la vie et
le theatre de Crebillon_ (1895).
His only son, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT CREBILLON (1707-1777), French
novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February 1707. His life was
spent almost entirely in Paris, but the publication of _L'Ecumoire, ou
Tanzai et Neadarne, histoire japonaise_ (1734), which contained veiled
attacks on the bull _Unigenitus_, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse
du Maine, brought Crebillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and
afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and elsewhere.
With Alexis Piron and Charles Colle he founded in 1752 the gay society
which met regularly to dine at the famous "Caveau," where many good
stories were elaborated. From 1759 onwards he was to be found at the
Wednesday dinners of the Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes
were sometimes guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble
family, Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from
1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection and
mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than that
between Crebillon's private life and the tone of his novels, the
immorality of which lent irony to the author's tenure of the office of
censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of Mme de Pompadour.
He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777. The most famous of his
numerous novels are: _Les Amours de Zeokinizul, roi des Kofirans_
(1740), in which "Zeokinizul" and "Kofirans" may be translated Louis
XIV. and the French respectively; and _Le Sopha, conte moral_ (1740),
where the moral is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given
by some authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.
His _OEuvres_ were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of
Crebillon prefixed to O. Uzanne's edition of his _Contes dialogues_ in
the series of _Conteurs du XVIII^e siecle_. Crebillon's novels might
be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two
writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this
particular. Andre Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under a false
name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by Donatien,
marquis de Sade.
CRECHE (Fr. for a "crib" or cradle), the name given to a day-nursery, a
public institution for the feeding and care of infants while the mothers
are engaged in work outside their homes, or are otherwise prevented from
giving them proper attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a
month old, and are kept till they are capable of looking after
themselves. The advantages of such institutions are that the attention
of skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is
better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their homes,
the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of discipline and
cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases, react on the mothers.
The nurseries are usually under medical supervision, and the small fees
charged, which average in London from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the
continent of Europe about 2d., are much less than the cost to the mother
who places her young children under the care of neighbours when at work
or away from home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in
1844, and have been established in the majority of the large towns on
the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and Germany
they have helped to check infantile mortality. The state or municipality
in nearly every case grants subsidies, but few are maintained entirely
by public authorities; voluntary contributions are depended upon for the
main support, and the organization and management are left in the hands
of private societies and charitable institutions, although some outside
official supervision with regard to the number of infants admitted to
each institution, air-space, and ventilation and general hygienic
conditions is considered useful. In Great Britain the establishment of
such institutions has been left almost entirely to private initiative;
and in comparison with the continent the provision is inadequate and
unsatisfactory, Paris having nearly double the proportion of
accommodation for infants to the population that is provided in London.
The National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the
purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of good
methods of founding and managing a creche.
See the _Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
Attendance of Children below the Age of Five_, issued by the Board of
Education (1908).
CRECY (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department of Somme,
on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road. It is famous in
history for the great victory gained here on the 26th of August 1346 by
the English under Edward III. over the French of King Philip of Valois.
After its campaign in northern France, the English army retired into
Ponthieu, and encamped on the 25th of August at Crecy, the French king
in the meantime marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th
Edward's army took up its position for battle, and Philip's, hearing of
this, moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much
disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle. The
English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their right in
front of the village of Crecy, their left resting on Wadicourt. Two of
the three divisions or "battles" were in first line, that of the young
prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the right, that of the earls of
Northampton and Arundel on the left; the third, under the king's own
command, in reserve, and the baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle
consisted of a centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two
wings of archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English
archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the
second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger, having
at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen (Genoese),
perhaps 20,000 of the _milice des communes_, besides a certain number of
foot of the feudal levy. Along with these served a Luxemburg contingent
of horse under John, king of Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy
Roman Empire, and the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.
[Illustration: CRECY (Map of the Battle)]
The day was far advanced when the French came upon the English position.
Philip, near Estrees, decided to halt and bivouac, deferring the battle
until the army was better closed up, but the indiscipline of his army
committed him to an immediate action, and he ordered forward the Genoese
crossbowmen, while a line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind
them; the rest of the army was still marching in an irregular column of
route along the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a
short delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle.
Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English long-bow
proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen, completely
outmatched, were driven back with enormous loss. Thereupon the first
line of French knights behind them charged down upon the "faint-hearted
rabble" of their own fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the
French were a mere mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The
archers did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly
into the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was made by
another large body of knights which had arrived, and served but to
increase the number of the casualties, though here and there a few
charged up to the English line and fell near it, among them the blind
king of Bohemia, who with a party of devoted knights penetrated, and was
killed amongst, the ranks of the prince of Wales's men-at-arms. The
battle was now one long series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a
fresh onslaught being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the
scene. The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles
had been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held back, so
that the whole line resembled a "herse" or harrow with three points
formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive body of the French
sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms, and exposed
themselves therefore at short range to the arrows on either flank. Under
these circumstances there could be but one issue of the battle. Though
sixteen distinct attacks were made, and the fighting lasted until long
after dark, no impression was made on the English line. At one moment
the prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for
aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere handful of
knights to the prince's battle, saying, "Let the boy win his spurs." The
left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat to the rear, moved up into
line with the prince, and the French attack slackened. By midnight the
army of France was practically annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood
were left dead on the field and counted by Edward's heralds, the losses
of the remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the
battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen king of
Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes of Wales lacks
foundation (see JOHN, KING OF BOHEMIA). A memorial to the French and
their allies was erected, by public subscription in France, Luxemburg
and Bohemia, in 1905.
See H. B. George, _Battles of English History_ (London, 1895), and C.
W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages_ (London,
1898).
CREDENCE, or CREDENCE TABLE, a small side-table, originally an article
of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble houses, at
which the ceremony of the _praegustatio_, Italian _credenziare_, the
"assay" or tasting of food and drink for poisons was performed by an
official of the household, the _praegustator_ or _credentiarius_ as he
was called in Medieval Latin. Both the ceremony and the table were known
as _credentia_ (Lat. _credere_, to believe, trust), Ital. _credenza_,
Fr. _credence_. After the need for the ceremony had disappeared the name
still survived, and the table developed a back and several shelves for
the display of plate, and gradually merged into the buffet (q.v.). It
is, however, as an article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence
table is most familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or
stone, sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the
piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the altar,
and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the cruets
containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks to be
carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the ceremony of
the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier the name of
_paratorium_ or _oblationarium_ was given, appears to have come into use
when the personal presentation of the oblations at the Mass became
obsolete. When the pope celebrates Mass a special credence table on the
Gospel side of the altar is used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison
in the unconsecrated elements is still observed. In some churches in
England the old credence tables still exist, as at the church of St
Cross near Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example;
more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina. There
are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being with a
semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a lower shelf.
The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated elements and
the holy vessels before the celebration has been revived in the English
Church.
CREDENTIALS (_lettres de creance_), a document which ambassadors,
ministers plenipotentiary, and charges d'affaires hand to the government
to which they are accredited, for the purpose, chiefly, of communicating
to the latter the envoy's diplomatic rank. It also contains a request
that full credence be accorded to his official statements. Until his
credentials have been presented and found in proper order, an envoy
receives no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or
minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those of
a charge d'affaires by the foreign minister.
CREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose surname was
Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least gifted of three artists
who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Verrocchio. Though he was
the companion and friend of Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely
allied in style to both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the
facility of the other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly
contentment and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and
smoothness of finish. Credi's faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his
pigments have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his
creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities which
hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known form of
tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of the old Umbrian school.
Peculiarities of movement and attitude become stereotyped in his
compositions; but when put on his mettle, he could still exhibit power,
passion, pathos. Credi often repeated himself in Perugino's way; but
being of a pious and resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his
pictures a feeling which is yielding and gentle to the verge of
coldness. Credi had a respectable local practice at Florence. He was
consulted on most occasions when the opinion of his profession was
required on public grounds, e.g. in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498
as to the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place
due to Michelangelo's "David." He never painted frescoes; at rare
intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The greater
part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he expended
minute and patient labour. But he worked with such industry that numbers
of his Madonnas exist in European galleries. The best of his
altar-pieces is that which represents the Virgin and Child with Saints
in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine example of his easel rounds is in
the gallery of Mainz. Credi rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment
to Savonarola; but he felt no inclination for the retirement of a
monastery. Still, in his old age, and after he had outlived the perils
of the siege of Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the
hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery,
London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.
CREDIT (Lat. _credere_, to believe), in a general sense, belief or
trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person has,
or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense credit is
the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration in the
present: hence, a reputation of solvency and ability to make such
payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping credit is the side of the
account on which payments are entered; hence, sometimes, the payments
themselves.
