CRANE, WALTER (1845- ), English artist, second son of Thomas Crane,

portrait painter and miniaturist, was born in Liverpool on the 15th of

August 1845. The family soon removed to Torquay, where the boy gained

his early artistic impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to

London. He early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and

was a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs to

illustrate Tennyson's "Lady of Shalott" gained the approval of William

James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter Crane was apprenticed

for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver he had abundant

opportunity for the minute study of the contemporary artists whose work

passed through his hands, of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys,

and of the masters of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more

influenced by the Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and

important element in the development of his talent, was the study of

Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a series of

toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a picture of his, "The

Lady of Shalott," was exhibited at the Royal Academy, but the Academy

steadily refused his maturer work; and after the opening of the

Grosvenor Gallery in 1877 he ceased to send pictures to Burlington

House. In 1864 he began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour

printer, a series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying

admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited to the use

of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a delightful series

begun in 1873, _The Frog Prince, &c._, which showed markedly the

influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to Italy following on his

marriage in 1871. _The Baby's Opera_ was a book of English nursery songs

planned in 1877 with Mr Evans, and a third series of children's books

with the collective title, _A Romance of the Three R's_, provided a

regular course of instruction in art for the nursery. In his early "Lady

of Shalott" the artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design

in book illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in

the view that this union of the calligrapher's and the decorator's art

was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He followed

the same course in _The First of May: A Fairy Masque_ by his friend John

R. Wise, text and decoration being in this case reproduced by

photogravure. The "Goose Girl" illustration taken from his beautiful

_Household Stories from Grimm_ (1882) was reproduced in tapestry by

William Morris, and is now in the South Kensington Museum. _Flora's

Feast, A Masque of Flowers_ had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane's

line drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in colour

_The Wonder Book_ of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret Deland's _Old

Garden_; in 1894 he collaborated with William Morris in the page

decoration of _The Story of the Glittering Plain_, published at the

Kelmscott press, which was executed in the style of 16th-century Italian

and German woodcuts; but in purely decorative interest the finest of his

works in book illustration is Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ (12 pts.,

1894-1896) and the _Shepheard's Calendar_. The poems which form the text

of _Queen Summer_ (1891), _Renascence_ (1891), and _The Sirens Three_

(1886) are by the artist himself.

In the early 'eighties under Morris's influence he was closely

associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as Morris himself

to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With this object in

view he devoted much attention to designs for textile stuffs, for

wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he also used his art for the

direct advancement of the Socialist cause. For a long time he provided

the weekly cartoons for the Socialist organs, _Justice_ and _The

Commonweal_. Many of these were collected as _Cartoons for the Cause_.

He devoted much time and energy to the work of the Art Workers' Guild,

and to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888.

His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them "The

Bridge of Life" (1884) and "The Mower" (1891), were exhibited regularly

at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the New Gallery. "Neptune's

Horses," which, with many other of Mr Crane's pictures, came into the

possession of Herr Ernst Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New

Gallery in 1893, and with it may be classed his "The Rainbow and the

Wave."

His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles, stained

glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of which he

applied the principle that in purely decorative design "the artist works

freest and best without direct reference to nature, and should have

learned the forms he makes use of by heart." An exhibition of his work

of different kinds was held at the Fine Art Society's galleries in Bond

Street in 1891, and taken over to the United States in the same year by

the artist himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German,

Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest throughout the

continent.

Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society in 1888; he was

an examiner of the science and art department at South Kensington;

director of design at the Manchester Municipal school (1894); art

director of Reading College (1896); and in 1898 for a short time

principal of the Royal College of Art. His lectures at Manchester were

published with illustrated drawings as _The Bases of Design_ (1898) and

_Line and Form_ (1900). _The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and

New_ (2nd ed., London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to

theory.

A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was exhibited

at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive and sumptuously

illustrated book on _The Art of Walter Crane_, by P. G. Konody; a

monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the _Kunstler Monographien_

series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an account of himself by the

artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the _Art Journal_.

CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845- ), American actor, was born on the 30th of

April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts, and made his first appearance

at Utica, New York, in Donizetti's _Daughter of the Regiment_ in 1863.

Later he had a great success as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque

_Evangeline_ (1873). He made his first hit in the legitimate drama with

Stuart Robson (1836-1903), in _The Comedy of Errors_ and other

Shakespearian plays, and in _The Henrietta_ (1881) by Bronson Howard

(1842-1908). This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently

Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in such plays as

_The Senator_ and _David Harum_. In 1904 he turned to more serious work

and played Isidore Izard in _Business is Business_, an adaptation from

Octave Mirbeau's _Les Affaires sont les affaires_.

CRANE (in Dutch, _Kraan_; O. Ger. _Kraen_; cognate, as also the Lat.

_grus_, and consequently the Fr. _grue_ and Span. _grulla_, with the Gr.

[Greek: geranos]), the _Grus communis_ or _G. cinerea_ of

ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a native

of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he had very often

seen its young ("_earum pipiones saepissime vidi_"). Notwithstanding the

protection afforded it by sundry acts of parliament, it has long since

ceased from breeding in England. Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it

as being found in the open parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray's time it

was only known as occurring at the same season in large flocks in the

fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of

cranes' eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby

in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an older

edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest inquiry he

found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly unacquainted with

the bird. The crane, however, no doubt then appeared in Britain, as it

does now, at uncertain intervals and in unwonted places, having strayed

from the migrating bands whose movements have been remarked from almost

the earliest ages. Indeed, the crane's aerial journeys are of a very

extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the Tropic of

Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return voyage, its flocks

may be descried passing overhead at a marvellous height, or halting for

rest and refreshment on the wide meadows that border some great river,

while the seeming order with which its ranks are marshalled during

flight has long attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter

quarters under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in

spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill polar soils

of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south of Europe and breed

in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey. The greater number, however,

occupy the intermediate zone and pass the summer in Russia, north

Germany, and Scandinavia. Soon after their arrival in these countries

the flocks break up into pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied

by loud and frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of

each are chosen.

The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open marshes,

where the herbage is not very high--a tolerably dry spot being selected

and used apparently year after year. Here the eggs, which are of a rich

brown colour with dark spots, and always two in number, are laid. The

young are able to run soon after they are hatched, and are at first

clothed with tawny down. In the course of the summer they assume nearly

the same grey plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated

plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder

parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear black,

white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose skin of that

colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct. During this time

they keep in the marshes, but as autumn approaches the different

families unite by the rivers and lakes, and ultimately form the enormous

bands which after much more trumpeting set out on their southward

journey.

The crane's power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar trumpet-like

notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its trachea, which on

quitting the lower end of the neck passes backward between the branches

of the furcula and is received into a hollow space formed by the bony

walls of the carina or keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns,

and then runs upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the

whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (_Cygnus musicus_,

_C. buccinator_ and others), though differing in some not unimportant

details; but at the same time somewhat similar convolutions of the

trachea occur in other birds which do not possess, so far as is known,

the faculty of trumpeting. The crane emits its notes both during flight

and while on the ground. In the latter case the neck and bill are

uplifted and the mouth kept open during the utterance of the blast,

which may be often heard from birds in confinement, especially at the

beginning of the year.

As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once familiar

British species is now used in a general sense, and applied to all

others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists placed near

or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the cranes have only a

superficial resemblance and no real affinity to the _Ardeidae_. In fact

the _Gruidae_ form a somewhat isolated group. Huxley included them

together with the _Rallidae_ in his _Geranomorphae_; but a more extended

view of their various characters would probably assign them rather as

relatives of the Bustards--not that it must be thought that the two

families have not been for a very long time distinct. _Grus_, indeed, is

a very ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and

Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North America.

In France, too, during the "Reindeer Period" there existed a huge

species--the _G. primigenia_ of Alphonse Milne-Edwards--which has

doubtless been long extinct. At the present time cranes inhabit all the

great zoogeographical regions of the earth, except the Neotropical, and

some sixteen or seventeen species are discriminated. In Europe, besides

the _G. communis_ already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane

(_G. virgo_) is distinguished from every other by its long white

ear-tufts. This bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and

Africa, and is said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The

eastern part of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other

species that do not frequent Europe (_G. antigone_, _G. japonensis_, _G.

monachus_, and _G. leucogeranus_), of which the last is perhaps the

finest of the family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white.

The Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the

species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (_G. torquata_

and _G. indica_, both commonly confounded under the name of _G.

antigone_). The Australian Region possesses a large species known to the

colonists as the "native companion" (_G. australis_), while the Nearctic

is tenanted by three species (_G. americana_, _G. canadensis_ and _G.

fraterculus_), to say nothing of the possibility of a fourth (_G.

schlegeli_), a little-known and somewhat obscure bird, finding its

habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two species (_G. paradisea_

and _G. carunculata_), which do not occur out of Africa, as well as

three others forming the group known as "crowned cranes"--differing much

from other members of the family, and justifiably placed in a separate

genus, _Balearica_. One of these (_B. pavonina_) inhabits northern and

western Africa, while another (_B. regulorum_) is confined to the

eastern and southern parts of that continent. The third (_B. ceciliae_),

from the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell

(_P.Z.S._, 1904).

With regard to the literature of this species, a paper "On the

Breeding of the Crane in Lapland" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 191), by John

Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history

ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different

species was communicated by Blyth to _The Field_ in 1873 (vol. xl. p.

631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful

picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during one

of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf's _Zoological

Sketches_. (A. N.)

CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf.

Gr. [Greek: geranos], Fr. _grue_), machines by means of which heavy

bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within certain

defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the arm or jib

from which the load to be moved is suspended, but it is now used in a

wider sense to include the whole mechanism by which a load is raised

vertically and moved horizontally. Machines used for lifting only are

not called cranes, but winches, lifts or hoists, while the term elevator

or conveyor is commonly given to appliances which continuously, not in

separate loads, move materials like grain or coal in a vertical,

horizontal or diagonal direction (see CONVEYORS). The use of cranes is

of great antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial

development of the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive

powers than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important and

indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where finished

goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made, cranes of various

forms are in universal use.

Classification.

Cranes may be divided into two main classes--revolving and

non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and then

moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited at any convenient

point within the range. The type of this class is the ordinary jib

crane. In the second class there are, in addition to the lifting motion,

two horizontal movements at right angles to one another. The type of

this class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously

represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates. Jib

cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and portable cranes; in the

former the central-post or pivot is firmly fixed in a permanent

position, while in the latter the whole crane is mounted on wheels, so

that it may be transported from place to place.

Motive powers.

The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes--manual,

steam, hydraulic, electric--give a further classification. Hand cranes

are extremely useful where the load is not excessive, and the quantities

to be dealt with are not great; also where speed is not important, and

first cost is an essential consideration. The net effective work of

lifting that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken,

for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb per

minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2-1/4 ft. per minute, so

that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a minute or 9 tons 1

ft. per minute. It is at once evident that hand power is only suitable

for cranes of moderate power, or in cases where heavy loads have to be

lifted only very occasionally. This point is dwelt upon, because the

speed limitations of the hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers.

Steam is an extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not

worked off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense

advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved (by its

own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without requiring any

complicated means of conveying power to it; and it is rapid in work,

fairly economical, and can be adapted to the most varying circumstances.

Where, however, there are a number of cranes all belonging to the same

installation, and these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from

a central power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and

continuous, as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other

warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the power in

a generating station and distribute it to the cranes. Down to the

closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic power was practically the

only system available for working cranes from a power station. The

hydraulic crane is rapid in action, very smooth and silent in working,

easy to handle, and not excessive in cost or upkeep,--advantages which

have secured its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a

motive power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric

transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not reached

by any other method, and the electric motor readily adapts itself to

cranes. When they are worked from a power station the great advantage is

gained that the same plant which drives them can be used for many other

purposes, such as working machine tools and supplying current for

lighting. For dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making

rapid strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of the

cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a motive power

has already displaced nearly every other method. Cranes driven by

shafting, or by mechanical power, have been largely superseded by

electric cranes, principally on account of the much greater economy of

transmission. For many years the best workshop travellers were those

driven by quick running ropes; these performed admirable service, but

they have given place to the more modern electric traveller.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Lifting mechanisms.

The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or lifting

motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or hook, and

elevating the hook vertically. There are three typical methods: (1) A

direct pull may be applied to the hook, either by screws, or by a

cylinder fitted with piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic

or other pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods

are used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of

giving a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a

rope or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of

pulleys around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be

very largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one

indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the

cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in

all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley

to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated

by the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of

overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a

special pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the

barrel is reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or "sprockets,"

which engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but

simply passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All

the methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or

barrel shaft, and this is the important difference between them and

the hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating

hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third

category.

When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented by

systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the traveller

crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are interposed

between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel (fig. 3).

Brakes.

When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the action of

gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is lowered, energy

is given out. To control the speed and absorb this energy, brakes have

to be provided. The hydraulic crane has a great advantage in

possessing an almost ideal brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust

from the lifting cylinder the speed of descent can be regulated within

very wide limits and with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually

fitted with band brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction

band placed round it, the band being tightened as required. In

ordinary cases conduction and convection suffice to dissipate the heat

generated by the brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be

rapidly performed, or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth,

special arrangements have to be provided. An excellent brake for very

large cranes is Matthew's hydraulic brake, in which water is passed

from end to end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons,

cooling jackets being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is

to arrange the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo,

and, driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current

which is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That

the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable is

seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons

descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat

sufficient to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60 deg. F. to

boiling point. Crane brakes are usually under the direct control of

the driver, and they are generally arranged in one of two ways. In the

first, the pressure is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed

by a spring or weight; this is called "braking on." In the second, or

"braking off" method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring

or weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of

electric cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is

energized by the current passing through the motor. When the motor

starts the brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases,

the brake goes on. The first method is in general use for steam

cranes; it allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but

is not automatic, as is the second.

In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving

shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with the

brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid in

working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed at a

very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come to rest

in order to be reversed. This method of working is very suitable for

electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or 7 tons, and

for overhead travellers where the height of lift is moderate. Where

high speed lowering is not required it is usual to employ a reversing

motor and keep it always in gear.

In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double

cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be worked

together, or independently as required, reversing friction cones are

used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing motion. With

the exception of a few special cranes in which friction wheels are

employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes, to connect

the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed gearing, the

gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions. In electric

cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a similar

manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels give a

slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat smoother in

its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can, however, be

considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth, as is now

always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide leather or

other non-resonant material. When quick-running metal pinions are used

they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths. Leather pinions must be

protected from rats, which eat them freely. Worm wheel gearing is of

very high efficiency if made very quick in pitch, with properly formed

teeth perfectly lubricated, and with the end thrust of the worm taken

on ball bearings. Much attention has been paid to the improvement of

the mechanical details of the lifting and other motions of cranes, and

in important installations the gearing is now usually made of cast

steel. In revolving cranes ease of slewing can be greatly increased by

the use of a live ring of conical rollers.

Power required.

Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from

those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the

intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. This fact has

led to the introduction of the "crane rated" motor, with a given "load

factor." This latter gives the ratio of the length of the working

periods to the whole time; e.g. a motor rated for a quarter load

factor means that the motor is capable of exerting its full normal

horse-power for three minutes out of every twelve, the pause being

nine minutes, or one minute out of every four, the pause being three

minutes. The actual load factor to be chosen depends on the nature of

the work and the kind of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with

high lifts following one another in rapid succession will require a

higher load factor than a workshop traveller with a very short lift

and only a very occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very

long longitudinal travel will require a higher load factor for the

travelling motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load

factor for electric crane motors varies from 1/3 to 1/6. In steam

cranes much the same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler;

e.g. the engines of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of

indicating about 60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is

found that, in consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient

steam can be supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only 1/3

to 1/4 of that necessary for the above power, when developed

continuously by a stationary engine.

In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency of

the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib crane

will give an efficiency of 72%, i.e. when actually lifting at full

speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of the

electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient rule is

to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons of work

done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency of 66-2/3%, and

is well on the safe side.

The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series wound,

continuous current motor, which has many advantages. It has a very

large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the inertia of

getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a slower

speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the action

of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in which the

cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of the stop-valve.

Three-phase motors are also much used for crane-driving, and it is

probable that improvements in single and two-phase motors will

eventually largely increase their use for this class of work.

Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric cranes

tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very considerable

extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic crane falls

away very much more rapidly than that of the electric crane when

working on smaller loads. This drawback can be corrected to a slight

extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with more than one cylinder,

and thus compounding it, but the arrangement does not give the same

economical range of load as in an electric crane. In first cost the

hydraulic crane has the advantage, but the power mains are much less

expensive and more convenient to arrange in the electric crane.

Speed.

