COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902), English divine and scholar, was
born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, India, and was educated at
Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860
took a mastership at Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year.
He had already contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_, and had published
in 1850 _Poems, Legendary and Historical_ (with E. A. Freeman), and in
1853 a _Life of St Boniface_. From 1861 he devoted himself entirely to
literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and comparative
mythology. Many of his works were avowedly popular in character, and the
most important, the _History of Greece_, has been superseded and is now
of little value. His studies in mythology were inspired by Max Muller,
but his treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme
supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of myths.
He also edited (with W. T. Brande) _A Dictionary of Science, Literature
and Art_ (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded to the baronetcy in 1877)
was a Broad Churchman, and a prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in
1863-1865; and five years after Colenso's death he published (1888) his
_Life_ of the bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but
was refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham,
York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a civil list
pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February 1902.
WORKS.--_Tales from Greek Mythology_ (1861); _A Manual of Mythology_
(1867); _Latin and Teutonic Christendom_ (1870); _The Mythology of the
Aryan Nations_ (1870, new ed., 1882); _History of Greece_ (1874);
_General History of Greece_ (1876); _History of the Establishment of
British Rule in India_, and _An Introduction to the Science of
Comparative Mythology_ (1881); _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1885);
_Concise History of England_ (1887).
COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900), American general, political leader and
educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828 in Montreal,
Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German descent (Koch), and his
mother, a descendant of William Brewster, were natives of New York City,
where the boy grew up, studying law in an office in 1842-1844, and
working in a broker's office in 1844-1846, and where, under the
influence of Charles G. Finney (1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards
married, he prepared himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin
College in 1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies
in rebellion at Finney's dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent
of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted to the Ohio bar, being
at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in 1859 was elected to the state
senate, in which with Garfield and James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed
the "Radical Triumvirate," Cox himself presenting a petition for a
personal liberty law and urging woman's rights, especially larger
property rights to married women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of
three brigadiers-general of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the
study of tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great
assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted
himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children, and
in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He took part in
the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the Kanawha region, in
supreme command after Rosecrans's relief in the spring, until August
1862, when his troops were ordered to join Burnside's 9th Corps in
Virginia. After the death at his side of General Reno in the battle of
South Mountain, and during Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the
close of the campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general,
U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December 1863 he
was head of the department of Ohio. In 1864 he took part in the Atlanta
campaign under Sherman, as a divisional and subsequently
corps-commander: at the battle of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps,
and he served at Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman
into the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at
Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as such
advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted area, and
sympathized with President Johnson's programme of Reconstruction and
worked for a compromise between Johnson and his opponents, although he
finally deserted Johnson. In 1868 he was chairman of the Republican
national convention which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the
interior in 1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the
annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock and urged by
President Grant; introduced the merit system in his department, and
resigned in October 1870 because of pressure put on him by politicians
piqued at his prohibition of campaign levies on his clerks, and because
of the interference of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan's attempt
by legal proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California
mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became president
in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo & Wabash & Western.
In 1877-1879 he was a representative in Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he
was dean of the Cincinnati law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president
of the University of Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on
the 4th of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a
prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for
microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is best known as
one of the greatest "civilian" generals of the Civil War, and, with the
possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the highest American authority of his
time on military history, particularly the history of the American Civil
War. He wrote _Atlanta_ (New York, 1882) and _The March to the Sea,
Franklin and Nashville_ (New York, 1882), both in the series _Campaigns
of the Civil War_; _The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected with
the Fitz-John Porter Case_ (Cincinnati, 1882); and the valuable
_Military Reminiscences of the Civil War_ (2 vols., New York, 1900)
published posthumously.
See J. R. Ewing, _Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox_ (Washington,
1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran,
"Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox," in
_Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).
COX, KENYON (1856- ), American painter, was born at Warren, Ohio, on
the 27th of October 1856, being the son of Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was
a pupil of Carolus-Duran and of J. L. Gerome in Paris from 1877 to 1882,
when he opened a studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much
success in the Art Students' League. His earlier work was mainly of the
nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat conventional
colour. Receiving little encouragement for such pictures, he turned to
mural decorative work, in which he achieved prominence. Among his
better-known examples are the frieze for the court room of the Appellate
Court, New York, and decorations for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin
College; for the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public
and private buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and
is the author of the critical reviews, _Old Masters and New_ (1905) and
_Painters and Sculptors_ (1907), besides some poems. He became a
National Academician in 1903. His wife, _nee_ Louise H. King (b. 1865),
whom he married in 1892, also became a figure and portrait-painter of
note.