The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of wealth
is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference may be
made to K. Knies, _Geld und Kredit_ (1873-1879), and H. D. Macleod,
_Theory of Credit_ (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers, _The Meaning
of Money_ (1909).
CREDIT FONCIER, in France, an institution for advancing money on
mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to the initiative of
the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by virtue of a governmental
decree of the 28th of February 1852. This decree empowered the issue of
loans at a low rate of interest, secured by mortgage bonds, extending
over a long period, and repayable by annuities, including instalments of
capital. On its inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took
the title of Banque Fonciere de Paris. The parent institution in Paris
was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles. These two
were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the title of Credit
Foncier de France. The capital was increased to 60,000,000 francs, the
government giving a subvention of 10,000,000 francs, and exercising
control over the bank by directly appointing the governor and two
deputy-governors. The administration was vested in a council chosen by
the shareholders, but its decisions have no validity without the
approval of the governor. The Credit Foncier has the right to issue
bonds, repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of
interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The loans must not
exceed half the estimated value of the property mortgaged, upon which
the bank has the first mortgage. The bank also makes advances to local
bodies, departmental and communal, for short or long periods, and with
or without mortgage. Its capital amounts to L13,500,000. Its charter was
renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.
In 1860 the Credit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of an
organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural and
allied industries. This Credit Agricole rendered but trifling services
to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into speculation. Between
1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to the Egyptian government,
obtaining the money by opening credit with the Credit Foncier and
depositing with it the securities of the Egyptian government. On the
failure of the Egyptian government to meet its payments the Credit
Agricole went into liquidation, and the Credit Foncier suffered severely
in consequence. The impracticability of the credit system to aid
agriculture as worked by the Credit Agricole was very marked, and, as a
consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is now entirely
in the hands of the Banque de France.
The _Credit Mobilier_ is an institution for advancing loans on personal
or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the liquidation of the
Societe Generale de Credit Mobilier, founded in 1852, which it absorbed.
CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a construction company whose operations in
connexion with the building of the Union Pacific Railroad gave rise to
the most serious political scandal in the history of the United States
Congress. The company was originally chartered as the Pennsylvania
Fiscal Agency in 1859. In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock
was secured by Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific
Railroad Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the
adoption of the name Credit Mobilier of America. Durant proposed to
utilize it as a construction company, pay it an extravagant sum for the
work, and thus secure for the stockholders of the Union Pacific, who now
controlled the Credit Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States
government. The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage
bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05, slightly
more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction. According to
the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee, the Credit Mobilier
received in addition, in the form of stock, income bonds, and land grant
bonds, $23,000,000--a profit of about 48%. The defenders of the company
assert that several items of expense were not included in this report,
and that the real net profit was considerably smaller, although they
admit that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the
years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse
legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames
(q.v.), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter of
the Credit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among congressmen
and senators to influence their attitude. Shares were sold at par when a
few dividends repaid a purchaser at this price. Some in fact received
dividends without any initial outlay at all. As the result of a lawsuit
between Ames and H. S. McComb, some private letters were brought out in
September 1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House
appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the Wilson
committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames and James Brooks
of New York were formally censured by the House, the former for
disposing of the stock and the latter for improperly using his official
position to secure part of it. Charges were also made against Schuyler
Colfax, then vice-president but Speaker of the House at the time of the
transaction, James A. Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A.
Logan, and several other members either of the House or of the Senate.
The Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the
charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of February
1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of James W. Patterson,
of New Hampshire; but as his term expired within five days no action was
taken. The evidence was exaggerated by the Democrats for partisan
purposes, but the investigation showed clearly that many of those
accused were at least indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself
was merely a type of the construction companies by which it was the
custom to build railways between 1860 and about 1880.
See J. B. Crawford, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880),
and R. Hazard, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Providence, 1881),
both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific
Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White
(Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James Ford
Rhodes, _History of the United States_, vol. vii. (New York, 1906).
The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in _House of
Representatives Reports_, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78,
and the report of the Senate Committee in _Senate Reports_, 42nd
Congress, 3rd session, No. 519.
CREDITON, a market town in the South Molton parliamentary division of
Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter by the London & South-Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3974. It is situated in the
narrow vale of the river Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between
two steep hills, and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and
the west or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is
a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other early
portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school, founded by
Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has exhibitions to Oxford and
Cambridge universities. Shoe-making, tanning, agricultural trade,
tin-plating, and the manufacture of confectionery and cider have
superseded the former large woollen and serge industries. In 1897
Crediton was made the seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of
Exeter.