The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned;

for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the formula V

= 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in feet per minute, and T

the load in tons. Where electric or hydraulic cranes are worked from a

central station the speed is greater, and may be roughly represented

by V = 5 + 300/T; e.g. a 30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of

about 200 ft. per minute, and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8

ft. per minute, but these speeds vary with local circumstances. The

lifting speed of electric travellers is generally less, because the

lift is generally much shorter, and may in ordinary cases be taken as

V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing speed of travellers varies from 60

to 120 ft. per minute, and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per

minute. The speed of these two motions depends much on the length of

the span and of the longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to

be done; in certain cases, e.g. foundries, it is desirable to be able

to lift, on occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the

brakes on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially

in quick-running electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary

motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift or

travel, so as to prevent over-running.

There are many other important points of crane construction too

numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the advent

of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence great

attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and wear, such

as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of lubrication; and,

as in all other quick-running machinery, great stress has to be laid

on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery, thus being of a higher

class, requires more protection, and cranes that work in the open are

now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or cabins, furnished with

weather-tight doors and windows, and more care is taken to provide

proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders of access, and also guards

for the revolving parts of gearing.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

Fixed Cranes.

_Typical Forms of Cranes._--Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand

revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards

and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is securely

bolted to the foundation, and which carries the strong crane-post, or

pillar, around which the crane revolves. The revolving part is made

with two side frames of cast iron or steel plates, and to these the

lifting gear is attached. The load is suspended from the crane jib;

this jib is attached at the lower end to the side frames, and the

upper end is supported by tie-rods, connected to the framework, the

whole revolving together. This simple form of crane thus embodies the

essential elements of foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and

gearing.

Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane.

Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished with

pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two "back

ties," and these are connected to the socket of the bottom pivot by

the "sleepers." This is a very good and comparatively cheap form of

crane, where a long and variable radius is required, but it cannot

slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are made of all powers,

from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel 150-ton derrick used

in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane introduces a problem for

which many solutions have been sought, that of preventing the load

from being lifted or lowered when the jib is pivoted up or down to

alter the radius. To keep the load level, there are various devices

for automatically coupling the jib-raising and the load-lowering

motions.

Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here the

place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together at the

top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected at the

top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut which runs

on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement of the lower end

of the back leg allows the whole arrangement to assume the position

shown in fig. 7, so that a load can be taken out of a vessel and

deposited on a quay wall. The same effect can be produced by

shortening the back leg by a screw placed in the direction of its

length. Sheer legs are generally built in very large sizes, and their

use is practically confined to marine work.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

Another type of fixed crane is the "Fairbairn" crane, shown in fig. 8.

Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united in one piece,

which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at the bottom by

a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal rollers. This type

of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence of the great

clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and requires

very heavy foundations.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

The so-called "hammer-headed" crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel

braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever;

the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting crab,

and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the

machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of lifting and

revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which

the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out

along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal

movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design; it

first became prominent in the so-called "Titan" cranes, mentioned

below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are generally constructed in

large sizes, up to 200 tons.

Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy crane

(fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned above, and

revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by the structure

of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy foundation.

The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy hammers in a

smithy, whence the name.

Portable cranes.

Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every kind of

crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage, fitted with

wheels; it is even not unusual to make the Scottish derrick portable

by using three trucks, one under the mast, and the others under the

two back legs.

Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the same

elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed is

mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels. With

portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite

stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of

the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the boiler

is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where the

rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking girders

are provided across the under side of the truck; these are arranged so

that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made to increase the

base. In connexion with the stability of portable cranes, it may be

mentioned that accidents more often arise from overturning backwards

than forwards. In the latter case the overturning tendency begins as

soon as the load leaves the ground, but ceases as soon as the load

again touches the ground and thus relieves the crane of the extra

weight, whereas overturning backwards is caused either by the reaction

of a chain breaking or by excessive counterweight. When portable

cranes are fitted with springs and axle-boxes, drawgear and buffers,

so that they can be coupled to an ordinary railway train, they are

called "breakdown" or "wrecking" cranes.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

Dock-side jib cranes for working general cargo are almost always made

portable, in order to enable them to be placed in correct position in

regard to the hatchways of the vessels which they serve. Fig. 12 shows

an ordinary hydraulic dock-side jib crane. This type is usually fitted

with a very high jib, so as to lift goods in and out of high-sided

vessels. The hydraulic lifting cylinders are placed inside the

revolving steel mast or post, and the cabin for the driver is arranged

high up in the front of the post, so as to give a good view of the

work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of jointed

"walking" pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants placed at

regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable to have

the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible, so as

not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the

introduction of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes

also called "portal" cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings run

parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so as to

span the whole quay; on one side the "long leg" runs on a rail at the

quay edge, and on the other the "short leg" runs on a runway placed on

the building. Cranes of this type are called "half-portal" cranes.

Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class. They give the minimum

of interference with quay space and have rapidly come into favour.

Where the face of the warehouse is sufficiently close to the water to

permit of the crane rope plumbing the hatches without requiring a jib

of excessive radius, it is a very convenient plan to place the whole

crane on the warehouse roof.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.]

A special form of jib crane, designed to meet a particular purpose, is

the "Titan" (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of piers and

breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the

hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent;

in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable

and the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large

portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal

movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed,

viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost a

necessity.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.]

Non-revolving cranes.

As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead traveller

worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine worked by

electric power. The principal component parts of a traveller are the

main cross girders forming the _bridge_, the two _end carriages_ on

which the bridge rests, the _running wheels_ which enable the end

carriages to travel on the longitudinal gantry girders or _runway_,

and the _crab_ or _jenny_, which carries the hoisting mechanism, and

moves across the span on rails placed on the bridge girders. There are

numerous and important variations of these two types, but the above

contain the elements out of which most cranes of the class are built.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.]

[Illustration: FIG. 18.]

One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a "Goliath" or

"Wellington." It is practically a traveller mounted on high legs, so

as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the ground

level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations and

combinations of types, fig. 18 shows a modern design of crane intended

to command the maximum of yard space, and having some of the

characteristics both of the Goliath and of the revolving jib crane,

and fig. 19 depicts a combination of a traveller and a hanging jib

crane.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.]

[Illustration: FIG. 20.]

Transporters.

When the cross traverse motion of a traveller crab is suppressed, and

the longitudinal travelling motion is increased in importance we come

to a type of crane, the use of which is rapidly increasing; it goes by

the name of "transporter." Transporters can only move the load to any

point on a vertical surface (generally a plane surface); they have a

lifting motion and a movement of translation. They are of two kinds:

(1) those in which the motive power and lifting gear are

self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive power is

placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is shown

in fig. 20. From the lower flange of a suspended runway, made of a

single I section, run wheels, from the axles of which the transporter

is suspended. The latter consists of a framework carrying the hoisting

barrel, with its driving motor and gearing, and a travelling motor,

which is geared to the running wheels in such a manner as to be able

to propel the whole machine; a seat is provided for the driver who

manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind, when fitted

with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal from barges

and depositing it in a coal store.

In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved

through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made of

single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be

lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs on

the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient fixed

position. In order that only one motor may be used, and also that the

load may be lifted by a single part of rope, various devices have been

invented. The jib is usually inclined, so as to enable the travel to

be performed by gravity in one direction, and the object of the

transporter mechanism is to ensure that pulling in or slacking out the

lifting rope shall perform the cycle of operations in the following

order:--Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of a vessel on to

a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the travelling

jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving at a certain

height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by the continued

pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an adjustable

stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be lowered out; the

hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically unlocked, and

on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates to its first position,

when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated. The jibs of

transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up, so as to be

out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely used for

dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses, and also

for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not interfering

with the rigging of vessels.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.]

Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the

introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply motive

power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically, so that

the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the various

motions required by the special circumstances of each case.

The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one,

but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst

which may be mentioned _Die Hebezeuge_ by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin,

1903), and _Cranes_, by Anton Bottcher, translated with additions by

A. Tolhausen (London, 1908). (W. P.*)

CRANIOMETRY. The application of precise methods of measurement marks a

definite phase in the development of most branches of modern science,

and thus craniometry, a comprehensive expression for all methods of

measuring the skull (cranium), provides a striking landmark in the

progress of anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears

to be twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls

with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation of

those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and A. Durer may be

mentioned as pioneers in such researches. Again, it is clearly shown in

the literature of this subject, that anatomists were led to employ

methods of measurement in their study of the human skull. The

determining cause of this improvement in method is curious, for it

appeared at the end of a famous anatomical controversy of the later

middle ages, namely the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was

based on the study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the

description of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains

that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were devised

with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and the human

skull.