COX, RICHARD (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and bishop of Ely, was
born of obscure parentage at Whaddon, Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500.
He was educated at the Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near
Whaddon, at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated
B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey's invitation he became a member of the
cardinal's new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A. in 1525, and
created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in persuading the more
unruly members of the university to approve of the king's divorce. A
premature expression of Lutheran views is said to have caused his
departure from Oxford and even his imprisonment, but the records are
silent on these sufferings which do not harmonize with his appointment
as master of the royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author
of an ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D. at
Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year subscribing the
Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was one of the fifteen
divines to whom were referred crucial questions on the sacraments and
the seat of authority in the Church; his answers (printed in Pocock's
_Burnet_, iii. 443-496) indicate a mind tending away from Catholicism,
but susceptible to "the king's doctrine"; and, indeed, Cox was one of
the divines by whom Henry said the "King's Book" had been drawn up when
he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not exclusively
his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the examination of Barnes,
subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves, and in that year of reaction
became archdeacon and prebendary of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was
employed on other royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected
bishopric of Southwell, and was made king's chaplain in 1542. In 1543 he
was employed to ferret out the "Prebendaries' Plot" against Cranmer, and
became the archbishop's chancellor. In December he was appointed dean of
Oseney (afterwards Christ Church) Oxford, and in July was made almoner
to Prince Edward, in whose education he took an active part. He was
present at Dr Crome's recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and
insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.
After Edward's accession, Cox's opinions took a more Protestant turn,
and he became one of the most active agents of the Reformation. He was
consulted on the compilation of the Communion office in 1548, and the
first and second books of Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for
the reform of the canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford
(1547-1552) he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was a
moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some success to
eradicate everything savouring of popery from the books, MSS.,
ornaments and endowments of the university, and earned Cox the sobriquet
of its cancellor rather than its chancellor. He received other rewards,
a canonry of Windsor (1548), the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the
deanery of Westminster (1549). He lost these preferments on Mary's
accession, and was for a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the
Marshalsea. He was not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he
remained in obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt's rebellion, and
then in May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop
Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to Frankfort,
where he played an important part in the first struggle between
Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the influence of Knox
and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine and a form of service far
more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book of 1552. Cox stood up for that
service, and the exiles were divided into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox
attacked Cox as a pluralist, Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor
Charles V. This proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers
were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.
In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of Norwich, but
the queen changed her mind and Cox's destination to Ely, where he
remained twenty-one years. He was an honest, but narrow-minded
ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold intolerantly, and was
always wanting more power to constrain those who differed from him (see
his letter in _Hatfield MSS._ i. 308). While he refused to minister in
the queen's chapel because of the crucifix and lights there, and was a
bitter enemy to the Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with
the Puritans. He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in
money matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who
coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he refused
to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher Hatton; but the
well-known letter beginning "Proud Prelate" and threatening to unfrock
him seems to be an impudent forgery which first saw the light in the
_Annual Register_ for 1761. It hardly, however, misrepresents the
queen's meaning, and Cox was forced to give way. These and other trials
led him to resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it
remained vacant for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a
monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely cathedral was
defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute. Strype (Whitgift, i. 2)
gives Cox's hot temper and marriage as reasons why he was not made
archbishop in 1583 in preference to Whitgift, who had been his chaplain;
but Cox had been dead two years in 1583. His first wife's name is
unknown; she was the mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married
the eldest son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of
William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.
Voluminous details about Cox's life are given in Strype's Works,
Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._ i. 437-445. See also
Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal.
Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.;
Whittingham's _Troubles at Frankfort_; Machyn's _Diary_; Pocock's
_Burnet_; Bentham's _Ely_; Willis's _Cathedrals_; Le Neve's _Fasti_;
R. W. Dixon's _Church History_. (A. F. P.)
COX, SAMUEL (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine, was born in
London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years he worked as an
apprentice in the London docks, and then entered the Baptist College at
Stepney. In 1851 he became pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea,
removing in 1855 to Ryde, and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of
the Baptist Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St
Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor and was
the founder and first editor of a monthly journal _The Expositor_
(1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous theological
publications are _Salvator Mundi_ (1877), _A Commentary on the Book of
Job_ (1880), _The Larger Hope_ (1883).
COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880), American Presbyterian divine, was born
at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, of Quaker stock. He was
pastor of the Presbyterian church at Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of
two churches in New York from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the
University of the City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor
of pastoral theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in
active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat
affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, N.Y., on the
2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a speech made in Exeter
Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility for slavery in America
on the British government, made a great impression. It was he who
described the appellation D.D. as a couple of "semi-lunar fardels."
His son, ARTHUR CLEVELAND COXE (1818-1896), who changed the spelling of
the family name, graduated at the University of the City of New York in
1838 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1841. He was rector of
St John's Church, Hartford, in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in
1854-1863, and of Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he
became assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He was
strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe wrote spirited
defences of Anglican orders and published several volumes of verse,
notably _Christian Ballads_ (1845).
COXCIE, MICHAEL (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at Malines, and
studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably induced him to visit
Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in
the church of Santa Maria dell' Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says
with truth "that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But
Coxcie's principal occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable
of Psyche in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of
the Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent
residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice in
this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed under
an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie returned in 1539 to
Malines, where he matriculated, and painted for the chapel of the gild
of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The
centre of this altarpiece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the
Virgin; the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision
of St John in Patmos. At van Orley's death in 1541 Coxcie succeeded to
the office of court painter to the regent Mary of Hungary, for whom he
decorated the castle of Binche. He was subsequently patronized by
Charles V., who often coupled his works with those of Titian; by Philip
II., who paid him royally for a copy of van Eyck's "Agnus Dei"; and by
the duke of Alva, who once protected him from the insults of Spanish
soldiery at Malines. There are large and capital works of his
(1587-1588) in St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in
the museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque grafted
on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it distantly
recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation and stiffness. He
died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.
COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS (1811-1881), English librarian and scholar, was
born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of September 1811. He was
educated at Westminster school and Worcester College, Oxford.
Immediately on taking his degree in 1833, he began work in the
manuscript department of the British Museum, became in 1838
sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford, and in 1860 succeeded Dr
Bandinel as head librarian, an office he held until his death in 1881.
Having proved himself an able palaeographer, he was sent out by the
British government in 1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries
of the Levant. He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks
were too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his
travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine
Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under his
direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was completed.
He published _Rogeri de Wendover Chronica_, 5 vols. (1841-1844); the
_Black Prince, an historical poem written in French by Chandos Herald_
(1842); and _Report on the Greek Manuscripts yet remaining in the
Libraries of the Levant_ (1858). He was not only an accurate librarian
but an active and hardworking clergyman, and was for the last
twenty-five years of his life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near
Oxford. He was likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi
Colleges. He died on the 8th of July 1881.
COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr William Coxe,
physician to the royal household, was born in London on the 7th of March
1747. Educated at Marylebone grammar school and at Eton College, he
proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this
society in 1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited
many parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various
noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of
Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire. He also
held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that of Fovant from
1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and
in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire. He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter
of William Shairp, consul-general for Russia, and widow of Thomas
Yeldham of St Petersburg. He died on the 8th of June 1828.
During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied in literary
work. His _Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole_ (London, 1798), _Memoirs of
Horatio, Lord Walpole_ (London, 1802), _Memoirs of John, duke of
Marlborough_ (London, 1818-1819), _Private and Original Correspondence
of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury_ (London, 1821), _Memoirs of the
Administrations of Henry Pelham_ (London, 1829), are very valuable for
the history of the 18th century. His _History of the House of Austria_
(London, 1807, new ed. 1853 and 1873), and _Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings
of Spain_ (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking work
on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his works, is
remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts of his travels:
_Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State of Switzerland_
(London, 1779), _Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and
America_ (London, 1780), _Account of Prisons and Hospitals in Russia,
Sweden and Denmark_ (London, 1781), _Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden
and Denmark_ (London, 1784), _Travels in Switzerland_ (London, 1789),
_Letter on Secret Tribunals of Westphalia_ (London, 1796), _Historical
Tour in Monmouthshire_ (London, 1801). He also edited Gay's _Fables_,
and wrote a _Life of John Gay_ (Salisbury, 1797), _Anecdotes of G. F.
Handel and J. C. Smith_ (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor
importance. Some of his books have been translated into French, and
several have gone through two or more editions.