The first indication of settlement at Crediton (_Credington_,
_Cryditon_, _Kirton_) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was
born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent of the
parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909 the seat of
the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably only a village in
1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested Leo IX. to transfer
the see to Exeter, as Crediton was "an open town and much exposed to the
incursions of pirates." At the Domesday Survey much of the land was
still uncultivated, but its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of
the twelve prebends of the collegiate church had a house and farmland
within the parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the
Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other rights;
in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of judgments of
1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam, view of frank pledge, the
gallows and assize of bread and ale. Two years later there was a serious
riot against the increase of copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that
the prescriptive borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are
mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to parliament in
1306-1307, though never afterwards represented. A borough seal dated
1469 is extant, but the corporation is not mentioned in the grant made
by Edward VI. of the church to twelve principal inhabitants. The borough
and manor were granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but
there is no indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the
18th century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the bishop
obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow of St
Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was established by 1249
and certainly continued until 1630, when the market for kersies is
mentioned in conjunction with a saying "as fine as Kirton spinning."
See Rev. Preb. Smith, "Early History of Credition," in _Devonshire
Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art,
Transactions_, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, "The
Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition," in _Exeter
Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions_, vol. iv. (Exeter,
1878).
CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1809-1876), German geologist, was born
at Waltershausen near Gotha, on the 13th of March 1809. He investigated
the geology of the Thuringer Waldes, of which he published a map in
1846. He was author of a work entitled _Uber die Gliederung der oberen
Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen Deutschland_
(Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover (1865). He died at
Halle on the 28th of September 1876.
His son, CARL HERMANN CREDNER (1841- ), was born at Gotha on the 1st
of October 1841, educated at Breslau and Gottingen, and took the degree
of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In 1870 he was appointed professor of
geology in the university of Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the
Geological Survey of Saxony. He is author of numerous publications on
the geology of Saxony, and of an important work, _Elemente der Geologie_
(2 vols., 1872; 7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in
Germany. He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.
CREE, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They are
still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and living chiefly in
Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan river.
They gave trouble by their constant attacks upon the Sioux and
Blackfeet, but are now peaceable and orderly.
See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700), English classical scholar, was born at
Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his early education from
Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne school. In 1675 he entered Wadham
College, Oxford, and obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls'. He was
headmaster of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he
received a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The
immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty, though
according to some it was a love disappointment; both of these
circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe primarily due to
an already pronounced melancholia. Creech's fame rests on his
translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed heroic couplets, in which,
according to Otway, the pure ore of the original "somewhat seems
refined." He also published a version of Horace (1684), and translated
the _Idylls of Theocritus_ (1684), the _Thirteenth Satire_ of Juvenal
(1693), the _Astronomicon_ of Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch,
Virgil and Ovid.
CREEDS (Lat. _credo_, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. We are
accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, i.e. reasoned
statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected with the
history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative religion has
something to teach us even here. The saying _lex orandi lex credendi_ is
true of all times and of all peoples. And since we must reckon praise as
the highest form of prayer, such an early Christian hymn as is found in
1 Tim. iii. 16 must be acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: "He
who was manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of
angels, preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received
up in glory." It justifies the expansion of the second article of the
developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest Christian
tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our survey of
creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and beliefs. The pendulum
has swung back. Rather than despise the faulty presentation of truth
which we find in heathen religions and their more or less degraded
rites, we follow the apostle Paul in his endeavour to trace in them
attempts "to feel after God" (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great
teacher of the West, was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians,
when he wrote (_Ep._ 166): "Let every good and true Christian understand
that truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to _his_ Lord."
We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest forms of
recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or totemism, or
fetishism, were themselves degradations of a primitive revelation or
not.[1] We are only concerned with the fact of experience that the human
soul yearns to express its belief. The hymn to the rising and setting
sun in the _Book of the Dead_ (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists
to be the oldest poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn
of history.
"Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is
thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are
illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou
returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty."
In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as "the good god beloved, maker of
men, creator of beasts, maker of things below and above, lord of mercy
most loving." A similar note is struck in the Indian Vedas. In the more
ethical religion of the Avesta the creator is more clearly distinguished
from the creature: "I desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my
praise, the lofty eternal, and the holy two."[2] The Persian poet is not
far from the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.