The artists did not carry their researches very far. The anatomists on

the contrary continued to make measurements, and in 1764 Daubenton

published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry. Six years later,

Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist,

published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical

methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation

of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as

anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in

extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they

naturally fall.

In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions

of artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made

with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with

those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first

subdivision of craniometric studies. And craniometric methods have

rendered the results of comparison much more clear and comprehensible

than was formerly the case. It is further remarkable that among the

first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the

name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by

the "facial angle" invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It

appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which Camper

describes the general results of the employment of this angle for

comparative purposes, as will appear from the following brief extract

from the translation of the original work: "The two extremities of the

facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from the negro to the Grecian

antique: make it under 70, and you describe an ourang or an ape: lessen

it still more, and you have the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and

you form a fowl, a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly

parallel with the horizon." (Camper's Works, p. 42, translated by Cogan,

1821.)

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of

a negro, showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by

Pieter Camper.]

In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature

of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it is impossible to

analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names

of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching

comparisons of the lower animals with mankind, craniometric methods were

used by P. P. Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in

England, with such genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.

The second division of craniometric studies includes those in which the

skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are compared. And in

this domain, the advent of accurate numerical methods of recording

observations brought about great advances. In describing the facial

angle, it will be seen that the modern European, the Greek of classical

antiquity and the Negro are compared. Thus it is that Camper's name

appears as that of a pioneer in this second main division of the

subject. Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields

of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must

be added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the

merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and

of a classification based on such comparisons. These indices will be

further defined below. It is convenient to mention here that the first

aim of all these investigators was to obtain from the skull reliable

data having reference to the conformation or size of the brain once

contained within it. Only in later days did the tendency to overlook

this, the fundamental aim and end of craniometry, make its appearance;

such nevertheless was the case, much to the detriment of craniometric

science, which for a time seems to have become purely empirical.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and

foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain

native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal

angle; _P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramino-basal

angle. The spheno-ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first

employed by Huxley.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and

foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Guinea

native (male); B, a European woman. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal angle;

_P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramina-basal angle.]

The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which the

field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the various

sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are brought

together for the purposes of comparison or contrast. But although the

range of research is thus narrowed and restricted, the guiding

principles and the methods remain unchanged. In this department of

craniometry, Anders Retzius has gained the foremost place among the

pioneers of research. Retzius's name is, as already mentioned,

associated not with any particular angle or angular measurement, but

rather with a method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions

which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus for instance

one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest width measures 75% of

its greatest length (i.e. its width is to its length as three to four).

[Illustration: From Tylor's _Anthropology_, by permission of Macmillan &

Co., Ltd.

FIG. 4.--Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic; (B)

European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85,

brachycephalic.]

This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index, which in

such an instance would be described as equal to 75. A skull providing a

breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess very different proportions

from another which provides a corresponding index equal to 85. And in

fact this particular index in human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in

undistorted examples (fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius's

system of classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his

earliest applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden.

One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in respect of

the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and their Scandinavian

neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference was added to the list of

characters (such as stature, hair-colour and complexion) whereby these

two types were already distinguished. Since the publication of Retzius's

studies, the cephalic or breadth-index of the skull has retained a

premier position among its almost innumerable successors, though it is

of historical interest to note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly

devised the method of comparing "breadth-indices," he always qualified

the results of its use by reference to other data. These qualifications

were overlooked by the immediate successors of Retzius, much to the

disadvantage of craniometry. In addition to the researches on the skull

forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison of Finns

and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of the form of

skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess historic interest.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Callipers used in Craniometry, Professor

Martin's (P. Hermann, Zurich) model.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flower's Craniometer as modified by Dr W. L. H.

Duckworth.]

Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments.

Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires, through which

skulls were viewed and by means of which accurate drawings could be

projected on to paper. The methods of Retzius as here described require

the aid of callipers of various sorts, and such instruments were quickly

devised and applied to the special needs of the case. Such instruments

are still in use, and two forms of simple craniometer are shown in the

accompanying illustrations (figs. 5 and 6). For the more accurate

comparison required in the study of various European types, delicate

instruments for measuring angles were invented by Anthelme in Paris

(1836) and John Grattan in Belfast (1853). These instruments enabled the

observer to transmit to the plane surface of a sheet of drawing paper a

correct tracing of the contour of the specimen under investigation. A

further modification was devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year

1861, and since that date the number and forms of these instruments have

been greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance

of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry, there should

be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley, Sir W. H. Flower and

Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de Quatrefages in France, J. C. G.

Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany. Moreover, the methods have also been

multiplied, so that in addition to angular and linear measurements,

those of the capacity or cubical contents of the cranium and those of

the curvature of its surface demand reference. The masterly work of

Cleland claims special mention in this connexion. And finally while two

dimensions are combined in the cephalic index of Retzius, the

combination of three dimensions (in a formula called a modulus)

distinguishes some recent work, although the employment of the modulus

is actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E. von Baer.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is

shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain native (male) 62 deg.; B, a

gorilla (male) 50 deg.; C, a dog 42 deg.. This angle has now replaced

the facial angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).]

The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that which

has just been described, and it deals with the comparison of the

prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods are exactly

similar to those employed in the comparison of living races; but in some

particular instances where the prehistoric individual is represented

only by a comparatively minute portion of the skull, some special

modifications of the usual procedures have been necessitated. In this

field the works of W. His and L. Rutimeyer on the prehistoric races of

Switzerland, those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of

Thurnam and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger, W.

J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to this

department of craniometry.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is

shown in the crania of:--A, a Guinea native (male) 75 deg.; B, a European

(woman) 93 deg.; C, a new-born infant (93 deg.).]

Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably increased. In

the hands of von Torok of Budapest, as in those of M. Benedikt of Vienna

at an earlier date, the number of measurements regarded as necessary for

the complete "diagnosis" of a skull has reached a colossal total. Of the

trend and progress of craniometry at the present day, three particular

developments are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various

times to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure

uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that of the

German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and 8), and that of

the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association (1906) seem to

require at least a record. In the second place, the application of the

methods of statistical science in dealing with large numbers of

craniometric data has been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson's

hands. Thirdly, and in connexion with such methods, there may be

mentioned the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the

methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the study of

large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral animals, such as white

rats or the varieties of the horse. And lastly no account of craniometry

would be complete without mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian

anthropologist Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot,

however, be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of

Sergi's principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox

numerical methods.

LITERATURE.--Tyson, _The Anatomy of a Pygmie_ (London, 1699);

Daubenton, "Sur la difference de la situation du tron occipital dans

l'homme et dans les animaux," _Comptes rendus de l'academie des

sciences_ (Paris, 1764); Camper, _Works_ (1770, translated by Cogan,

1821); Broca, _Memoires_ (1862 and following years); Huxley, _Journal

of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, _Uber die

Schadelformen der Nordbewohner_ (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme,

_Physiologie de la pensee_ (Paris, 1836); Grattan, _Ulster Journal of

Archaeology_, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, "A System of Craniometry,"

_Transactions of the Ethnological Society_ (1861); Flower, Catalogue

of the Hunterian Museum, _Osteology_, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner,

"'Challenger' Reports," _Zoology_, vol. x. pt. 29, "Human Crania"

(1884); de Quatrefages, _Crania ethnica_ (Paris, 1873); Lucae,

_Architectur des menschlichen Schadels_ (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker,

_Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schadels_ (1862); Cleland, "An

Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull," _Phil. Trans. Roy.

Society_ (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, "Crania

selecta," Academie imperiale des sciences de S. Petersbourg (1859);

His and Rutimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_ (Basel, 1866); Ecker, _Crania

Germaniae meridionalis_ (1865); Thurnam and Davis, _Crania

Britannica_; von Torok, _Craniometrie_ (Stuttgart, 1890); Benedikt,

_Manuel technique et pratique d'anthropometrie cranio-cephalique_

(Paris, 1889); Pearson, _Biometrika_, from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards;

Sergi, "The Varieties of the Human Species," English translation,

Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1894); Schwalbe, "Der

Neanderthalschadel," _Bonner Jahrbucher_, Heft 106; also _Sonderheft

der Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie_; Kramberger, _Der

palaolithische Mensch von Krapina_ (Nagele, Stuttgart, 1901); Sollas,

"The Cranial Characters of the Neanderthal Race," _Phil. Transactions

of the Royal Society_, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908; Klaatsch,

"Bericht uber einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach London,"

_Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.