COXSWAIN (properly "cockswain," and pronounced _cox'n_, usually
shortened to "cox"; from "cock," a small boat, and _swain_, a servant),
in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship's boat and its crew,
who steers; the coxswain of the captain's gig takes a special rank among
petty officers. In the National Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain
the "coxswain" is a paid permanent official on each station, who has
charge of the lifeboat and house, is responsible for its care, and
steers and takes command when afloat. The word is also used, generally,
of any one who steers a boat.
COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY (1819-1900), English aeronaut, was born at
Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the son of a naval officer. He
was educated for the army, but became a dentist. From a boy he had been
greatly interested in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first
ascent was not made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional
aeronaut, making numerous public ascents in the chief continental
cities. Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne and
subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had made over 400
ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James Glaisher, he attained the
greatest height on record, about 7 m. His companion became insensible,
and he himself, unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the
gas-valve with his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent.
The result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher was
the making of some important contributions to the science of
meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the practical
utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says: "I had hammered
away in _The Times_ for little less than a decade before there was a
real military trial of ballooning for military purposes at Aldershot."
His last ascent was made in 1885, and he died on the 5th of January
1900.
See his _My Life and Balloon Experiences_ (1887).
COYOTE, the Indian name for a North American member of the dog family,
also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically as _Canis latrans_.
Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala in the south, and chiefly
frequenting the open plains on both sides of the chain of the Rocky
Mountains, the coyote, under all its various local phases, is a smaller
animal than the true wolf, and may apparently be regarded as the New
World representative of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf
(_C. pallipes_), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals. In
addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the leg
than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair. The average
length is about 40 in., and the general tone of colour tawny mingled
with black and white above and whitish below, the tail having a black
tip and likewise a dark gland-patch near the root of the upper surface.
There is, however, considerable local variation both in the matter of
size and of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures about
50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The coyote of the
deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah is, for instance, a
smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose length is usually about 42 in.
On this and other local variations a number of nominal species have been
founded; but it is preferable to regard them in the light of
geographical phases or races, such as the above-mentioned _C. latrans
estor_ of Nevada and Utah, _C. l. mearnsi_ of Arizona and Sonora, and
_C. l. frustor_ of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.
It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that coyotes
have received the name of "prairie-wolves"; the two titles indicating
the nature of the respective habitats of the two species. Coyotes are
creatures of slinking and stealthy habits, living in burrows in the
plains, and hunting in packs at night, when they utter yapping cries and
blood-curdling yells as they gallop. Hares ("jack-rabbits"), chipmunks
or ground-squirrels, and mice form a large portion of their food; but
coyotes also kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens
and other kinds of game-birds. "In the flat lands," write Messrs Witmer
Stone and W. E. Cram, in their _American Animals_ (1902), "they dig
burrows for themselves or else take possession of those already made by
badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the spring the half-dozen or more
coyote pups are brought forth; and it is said that at this season the
old ones systematically drive any large game they may be chasing as near
to their burrow, where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as
possible before killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it
any great distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually work
together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one of the coyotes
bounds away in pursuit while the other squats on his haunches and waits
his turn, knowing full well that the hare prefers to run in a circle,
and will soon come round again, when the second wolf takes up the chase
and the other rests in his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck)
and deer the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle,
endeavouring to surround their game and keep it running inside their
ring until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote hunts
successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained pointer
until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops flat in the grass
and creeps forward like a cat until close enough for the final spring."
When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat hips,
juniper-berries and other wild fruits. (R. L.*)
COYPEL, the name of a French family of painters. Noel Coypel
(1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much influenced by
Poussin, COYPEL LE POUSSIN, was the son of an unsuccessful artist.
Having been employed by Charles Errard to paint some of the pictures
required for the Louvre, and having afterwards gained considerable fame
by other pictures produced at the command of the king, in 1672 he was
appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he
returned to France; and not long after he became director of the Academy
of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is perhaps his
finest work.
His son, ANTOINE COYPEL (1661-1772), was still more celebrated than his
father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom he spent four years
at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was admitted into the Academy of
Painting, of which he became professor and rector in 1707, and director
in 1714. In 1716 he was appointed king's painter, and he was ennobled in
the following year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary
education, the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful
imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that he was
not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a clever etcher,
and engraved several of his own works. His _Discours prononces dans les
conferences de l' Academie royale de Peinture, &c._; appeared in 1741.
Antoine's half-brother, NOEL NICHOLAS COYPEL (1692-1734), was also an
exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles Antoine (1694-1752),
was painter to the king and director of the Academy of Painting. The
latter published interesting academical lectures in _Le Mercure_ and
wrote several plays which were acted at court, but were never published.