The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the gradual
purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews did not
outgrow their religion, but their interest was always ethical and not
speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists and the most fervent
appeals of the prophets were progressively directed to the great end of
praising and preaching the One true God, everlasting, with sincere and
pure devotion. The creed of the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the
well-remembered words, which have been ever on his lips, living or
dying: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut. vi. 4).
The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course is the
strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to the fluid
character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the chaos of
conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks and Romans. As Dr
J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely: "The physical speculations of
the Ionians and Atomists rendered a God superfluous, and the
metaphysical and logical reasoning of the Eleatics declared Him to be
unknowable."[3] Plato regarding the world as an embodiment of eternal,
archetypal ideas, which he groups under the central idea of Good,
identified with the divine reason, at the same time uses the ordinary
language of the day, and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way
towards the conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth
again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not "a
clear conception of human personality." They were followed by an age of
philosophizing which did little to advance speculation. The Stoics, for
example, were more successful in criticizing the current creed than in
explaining the underlying truth which they recognized in polytheism. The
final goal of Greek philosophy was only reached when the great thinkers
of the early Christian Church, who had been trained in the schools of
Alexandria and Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of
the Christian idea of God. "In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity
was the synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew
and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric touch
of the Incarnation."[4]
Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough has been
said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds of Christendom.
I. THE ANCIENT CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM.--The three creeds which may be
called oecumenical, although the measure of their acceptance by the
universal church has not been uniform, represent three distinct types
provided for the use of the catechumen, the communicant, and the church
teacher respectively. The Apostles' Creed is the ancient baptismal
creed, held in common both by East and West, in its final western form.
The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church enlarged in
order to combine theological interpretation with the facts of the
historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the undivided Church has
been continued since the great schism, although the Eastern Church
protests against the interpolation of the words "And the Son" in clause
9. The Athanasian Creed is an instruction designed to confute heresies
which were current in the 5th century.
Apostles' Creed.
1. _The Apostles' Creed._--The increased interest which has been shown
in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the 19th
century is due in a great measure to the work of the veteran pioneer,
Professor P. Caspari of Christiania, who began the herculean task of
classifying the enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered
from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England we owe much
to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In Germany the monumental
work of Professor Kattenbusch has overshadowed all other books on the
subject, providing even his most ardent critics with an indispensable
record of the literature of the subject.
The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal creed in
the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as the Lord, _or_
the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the apostles were
agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17) which included the
doctrine of God, the person and work of Christ, and the person and work
of the Holy Spirit, it does not appear that they provided any summary,
which would cover this ground, as an authoritative statement of their
belief. The tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the
germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and no
doubt included also teaching on conduct, "the way of a Christian life"
(1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its forms lies behind
worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and behind ethics, to which
it supplies a motive power which the pre-Christian system so manifestly
lacked. Whether the first creed of the primitive Church was of the
simple Christological character which confession of Jesus as the Lord
expresses, or of an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt.
xxviii. 19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which
overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which strove for
utterance. "With the heart man believeth unto righteousness, and with
the mouth confession is made unto salvation" (Rom. x. 10).
When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession before
many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than confession of Christ
as king. He calls it "the beautiful confession" to which Christ Jesus
had borne witness before Pontius Pilate, and charges Timothy before God,
who quickeneth all things, to keep this commandment. Some writers,
notably Professor Zahn,[5] piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13,
ii. 8, iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles' Creed of Antioch,
the city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But
there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a reference
to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which would prove the
apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable as the parent of
the later Eastern and Western forms. The eunuch's creed interpolated in
Acts viii. 57, "I believe that Jesus is the Son of God," since the
reading was known to Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal
confession used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the
type of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence of
the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).
From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of
creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early hymns (1
Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv. 1 ff.). The
following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St Paul is an
artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching, which naturally
reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no attestation in the
later creeds of particular churches which would prove its claim to be
their parent form:
"The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ, born
of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the
scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according
to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the
right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power
being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven
with power and great glory."
The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement (_Cor._
lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula (Matt.
xxviii. 19). Polycarp (_Ep._ 7) echoes St John. But Ignatius might seem
to offer in the following passage some confirmation of Zahn's theory of
a primitive creed of Antioch (_Trall._ 9): "Be ye deaf, therefore, when
any man speaketh to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of
David, who was the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank,
was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died
in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the
earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead, His Father having
raised Him, who in the like fashion will so raise us also who believe on
Him--His Father, I say, will raise us--in Christ Jesus, apart from whom
we have not true life."