_Handbooks._--Topinard, _Elements d'anthropologie generale_ (Paris,

1885); Schmidt, _Anthropologische Methoden_ (Leipzig, 1888);

Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_ (Cambridge, 1904).

_Journals._--_Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_,

_Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and

Ireland_, _Archiv fur Anthropologie_, _Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und

Anthropologie_. (W. L. H. D.)

CRANK, a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably connected with a

root meaning "crooked," and appearing in the Ger. _krank_, ill, a

figurative use of the original word; among other words in English

containing the same original meaning are "cringe" and "crinkle." In

mechanics, a crank is a device by which reciprocating motion is

converted into circular motion or vice versa, consisting of a

_crank-arm_, one end of which is fastened rigidly at right angles to the

rotating shaft or axis, while the other end bears a _crank-pin_,

projecting from it at right angles and parallel to the shaft. When the

reciprocating part of a machine, as the piston and piston-rod of a steam

engine, is linked to this crank by a _crank-rod_ or _connecting rod_,

one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other on a pin in the

end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro motion of the latter

imparts a circular motion to the shaft and vice versa. The crank,

instead of being made up as described above, may be formed by bending

the shaft to the required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch.

A _bell-crank_, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change

the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical or vice

versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle, say of 90

deg., to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point of

junction.

Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in prisons as a

means of punishment (see TREAD-MILL). Other uses of the word, connected

with the primary meaning, are for a crooked path, a crevice or chink;

and a freakish turn of thought or speech, as in Milton's phrase "quips

and cranks." It is also used as a slang expression, American in origin,

for a harmless lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one

idea or hobby becomes a monomania. "Crank" or "crank-sided" is a

nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from want

of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical sense is often

confused with "crank" or "cranky," that is, rickety or shaky, probably

derived direct from the German _krank_, weak or ill.

CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury, born at Aslacton

or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of July 1489, was the second

son of Thomas Cranmer and of his wife Anne Hatfield. He received his

early education, according to Morice his secretary, from "a marvellous

severe and cruel schoolmaster," whose discipline must have been severe

indeed to deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster

bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was initiated

by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and hawking, which

formed one of his recreations in after life. To early training he also

owed the skilful horsemanship for which he was conspicuous. At the age

of fourteen he was sent by his mother, who had in 1501 become a widow,

to Cambridge. Little is known with certainty of his university career

beyond the facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or

1511, that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his

marriage to "Black Joan," a relative of the landlady of the Dolphin Inn,

and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his wife, which

occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of grace allowed by

the statutes. During the brief period of his married life he held the

appointment of lecturer at Buckingham Hall, now Magdalene College. The

fact of his marrying would seem to show that he did not at the time

intend to enter the church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to

qualify for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took

his doctor's degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was invited

about this time to become a fellow of the college founded by Cardinal

Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that there is some reason to doubt

this. If the offer was made, it was declined, and Cranmer continued at

Cambridge filling the offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college

and of public examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting,

in view of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among

the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted on a

thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected several

candidates who were deficient in this qualification.

It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that transferred

Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion of the university

to the din and bustle of the court. In August 1529 the plague known as

the sweating sickness, which prevailed throughout the country, was

specially severe at Cambridge, and all who had it in their power forsook

the town for the country. Cranmer went with two of his pupils named

Cressy, related to him through their mother, to their father's house at

Waltham in Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be

visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief

counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of

Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards bishop of

Hereford, were lodged at Cressy's house. Meeting with Cranmer, they were

naturally led to discuss the king's meditated divorce from Catherine of

Aragon. Cranmer suggested that if the canonists and the universities

should decide that marriage with a deceased brother's widow was illegal,

and if it were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur,

her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the ordinary

ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to Rome was thus

dispensed with, and this point was at once seen by the king, who, when

Cranmer's opinion was reported to him, is said to have ordered him to be

summoned in these terms: "I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out

of hand. This man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear."

At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king to lay aside

all other pursuits and to devote himself to the question of the divorce.

He was to draw up a written treatise, stating the course he proposed,

and defending it by arguments from scripture, the fathers and the

decrees of general councils. His material interests certainly did not

suffer by compliance. He was commended to the hospitality of Anne

Boleyn's father, the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place

he resided for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton

and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice, the

name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished Cranmer was

called upon to defend its argument before the universities of Oxford and

Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied by Fox and Gardiner.

Immediately afterwards he was sent to plead the cause before a more

powerful if not a higher tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of

Wiltshire at its head, was despatched to Rome in 1530, that "the matter

of the divorce should be disputed and ventilated," and Cranmer was an

important member of it. He was received by the Pope with marked

courtesy, and was appointed "Grand Penitentiary of England," but his

argument, if he ever had the opportunity of stating it, did not lead to

any practical decision of the question.

Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he received a

second commission from the king appointing him "Conciliarius Regius et

ad Caesarem Orator." In the summer of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to

Germany as sole ambassador to the emperor. He was also to sound the

Lutheran princes with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal

of some restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted

with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological position he probably

found to be in many points analogous to his own. Both were convinced

that the old order must change; neither saw clearly what the new order

should be to which it was to give place. They had frequent interviews,

which had doubtless an important influence on Cranmer's opinions. But

Osiander's house had another attraction of a different kind from

theological sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and

in 1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage

corroboration of Cranmer's statement that he never expected or desired

the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he had foreseen how

soon the primacy was to be forced upon him, he would have avoided a

disqualification which it was difficult to conceal and dangerous to

disclose.

Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a very few

months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop Warham died, and the

king almost immediately afterwards intimated to Cranmer, who had

accompanied the emperor in his campaign against the Turks, his

nomination to the vacant see. Cranmer's conduct was certainly consistent

with his profession that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the

dangerous promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own

return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made. The

papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March 1533, and the

consecration took place on the 30th March. One peculiarity of the

ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion. It was the custom for

the archbishop elect to take two oaths, the first of episcopal

allegiance to the pope, and the second in recognition of the royal

supremacy. The latter was so wide in its scope that it might fairly be

held to supersede the former in so far as the two were inconsistent.

Cranmer, however, was not satisfied with this. He had a special protest

recorded, in which he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the

pope only in so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the

king. The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it

seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration of what

the two oaths implied. It was the course that would readily suggest

itself to a man of timid nature who wished to secure himself against

such a fate as Wolsey's. It showed weakness, but it added nothing to

whatever immorality there might be in successively taking two

incompatible oaths.

In the last as in the first step of Cranmer's promotion Henry had been

actuated by one and the same motive. The business of the divorce--or

rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn's expected issue--had now

become very urgent, and in the new archbishop he had an agent who might

be expected to forward it with the needful haste. The celerity and skill

with which Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully

satisfied his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat

almost from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in

relation to Catherine's marriage with Henry as affected by her previous

marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the object of

the king were given on these questions, though even the despotism of the

most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure absolute unanimity. The

next step was taken by Cranmer, who wrote a letter to the king, praying

to be allowed to remove the anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible

case of disputed succession, by finally determining the validity of the

marriage in his archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request

was prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of

course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and to

suit her convenience the court was held at the priory of Dunstable in

the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to appear, she was declared

contumacious, and on the 23rd of May the archbishop gave judgment

declaring the marriage null and void from the first, and so leaving the

king free to marry whom he pleased. The Act of Appeals had already

prohibited any appeal from the archbishop's court. Five days later he

pronounced the marriage between Henry and Anne--which had been secretly

celebrated about the 25th of January 1533--to be valid. On the 1st of

June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September stood

godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.

The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in England to the

royal supremacy had been practically achieved before Cranmer's

appointment as archbishop: and he had little to do with the other

constitutional changes of Henry's reign. But his position as chief

minister of Henry's ecclesiastical jurisdiction forced him into

unpleasant prominence in connexion with the king's matrimonial

experiences. In 1536 he was required to revise his own sentence in

favour of the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the

17th of May the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this

sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne's sister, Mary Boleyn, had

been Henry VIII.'s mistress; this by canon law was a bar to his marriage

with Anne--a bar which had been removed by papal dispensation in 1527,

but now the papal power to dispense in such cases had been repudiated,

and the original objection revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal

and unjust. With Anne's condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer had

nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the king, as he had

done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks of Christchurch. His

share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was less prominent than that of

Gardiner, though he did preside over the Convocation in which nearly all

the dignitaries of the church signified their approval of that measure.