COYPU, the native name of a large South American aquatic rodent mammal,
known very generally among European residents in the country as nutria
(the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically as _Myocastor_ (or
_Myopotamus_) _coypu_. Its large size, aquatic habits, partially webbed
hind-toes, and the smooth, broad, orange-coloured incisors, are
sufficient to distinguish this rodent from the other members of the
family _Capromyidae_. Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South
America, even small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs.
Should the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although subsisting
to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these rodents frequently
come ashore to feed, especially in the evening. Several young are
produced at a birth, which are carried on their mother's back when
swimming. The fur is of some commercial value, although rather stiff and
harsh; its colour being reddish-brown. (See RODENTIA.)
COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE (1640-1720), French sculptor, was born at
Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and belonged to a family which had
emigrated from Spain. The name should be pronounced Coezevo. He was only
seventeen when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable
merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself by taking
copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among others from the
Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he was engaged by the bishop
of Strassburg, Cardinal Furstenberg, to adorn with statuary his chateau
at Saverne (Zabern). In 1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier,
Lerambert's niece, who died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after
four years spent on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in
1780, he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun
obtained admission for him to the Academie Royale. A year later he
married Claude Bourdict.
In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between the years
1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV. in producing much of the
decoration and a large number of statues for Versailles; and he
afterwards worked, between 1701 and 1709, with no less facility and
success, for the palace at Marly, subsequently destroyed in the
Revolution.
Among his works are the "Mercury and Fame," first at Marly and
afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; "Neptune and Amphitrite," in
the gardens at Marly; "Justice and Force," at Versailles; and statues,
in which the likenesses are said to have been remarkably successful, of
most of the celebrated men of his age, including Louis XIV. and Louis
XV. at Versailles, Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church
des Quatre-Nations), Conde the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of
Austria, Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac,
Fenelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d'Harcourt, Cardinal
Furstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre). Coysevox died in Paris
on the 10th of October 1720.
Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen memorials,
including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to Cardinal Mazarin (in
the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in the church of Saint
Nicholas-du-Chardon).
Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou.
See Henry Jouin, _A. Coysevox, sa vie, son oeuvre_ (1883); Jean du
Seigneur, _Revue universelle des arts_, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.
CRAB (Ger. _Krabbe_, _Krebs_), a name applied to the Crustacea of the
order _Brachyura_, and to other forms, especially of the order
_Anomura_, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance and
habits.
The _Brachyura_, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed
lobsters and shrimps which form the order _Macrura_, by the fact that
the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried folded up under the
body. In most of them the body is transversely oval or triangular in
outline and more or less flattened, and is covered by a hard shell, the
carapace. There are five pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or
chelae and are usually much more massive than the others which are used
in walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and can be
withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace. There are six
pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed within a "buccal
cavern," the opening of which is covered by the broad and flattened
third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is usually narrow and triangular in
the males, but in the females it is broad and rounded and bears
appendages to which the eggs are attached after spawning (fig. 1).
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended
and carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage.
r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic
feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)]
As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when newly hatched,
are very different from their parents. The first larval stage is known
as a Zoea, this name having been given to it when it was believed by
naturalists to be a distinct and independent species of animal. The Zoea
is a minute transparent organism, swimming at the surface of the sea. It
has a rounded body, armed with long spines, and a long segmented tail.
The eyes are large but not set on stalks, the legs are not yet
developed, and the foot-jaws form swimming paddles. After casting its
skin several times as it grows in size, the young crab passes into a
stage known as the _Megalopa_ (fig. 2), also formerly regarded as an
independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more crab-like, but
the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a further moult the
animal assumes a form very similar to that of the adult. There are a few
crabs, living on land or in fresh water, which do not pass through a
metamorphosis but leave the egg as miniature adults.
Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are abundant
in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally and pass
through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs living between
tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the river-crab of southern
Europe or Lenten crab (_Potamon edule_, better known as _Thelphusa
fluviatilis_) is an example of the freshwater crabs which are abundant
in most of the warmer regions of the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by
gills, which are lodged in a pair of cavities at the sides of the
carapace, but in the true land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and
modified so as to act as lungs for breathing air.
Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the peculiar
sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common shore-crab, is
characteristic of most members of the group. The crabs of the family
_Portunidae_, and some others, swim with great dexterity by means of
their flattened paddle-shaped feet.
Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and act as the
scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their habits and some
are content with a vegetable diet.
Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in relations of
"commensalism" with other animals. The best known examples of this are
the little "mussel-crabs" (_Pinnotheridae_) which live within the shells
of mussels and other bivalve mollusca and probably share the food of
their hosts. Some crabs live among corals, and one species at least
gives rise to hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the
"galls" which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another crab
(_Melia tesselata_) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone
which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and an implement for the
capture of prey. Many of the sluggish spider-crabs (_Maiidae_) have
their shells covered by a forest of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and
sponges, which are "planted" there by the crab itself, and which afford
it a very effective disguise.
Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The most
important and valuable are the edible crab of British and European
coasts (_Cancer pagurus_) and the blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the
United States (_Callinectes sapidus_).
Among the _Anomura_, the best known are the hermit-crabs, which live in
the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which they carry about with
them as portable dwellings. In these, the abdomen is soft-skinned and
spirally twisted so as to fit into the shells which they inhabit. The
common hermit-crab of the British coasts (_Pagurus_ or _Eupagurus
Bernhardus_) is sometimes called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity.
Small specimens are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of
periwinkles and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live
in deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk
(_Buccinum_). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from time to
time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession of an
empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives inside the shell along with
the hermit and often the outside is covered with zoophytes. In some
species, as in the British _Eupagurus prideauxi_, a sea-anemone is
constantly found attached to the shell, profiting by the active
locomotion of the crab and probably sharing the crumbs of its food,
while it affords its host protection by its stinging powers.
In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family _Coenobitidae_ live
on land, often at considerable distances from the sea, to which,
however, they return for the purpose of hatching out their spawn. The
large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of the Indo-Pacific islands (_Birgus
latro_), which belongs to this family, has given up the habit of
carrying a portable dwelling, and the upper surface of its abdomen has
become covered by shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees
to get the fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even
photographed in the act. (W. T. CA.)
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Gecarcinus ruricola_ (Violet Land Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Portunus puber_ (Velvet Swimming Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 5. _Podophthalmus vigil_ (Sentinel Spinous Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Eupagurus Bernhardus_ (Soldier Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Pinnotheres pisum_ (Pea Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Corystes Cassivelaunus_ (Masked Crab).]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Eupagurus angulatus_ (a Hermit Crab).]
CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), English poet, was born at Aldeburgh in
Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family was partly of Norfolk,
partly of Suffolk origin, and the name was doubtless originally derived
from "crab." His grandfather, Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family
to settle at Aldeburgh, where he held the appointment of collector of
customs. He died in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many
occupations, including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village
of Orford. Finally the poet's father obtained a small post in the
customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a publican, and
had six children, of whom George was the eldest.
The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George Crabbe's
birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden, some
half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the son was at a
later date to work with him. At first attending a dame's school in
Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he was sent to a
boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school at Stowmarket,
where he remained two years. His father dreamt of the medical profession
for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he went to Wickham Brook near
Newmarket as an apothecary's assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a
surgeon at Woodbridge, and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy.
Crabbe was now only eighteen years of age, but he became "engaged" to
this lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married. The
intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which, however,
not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed assisted him.
About the time of Crabbe's return from Woodbridge to Aldeburgh he
published at Ipswich his first work, a poem entitled _Inebriety_ (1775).
He found his father fallen on evil days. There was no money to assist
him to a partnership, and surgery for the moment seemed out of the
question. For a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling
butter casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however, the
young man bought on credit "the shattered furniture of an apothecary's
shop and the drugs that stocked it." This was at Aldeburgh. A year later
Crabbe installed a deputy in the surgery and paid his first visit to
London. He lodged in Whitechapel, took lessons in midwifery and walked
the hospitals. Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months--in 1777--he
found his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter
failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his mind. At
times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he to earn a livelihood.
After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe paid his second visit to
London, enabled thereto by the loan of five pounds from Dudley Lang, a
local magnate. This visit to London, which was undertaken by sea on
board the "Unity" smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem
_The Candidate_, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For a
time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts of
money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned the great, and the
publishers also. Everywhere he was refused, but at length a letter which
reached Edmund Burke in March 1781 led to the careful consideration on
the part of that great man of Crabbe's many manuscripts. Burke advised
the publication of _The Library_, which appeared in 1781. He invited him
to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure
Crabbe's entry into the church. He was ordained in December 1781 and was
appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.
Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk could not
reverence as priest a man they had known as a day labourer. Crabbe again
appealed to Burke, who persuaded the duke of Rutland to make him his
chaplain (1782), and Crabbe took up his residence in Belvoir Castle,
accompanying his new patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who
told him he was "as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen") gave him
the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in Dorsetshire, worth
together about L200 a year. In May 1783 Crabbe's poem _The Village_ was
published by Dodsley, and in December of this year he married Sarah
Elmy. Crabbe continued his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a
non-resident priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned.
In 1785 he published _The Newspaper_. Shortly after this he moved with
his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern, where he took
the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke, archdeacon of
Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years. In 1789, through the
persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now a widow, the duke having died
in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe
the two livings of Muston in Leicestershire and West Allington in
Lincolnshire. At Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years,
divided by a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his
wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle's that
placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall, Parham,
Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to 1796, leaving
curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the loss of their son
Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham to Great Glemham Hall,
Suffolk, where they lived until 1801. In that year Crabbe went to live
at Rendham, a village in the same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to
Muston. In 1807 he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the
publication of _The Parish Register_, in 1810 of _The Borough_, and in
1812 of _Tales in Verse_. In 1813 Crabbe's wife died, and in 1814 he was
given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland, a son
of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted the living
of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814 to his death in 1832
Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.
These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was a constant
visitor to London, and in friendship with all the literary celebrities
of the time. "Crabbe seemed to grow young again," remarks his
biographer, M. Rene Huchon. He certainly carried on a succession of mild
flirtations, and one of his parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have
married him. The elderly widower had proposed to her and had been
accepted in 1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed
to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In his visits
to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in St James's Place,
and was a frequent visitor to Holland House, where he met his brother
poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817 his _Tales of the Hall_ were
completed, and John Murray offered L3000 for the copyright, Crabbe's
previous works being included. The offer after much negotiation was
accepted, but Crabbe's popularity was now on the wane.
In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter Scott. The
adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of George IV. about the
same time, is most amusingly described in Lockhart's biography of Scott,
although one episode--that of the broken wine-glass--is discredited by
Crabbe's biographer, M. Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of
February 1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate
monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.
Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous a favourite
with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to fall into oblivion
by the public. All the poets of his earlier and his later years, Cowper,
Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have been reprinted again and
again. With Crabbe it was long quite otherwise. His works were collected
into eight volumes, the first containing his life by his son, in 1832.
The edition was intended to continue with some of his prose writings,
but the reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging.
A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has been
reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of the
copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe's reputation, and it was not
until the end of the century that sundry volumes of "selections" from
his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of Omar Khayyam fame, always a
loyal admirer, made a "Selection," privately printed by Quaritch, in
1879. A "Selection" by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C.
H. Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The _Complete Works_
were published by the Cambridge University Press in three volumes,
edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.
Crabbe's poems have been praised by many competent pens, by Edward
FitzGerald in his _Letters_, by Cardinal Newman in his _Apologia_, and
by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _Hours in a Library_, most notably. His
verses comforted the last hours of Charles James Fox and of Sir Walter
Scott, while Thomas Hardy has acknowledged their influence on the
realism of his novels. But his works have ceased to command a wide
public interest. He just failed of being the artist in words who is able
to make the same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well
repay perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once read
are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of English fiction,
for even considered as a novelist he makes fascinating reading. He is
more than this: for there is true poetry in Crabbe, although his most
distinctively lyric note was attained when he wrote under the influence
of opium, to which he became much addicted in his later years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Works of Crabbe_ (8 vols., Murray, 1834; 1 vol.,
Murray, 1901), and the _Works_ in the Cambridge Press Classics, edited
by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The life by
Crabbe's son in one volume, _The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe,
LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M._ (1834), has not been
separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is
_George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical
Study_, by Rene Huchon, translated from the French by Frederick Clarke
(1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel ("Great Writers" series) and
by Canon Ainger ("English Men of Letters" series) also deserve
attention. (C. K. S.)
CRACKER (from "crack," a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _krachen_, Dutch
_kraken_, meaning to break with a sharp sound), that which "cracks"; it
is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework so constructed that it explodes
with several reports and jumps at each explosion, when placed on the
ground (see FIREWORKS); (2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper
containing sweets, small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other
trifles, together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes
with a "crack" on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit (q.v.); in
America the general name for a biscuit. In the southern states of
America, "cracker" is a term of contempt for the "poor" or "mean
whites," particularly of Georgia and Florida; the term is an old one and
dates back to the Revolution, and is supposed to be derived from the
"cracked corn" which formed the staple food of the class to whom the
term refers.