The differences, however, which divide this from the later creed forms
are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement, and the evidence of
the Ignatian epistles generally (_Eph_. xviii.; _Smyrn._ i.), while it
confirms the conclusion that instruction was given in Antioch on all
points characteristic of the developed creed, e.g. the Miraculous Birth,
Crucifixion, Resurrection, the Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the
hope of resurrection, does not prove that this teaching was as yet
combined in a Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under
the work of the Holy Ghost.
At this point a word must be said on the important question of
interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on the history
of the different types of creed forms, there can be no hope of agreement
on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit between Unitarian and
Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow Harnack explain "holy spirit" as
the gift of impersonal influence, and between wide limits of difference
agree in regarding Christ as Son of God by adoption and not by nature.
Amid the chaos of conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of
Jesus, the Gospel within the Gospel, the central question "What think ye
of Christ?" emerges as the test of all theories. "No man can say that
Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost" (1 Cor. xii. 3). Belief in the
fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is stated in the
words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the later creeds, stands or
falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the guide alike of their
convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal influence, but a living
voice.
If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare imitation of
the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as Buddhists accept the
religion of Buddha, still it cannot be denied that the early Christians
put their trust in Christ rather than his religion. "I am the life," not
"I teach the life," "I am the truth," not merely "I teach the truth,"
are not additions of Johannine theology but the central aspect of the
presentation of Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and
bodies, which the most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as
the residuum of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would
be out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce
the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the meaning of
the theological teaching both of the New Testament and of the earliest
creeds.
To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom Harnack is in
general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed, which comes to light in
the 4th century, as the parent of all developed forms, whether Eastern
or Western. Marcellus, the exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by
Epiphanius as presenting it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. A.D. 340.
Ussher's recognition of the fact that this profession of faith by
Marcellus was the creed of Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of
modern discussions of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later
Rufinus, a priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his
native city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is
probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the Roman
Church must always have been bilingual in its early days. It was as
follows:
I. 1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;
II. 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,
3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,
4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried
5. the third day He rose from the dead,
6. He ascended into heaven,
7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,
8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.
III. 9. And in the Holy Ghost,
10. (the) holy Church,
11. (the) remission of sins,
12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.
This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of Bishops Felix
and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of Tertullian in the 2nd
century.
Tertullian calls the creed the "token" which the African Church shares
with the Roman (_de Praescr._ 36): "The Roman Church has made a common
token with the African Churches, has recognized one God, creator of the
universe, and Christ Jesus, of the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator,
and the resurrection of the flesh." The reference is to the earthenware
token which two friends broke in order that they might commend a
stranger for hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their
creed became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could
obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals. The
passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the Roman Creed,
which reappears also in the following (_de Virg. vel._ i.):
"The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God
Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of
Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day raised
from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the right hand
of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead through the
resurrection also of the flesh."
There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the Gnostic
Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be dated A.D. 145. He
seems to have still held to the Roman creed interpreted in his own way.
An ingenious conjecture by Zahn enables us to add the words "holy
Church" to our reconstruction of the creed from the writings of
Tertullian. In his revised New Testament Marcion speaks of "the covenant
which is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to
which we have vowed allegiance." He uses a word used by Ignatius of the
oath taken on confession of the Christian faith. It follows that the
words "holy Church" were contained in the Roman Creed.[6]
While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest years
of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all similar
Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its relation to
Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the Roman Creed reached Gaul
and Africa in the course of the 2nd century, and perhaps all districts
of the West that possessed Christian congregations, also the western end
of Asia Minor possibly in connexion with Polycarp's visit to Rome A.D.
154. He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern creeds
which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or may be traced
back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point. He concludes
that the Roman Creed was accepted at Antioch after the fall of Paul of
Samosata in A.D. 272, and was adapted to the dogmatic requirements of
the time, all the later creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being
dependent on it.
On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find evidence of the
existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal or greater antiquity and
distinguished from the Roman by such phrases as "One" (God), "Maker of
heaven and earth," "suffered," "shall come again in glory." Thus Kunze
reconstructs a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it
is independent of the Roman Creed.
_Creed of Antioch._
I. 1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty, maker
of all things, visible and invisible.
II. 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and
first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the
ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all
things came into existence;
3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin.
4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,
5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures,
6. and ascended into heaven.
7.
8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead.
9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]
10.
11. Remission of sins.
12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.
Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds which go
back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.
A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council.
B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.