To his next and last interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the

king no discredit attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the

charges against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the

king was obvious, though painful.

Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy which has

associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that of any other

ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its most important feature

on the theological as distinct from the political side was the endeavour

to promote the circulation of the Bible in the vernacular, by

encouraging translation and procuring an order in 1538 that a copy of

the Bible in English should be set up in every church in a convenient

place for reading. Only second in importance to this was the

re-adjustment of the creed and liturgy of the church, which formed

Cranmer's principal work during the latter half of his life. The

progress of the archbishop's opinion towards that middle Protestantism,

if it may be so called, which he did so much to impress on the

formularies of the Church of England, was gradual, as a brief

enumeration of the successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538

an embassy of German divines visited England with the design, among

other things, of forming a common confession for the two countries. This

proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer had with the

theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a great influence in

modifying his views. Both in parliament and in Convocation he opposed

the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood almost alone. During the period

between 1540 and 1543 the archbishop was engaged at the head of a

commission in the revision of the "Bishop's Book" (1537) or

_Institutions of a Christian Man_, and the preparation of the _Necessary

Erudition_ (1543) known as the "King's Book," which was a modification

of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine. In June

1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the same as that now

in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical English style.

The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation exposed him to

the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or "men of the old

learning," of whom Gardiner and Bonner were leaders, and on various

occasions--notably in 1543 and 1545--conspiracies were formed in the

council or elsewhere to effect his overthrow. The king, however,

remained true to him, and all the conspiracies signally failed. It

illustrates a favourable trait in the archbishop's character that he

forgave all the conspirators. He was, as his secretary Morice testifies,

"a man that delighted not in revenging."

Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547). By the will of

the king he was nominated one of a council of regency composed of

sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the arrangement by which Somerset

became lord protector. He officiated at the coronation of the boy king

Edward VI., and is supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the

order of the ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was

made to appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent

consent of the people. But Edward's title had been expressly sanctioned

by act of parliament, so that there was no more room for election in his

case than in that of George I., and the real motive of the changes was

to shorten the weary ceremony for the frail child.

During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid progress, the

sympathies both of the Protector and of the young king being decidedly

Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled without let or hindrance to

complete the preparation of the church formularies, on which he had been

for some time engaged. In 1547 appeared the _Homilies_ prepared under

his direction. Four of them are attributed to the archbishop

himself--those on Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of

Scripture. His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas,

known as Cranmer's Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important,

as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the _Defence of the

True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament_, which he published in

1550. It was immediately answered from the side of the "old learning" by

Gardiner. The first prayer-book of Edward VI. was finished in November

1548, and received legal sanction in March 1549; the second was

completed and sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the

work of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward VI.

published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely to the hand

of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he was employed was the

revision of his codification of the canon law, which had been all but

completed before the death of Henry. The task was one eminently well

suited to his powers, and the execution of it was marked by great skill

in definition and arrangement. It never received any authoritative

sanction, Edward VI. dying before the proclamation establishing it could

be made, and it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin

translation by Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the

title _Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum_. It laid down the lawfulness

and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most

absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher to the flames.

But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as tolerant as any in that

age.

Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by that of his

father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to take a step

against his own convictions. He had pledged himself to respect the

testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which the succession devolved

upon Mary, and now he violated his oath by signing Edward's "device" of

the crown to Lady Jane Grey. On grounds of policy and morality alike

the act was quite indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his

perjury that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying

man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days' queen when the

others who had with him signed Edward's device deserted her. On the

accession of Mary he was summoned to the council--most of whom had

signed the same device--reprimanded for his conduct, and ordered to

confine himself to his palace at Lambeth until the queen's pleasure was

known. He refused to follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate

that was clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any

chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in the

council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity of the

queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother's divorce and her

own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he was sent to the Tower,

where Ridley and Latimer were also confined. The immediate occasion of

his imprisonment was a strongly worded declaration he had written a few

days previously against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard,

had been re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to publish

this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the council, and it

could not be ignored. In November, with Lady Jane Grey, her husband, and

two other Dudleys, Cranmer was condemned for treason. Renard thought he

would be executed, but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an

ecclesiastic put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular

court, and Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the

highest of clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had

restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he and his

two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were removed to

Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or common prison. Ridley

and Latimer were unflinching, and suffered bravely at the stake on the

16th of October 1555. Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over

which Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555. Brooks

had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome, where Cranmer was

summoned, but not permitted, to attend. On the 25th of November he was

pronounced contumacious by the pope and excommunicated, and a commission

was sent to England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This

was done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church, Oxford,

on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed over to the secular

power. About the same time Cranmer subscribed the first two of his

"recantations." His difficulty consisted in the fact that, like all

Anglicans of the 16th century, he recognized no right of private

judgment, but believed that the state, as represented by monarchy,

parliament and Convocation, had an absolute right to determine the

national faith and to impose it on every Englishman. All these

authorities had now legally established Roman Catholicism as the

national faith, and Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist.

His early "recantations" are merely recognitions of his lifelong

conviction of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led

him into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his

whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government wanted.

Northumberland's recantation had done much to discredit the Reformation,

Cranmer's, it was hoped, would complete the work. Hence the enormous

effect of Cranmer's recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he

was taken to St Mary's church, and asked to repeat his recantation in

the hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all he

declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently done

troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his whole life;

that he renounced and refused all his recantations as things written

with his hand, contrary to the truth which he thought in his heart; and

that as his hand had offended, his hand should be first burned when he

came to the fire. As he had said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed

to the flames. The calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met

his fate show that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that

his recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not to

be repented of.

It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of infirmity

of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his character is

well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to Bullinger, that he

was "too fearful about what might happen to him." This weakness was the

worst blot on Cranmer's character, but it was due in some measure to his

painful capacity for seeing both sides of a question at the same time, a

temperament fatal to martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class

him. As early as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of

Transubstantiation; by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence

(Pref. to his _Answer to Dr Richard Smith_). But here he used the term

"real" somewhat unguardedly, for in his _Defence_ he asserts a real

presence, but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he

repudiates the idea that the bread and wine were "bare tokens." His

views on church polity were dominated by his implicit belief in the

divine right of kings (not of course the divine _hereditary_ right of

kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to set up against the

divine right of popes. He set practically no limits to the

ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully the

representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly

distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were one.

AUTHORITIES.--_Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xx.: _Acts

of the Privy Council, 1542-1556_; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. and

Foreign_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_

(1694); _Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer_, by Ralph

Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden Society's

publications); _Remains of Thomas Cranmer_, by Jenkyns (1833); _Lives

of Cranmer_, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in Hook's _Lives

of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vols. vi. and vii. (1868), by Canon

Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904); Froude's

_History_; R. W. Dixon's _History_; J. Gairdner's _History of the

Church, 1485-1558_; Bishop Cranmer's _Recantacyons_, ed. Gairdner

(1885). R. E. Chester Waters's _Chesters of Chicheley_ (1877) contains

a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer which has only

been used by one of his biographers. (A. F. P.)

CRANNOG (Celt. _crann_, a tree), the term applied in Scotland and

Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient times in the

lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings in

Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a fellow of the Society

of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to George Chalmers, the

author of _Caledonia_, in 1813, describing two crannogs, or fortified

islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the first discovered in Ireland,

was examined and described by Sir William Wilde in 1840. But it was not

until after the discovery of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in

1853, had drawn public attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that

the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.

The results of these investigations show that they have little in common

with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are placed in lakes. Few

examples are known in England, although over a hundred and fifty have

been examined in Ireland, and more than half that number in Scotland. As

a rule they have been constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs,

which have been adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or

double lines of stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge

the area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary, layers of

logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on the shallow, and

consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all there was laid a layer of

earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of flagstones. In rare instances

the body of the work is entirely of stones, the stockaded defence and

the huts within its enclosure being the only parts constructed of

timber. Occasionally a bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a

communication with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and

from the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains of

huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the enclosure.

Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, examined by Lord Lovaine

in 1863, were found to be constructed of layers of fern and birch and

hazel branches, mixed with boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while

above all there was a surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of

the stockade round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into

horizontal bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog

of Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in 1878,

was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound by

horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an area 60

ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square, bounded by the

remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with split logs. A partition

divided it into two equal parts, one of which had a doorway opening to

the south, and close by it an extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of

the other part was a stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former

hearths underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of the

loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of trees with

the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed transversely or

obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in Loch-an-Dhugael,

Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same explorer in 1893,

revealed a substructure similar to that at Lochlee, with a double row of

piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft. in diameter, within which was a

circular construction 32 ft. in diameter, which had been supported by a

large central post and about twenty uprights ranged round the

circumference.

From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and logs built

up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as fascine-dwellings,

to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings of the earlier

periods in Switzerland, whose platforms are supported by piles driven

into the bed of the lake. The crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had

a triple stockade of oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and

enclosing an area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In

the crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads of

bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the food of

the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county Antrim, iron

swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with scrolls

characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron

spear-head 16-1/2 in. in length, and pieces of what are called large

caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of lacustrine

settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive of the typical

crannog structure. The most important of these is the Glastonbury lake

village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and Mr St George Gray. It consists

of more than sixty separate dwellings, grouped within a triangular

palisaded defence, formed in the midst of a marsh now partially

reclaimed. The dwellings were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter,

the substructure formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and

clay, and outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake.

The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work, supported

by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart. The floors are of

clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often showing several

renewals over the original. The relics recovered show unmistakably that

the occupation must be dated within the Iron Age, but probably

pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact with Roman civilization has been

discovered. The stage of civilization indicated is nevertheless not a

low one. Besides the implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae

and brooches of bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze

mirror and tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented

with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with bosses,

the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes, and a dug-out

canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire, examined by Mr Boynton in

1881, yielded evidence of fascine construction, with suggestions of

occupation in the latter part of the Bronze Age. Similar indications are

adduced by Professor Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the

other hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and Irish

crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and stone are

found, they are commonly such as were in use in the Iron Age. Crannogs

are frequently referred to in the Irish annals. Under the year 848 the

_Annals of the Four Masters_ record the burning of the island of Lough

Gabhor (the crannog of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as

again destroyed by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded

that Turlough O'Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough Leisi,

and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the succeeding

centuries. In the register of the privy council of Scotland, April 14,

1608, it is ordered that "the haill houssis of defence, strongholds, and

_crannokis_ in the Yllis (the western isles) pertaining to Angus

M'Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector M'Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit

to His Majestie." Judging from the historical evidence of their late

continuance, and from the character of the relics found in them, the

crannogs may be included among the latest prehistoric strongholds,

reaching their greatest development in early historic times, and

surviving through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has

assigned their range approximately to the period between the 9th and

16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast majority of them,

both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only inhabited, but

constructed during the Iron Age, and that their period of greatest

development was as far posterior to Roman civilization as that of the

Swiss _Pfahlbauten_ was anterior to it. (See LAKE DWELLINGS.)

AUTHORITIES.--Dr R. Munro, _The Lake Dwellings of Europe: being the

Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888_ (with a bibliography of the

subject) (London, 1890); _Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings or Crannogs_

(Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, _The Lake-Dwellings of

Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin, commonly called

Crannogs_ (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, _Descriptive Catalogue of the

Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy_, article

"Crannogs," pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart, "Scottish

Artificial Islands or Crannogs," in the _Proceedings of the Society of

Antiquaries of Scotland_, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A. Bulleid, "The

Lake Village near Glastonbury," in _Proceedings of the Somersetshire

Archaeological Society_, vol. xl. (1894). (J. AN.)

CRANSAC, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron, 28m.

N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988; commune, 6953. The town

is a coal-mining centre and has cold mineral springs, known in the

middle ages. There are iron-mines in the neighbourhood. Hills to the

north of the town contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for

centuries. About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance chateau of

Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of

Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a marquisate in

1624.

CRANSTON, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., adjoining

the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890) 8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910)

21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven &

Hartford railway. The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W.

part is somewhat rolling. Within the city are several villages,

including Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The

inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the growing

of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden produce; in the several

villages cotton and print goods, fuses for electrical machinery, and

automatic fire-protection sprinklers are manufactured. The value of

Cranston's factory product increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to

$2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%. The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S.

part of the city; on this are the state prison, the Providence county

jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state

almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for

boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls--the last two being departments

of the state reform school. The post-office address of all these state

institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled as a part of Providence

about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams, and in 1754 was incorporated

as a separate township, but in 1868, in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it

were reannexed to Providence. The township is said to have been named in

honour of Samuel Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from

1698 until his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.

CRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born, probably

about the middle of the 4th century B.C., at Soli in Cilicia. He was a

fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates at Athens, and was

the first commentator on Plato. He is said to have written some poems

which he sealed up and deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog.

Laertius iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work _On Grief_ ([Greek: Peri

penthous]), a letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death

of his children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch's

_Consolatio ad Apollonium_ and in the _De consolatione_ of Cicero, who

speaks of it (_Acad._ ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (_aureolus et ad

verbum ediscendus_). Crantor paid especial attention to ethics, and

arranged "good" things in the following order--virtue, health, pleasure,

riches.

See F. Kayser, _De Crantore Academico_ (1841); M. H. E. Meier,

_Opuscula academica_, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, _Geschichte der

griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_, i. (1891), p. 118.

CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, BARON (1790-1868), lord chancellor of

England, elder son of the Rev. E. Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk,

on the 18th of December 1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester,

and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's

Inn in 1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented

Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his promotion to the

bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he was appointed a

vice-chancellor and created Baron Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord

chancellor in Aberdeen's ministry. He continued to hold the

chancellorship in the administration of Palmerston until the latter's

resignation in 1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to

office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he

accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall of

the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London on the 26th

of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer, Cranworth's name is

associated in the statute book with only one small measure on

conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue to hold first rank. His

judgments were marked by sound common sense, while he himself was

remarkably free from the prejudices of his profession. Few men of his

day enjoyed greater personal popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue

and the title became extinct on his death.

See _The Times_, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, _The Builders of our

Law_ (1904); E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); J. B.

Atlay, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).

CRAPE (an anglicized version of the Fr. _crepe_), a silk fabric of a

gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. It is woven

of hard spun silk yarn "in the gum" or natural condition. There are two

distinct varieties of the textile--soft, Canton or Oriental crape, and

hard or crisped crape. The wavy appearance of Canton crape results from

the peculiar manner in which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two

bobbins being twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven

is smooth and even, having no _crepe_ appearance, but when the gum is

subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and the weft,

losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure which constitutes

its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are used, either white or

coloured, for ladies' scarves and shawls, bonnet trimmings, &c. The

Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp

and elastic structure of hard crape is not produced either in the

spinning or in the weaving, but is due to processes through which the

gauze passes after it is woven. What the details of these processes are

is known to only a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their

secret that, in some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are

conducted in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are

distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes,

according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture. They are

almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning dress, and among

Roman Catholic communities for nuns' veils, &c. In Great Britain hard

crapes are made at Braintree in Essex, Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and

Glasgow. The crape formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp

and worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into

bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in

Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria crape.

CRASH, a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow towels,

from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian origin, the

simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as "Russia crash."

The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns, and sometimes from

boiled yarns. The simple term "crash" is given to all these narrow

cloths, but the above distinction is very convenient, as also are the

following: grey, boiled, bleached, plain, twilled and fancy crash. A

large variety obtains with and without fancy borders, while of late

years cotton has been introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute

yarns for weft. After the cloth has passed through all the finishing

operations, it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn

together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller; for

this reason it is often termed "roller towelling."

CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), English poet, styled "the divine," was

born in London about 1613. He was the son of a strongly anti-papistical

divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626), who distinguished himself, even

in those times, by the excessive acerbity of his writings against the

Catholics. In spite of these opinions, however, he was attracted by

Catholic devotion, for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits.

Richard Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in

July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took

the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of Herbert's _Temple_ in

1633 seems to have finally determined the bias of his genius in favour

of religious poetry, and next year he published his first book,

_Epigrammatum sacrorum liber_, a volume of Latin verses. In March 1636

he removed to Peterhouse, was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and

proceeded M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the

acquaintance and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley. He

was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk Nicholas Ferrar,

and frequently visited him at his religious house at Little Gidding. In

1641 he is said to have gone to Oxford, but only for a short time; for

when in 1643 Cowley left Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw

remained behind, and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644.

In the confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he

finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had long been

tending.

During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected by an

anonymous friend, and published under the title of _Steps to the Temple_

and _The Delights of the Muses_, in one volume, in 1646. The first part

includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of Marini's _Sospetto d'

Herode_. This same year Cowley found him in great destitution at Paris,

and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to extend towards him what influence

she still possessed. At her introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he

became attendant to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two

Latin hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the

cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his retinue

contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour was a source of

ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English mystic. At last his

denunciation of their excesses became so public that the animosity of

those persons was excited against him, and in order to shield him from

their revenge he was sent by the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he

was made a canon of the Holy House. In less than three weeks, however,

he sickened of fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave

suspicion of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at

Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled _Carmen Deo

nostro_, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at the dead poet's

desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings, the countess of

Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen engravings after Crashaw's

own designs.

Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments; besides

being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an intimate knowledge

of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music, painting and engraving

was no less admired in his lifetime than his skill in poetry. Cowley

embalmed his memory in an elegy that ranks among the very finest in our

language, in which he, a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on

the minds of contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic

poet:--

"His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might

Be wrong; his life, I'm sure, was in the right:

And I, myself, a Catholic will be,

So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!"

The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can with

most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional sense of

the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted the use of

images and phrases which we now justly condemn as incongruous and

unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw carried this licence to

excess. At the same time his verse is studded with fiery beauties and

sudden felicities of language, unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own

time and Shelley's. There is no religious poetry in English so full at

once of gross and awkward images and imaginative touches of the most

ethereal beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate

and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost hysterical,

passion about him, even when his ardour is most exquisitely expressed,

and his adoring addresses to the saints have an effeminate falsetto that

makes their ecstasy almost repulsive. The faults and beauties of his

very peculiar style can be studied nowhere to more advantage than in the

_Hymn to Saint Teresa_. Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are

_Music's Duel_, which deals with that strife between the musician and

the nightingale which has inspired so many poets, and _Wishes to his

supposed Mistress_. In his latest sacred poems, included in the _Carmen

Deo nostro_, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting, but the

mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical mannerism

more harsh and repellent. The themes of Crashaw's verses are as distinct

as possible from those of Shelley's, but it may, on the whole, be said

that at his best moments he reminds the reader more closely of the

author of _Epipsychidion_ than of any earlier or later poet.

Crashaw's works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by W. B.

Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for private

subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition was edited

(1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R. Waller.

(E. G.)

CRASSULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons, containing 13

genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan distribution, but most

strongly developed in South Africa. The plants are herbs or small

shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems and leaves, adapted for life

in dry, especially rocky places. The fleshy leaves are often reduced to

a more or less cylindrical structure, as in the stonecrops (_Sedum_), or

form closely crowded rosettes as in the house-leek (_Sempervivum_).

Correlated with their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is

succulent, forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by

evaporation by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy

secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The flowers

are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and are

markedly regular with the same number of parts in each series. This

number is, however, very variable, and often not constant in one and the

same species. The sepals and petals are free or more or less united, the

stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; the carpels, usually

free, are equal to the petals in number, and form in the fruit follicles

with two or more seeds. Opposite each carpel is a small scale which

functions as a nectary. Means of vegetative propagation are general.

Many species spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or

as in house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal

leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves give

rise to new plants by budding, as in _Bryophyllum_, where buds develop

at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.

[Illustration: Stonecrop (_Sedum acre_) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal

plan of arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of _Sedum

rubens_.]

The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and has but few

representatives in South America; it is otherwise very generally

distributed. The largest genus, _Sedum_, contains about 140 species in

the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere; eight occur

wild in Britain, including _S. Telephium_ (orpine) and _S. acre_ (common

stonecrop) (see fig.). The species are easily cultivated and will thrive

in almost any soil. They are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or

divisions. _Crassula_ has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape.

_Cotyledon_, a widely distributed genus with about 90 species, is

represented in the British Isles by _C. Umbilicus_, pennywort, or

navelwort, which takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It

grows profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western

coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers. The

_Echeveria_ of gardens is now included in this genus. _Sempervivum_ has

about 50 species in the mountains of central and southern Europe, in the

Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries and Madeira; _S. tectorum_,

common house-leek, is seen often growing on tops of walls and

house-roofs. The hardy species will grow well in dry sandy soil, and are

suitable for rockeries, old walls or edgings. They are readily

propagated by offsets or by seed.

The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is

distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.

CRASSUS (literally "dense," "thick," "fat"), a family name in the Roman

gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of the name are the

following:

1. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, surnamed _Dives Mucianus_, Roman statesman,

orator and jurist, consul, 131 B.C. He was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola

(consul 175) and was adopted by a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate

friend of Tiberius Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his

place on the agrarian commission (see GRACCHUS). In 131 when Crassus was

consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son of

Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which had been

bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls were anxious to obtain

the command against him; Crassus was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a

flamen of Mars. Crassus declared that Flaccus could not neglect his

sacred office, and imposed a conditional fine on him in the event of his

leaving Rome. The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was

ordered to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded to

Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade the

pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his military

operations. But in the following year, when he was making preparations

to return, he was surprised near Leucae. He was himself taken prisoner

by a Thracian band, and provoked his captors, who were ignorant of his

identity, to put him to death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed

much military ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his

knowledge of law and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a

mastery of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in

Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any of the

dialects in use.

Cicero, _De oratore_, i. 50; _Philippics_, xi. 8; Plutarch, _Tib.

Gracchus_, 21; Livy, _Epit._ 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6;

Vell. Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.

2. LUCIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (140-91 B.C.), the orator, of unknown

parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he made his reputation

by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the friend of the Gracchi. The

law passed by him and his colleague Q. Mucius Scaevola during their

consulship (95), to prevent those passing as Roman citizens who had no

right to the title, was one of the prime causes of the Social War

(Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, xxi., _De officiis_, iii. 11). During his

censorship Crassus suppressed the newly founded schools of Latin

rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by

his passionate speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had

insulted the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the _De

oratore_ of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his

speeches.

3. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, called _Dives_, father of the triumvir.

Little is known of him before he became consul in 97, except that he

proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table, which met with

general approval. During his consulship the practice of magic arts was

condemned by a decree of the senate, and human sacrifice was abolished.

He was subsequently governor of Spain for some years, during which he

gained several successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93

was honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with L.

Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain of the

Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the Romans, but the

proceedings seem to have been interrupted by certain irregularities.

They also forbade the introduction of foreign wines and unguents.

Crassus committed suicide in 87, to avoid falling into the hands of the

Marian party.

Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_,

ii. 13; Livy, _Epit._ 80; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 3; Appian, _Bell.

Civ._ i. 72; Festus, under _Referri_.

4. MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (c. 115-53 B.C.), the Triumvir, surnamed

_Dives_ (rich) on account of his great wealth. His wealth was acquired

by traffic in slaves, the working of silver mines, and judicious

purchases of lands and houses, especially those of proscribed citizens.

The proscription of Cinna obliged him to flee to Spain; but after

Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where he

ingratiated himself with Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he

gained a decisive victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon

afterwards he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his

wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and distributing

sufficient corn to last each family three months. In 65 he was censor,

and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the coalition known as the

first triumvirate. In 55 he was again consul with Pompey, and a law was

passed, assigning the provinces of the two Spains and Syria to the two

consuls for five years. Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised

to be an inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates he

hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was defeated at

Carrhae (53 B.C.) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the Parthian general,

who put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. His head

was cut off and sent to Orodes, the Parthian king. Crassus was a man of

only moderate abilities, and owed his importance to his great wealth.

See Plutarch's _Life_; also CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS; POMPEY; ROME:

_History_, II. "The Republic."

CRATER, the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually

funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name, from

the Gr. [Greek: krater], a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single

crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters on

its flanks: the latter are sometimes called "adventitious craters" or

"craterlets." Much of the loose ejected material, falling in the

neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner wall of the crater, and

thus produces a stratification with an inward dip. The crater in an

active volcano is kept open by intermittent explosions, but in a volcano

which has become dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the

bowl-shaped cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a

crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a _Maar_. In some basaltic

cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may be a broad

shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with horizontal

stratification. Such hollows are consequently called pit-craters. The

name _caldera_ (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested for such pits by Capt.

C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as having been formed by subsidence of

the walls. The term caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in

Spanish-speaking countries. (See VOLCANO.)

CRATES, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished about 470 B.C.

He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy proper, since he

abandoned political lampoons on individuals, and introduced more general

subjects and a well-developed plot (Aristotle, _Poetica_, 5). He is

stated to have been the first to represent the drunkard on the stage

(Aristophanes, _Knights_, 37 ff.).

Fragments in Meineke, _Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta_, i.

CRATES, the name of two Greek philosophers.