CRACOW (Pol. _Krakov_; Ger. _Krakau_), a town and episcopal see of
Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900)
91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans and the remainder Poles.
Although in regard to its population it is only the second place in
Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting town in the whole of Poland. No
other Polish town possesses so many old and historic buildings, none of
them contains so many national relics, or has been so closely associated
with the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the ancient
capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.
Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the Vistula
(which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of great
strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town and seven
suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the old town, whose
place is now occupied by shady promenades, is the Florian's Gate and the
Rondell, a circular structure, built in 1498. Cracow has 39
churches--about half the number it formerly had--and 25 convents for
monks and nuns. Of these the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral,
in Gothic style, consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky
eminence to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were
crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish nation, the
burial place of its kings and its great men. Here lie the remains of
John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of Joseph Poniatowski and of
Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are conserved the remains of St Stanislaus,
the patron saint of the Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain
before the altar by King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned
with many valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such
artists as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c. Part
of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic church of St
Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century with several chapels
added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was restored in 1889-1893, and
decorated with paintings from the designs by Matejko. It contains a huge
high altar, the masterpiece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow,
executed in 1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end
of the 15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families from
the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a Gothic building of
the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a fire in 1850; the
Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also much modernized; the
church of St Florian of the 12th century, rebuilt in 1768, which
contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit Stoss, executed in 1518, during
his last sojourn in Cracow; the church of St Peter, with a colossal
dome, built in 1597, after the model of that of St Peter at Rome, and
the beautiful Augustinian church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all
worth mentioning. Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle
(_Zamek Krolowsk_), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and
successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I. Jagiello
(1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until 1610 the residence
of the Polish kings. It suffered much from fires and other disasters,
and from 1846 onward was used as a barracks and a military hospital; it
has now, however, been cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian
university, now housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in
1881-1887, was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors
and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the second
oldest university in Europe--the oldest being that of Prague--and was
famous during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was founded by Casimir the
Great in 1364, and completed by Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich
library is now housed in the old university buildings, erected in the
15th century, in the beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of
Copernicus was placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in
1872, is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz, or
the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the _Tuchhaus_
(cloth-hall, Pol. _Sukiennice_), a building erected in 1257, several
times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, which contains the
Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a Gothic tower, the only
relic of the old town hall, demolished in 1820. The Czartoryski museum
contains a large collection of objects of art, a rich library and a
precious collection of manuscripts, relating to the history of Poland.
Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural
implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow is more important
as a trading than as an industrial centre. Its position on the Vistula
and at the junction of several railways makes it the natural mart for
the exchange of the products of Silesia, Hungary and Russian and
Austrian Poland. Its trade in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and
agricultural produce of all kinds is very considerable. In the
neighbourhood of Cracow there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far
away lies the village of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2-1/2 m.
N.W. lies the Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up
in 1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus
Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the Vistula,
united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze (pop. 18,142);
near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the Kosciuszko Hill, and a
thousand years older than it, erected in honour of Krakus, the founder
of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of Cracow is situated Wieliczka (q.v.), with
its famous salt mines.
_History._--Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the mythical
Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold here about
A.D. 700. Its early history is, however, entirely obscure. In the latter
part of the 10th century it was annexed to the Bohemian principality,
but was recaptured by Boleslaus Chrobry, who made it the seat of a
bishopric, and it became the capital of one of the most important of the
principalities into which Poland was divided from the 12th century
onwards. The city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion
in 1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its
prosperity, and in 1257 it received "Magdeburg rights," i.e. a civic
constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year the _Tuchhalle_
was built. The town, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes.
It suffered again from Tatar invasions; in 1290 it was captured by
Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305,
the Polish king Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III.
Ladislaus made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained
the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after the
royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632) to Warsaw.
On the third partition of Poland in 1795 Austria took possession of
Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon wrested it from that power, and
incorporated it with the duchy of Warsaw, which was placed under the
rule of the king of Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor
Alexander made himself master of this and the other territory which
formed the duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of
Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow and the
adjoining territory should be formed into a free state; and, by the
Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815, "the town of Cracow,
with its territory, is declared to be for ever a free, independent and
strictly neutral city, under the protection of Russia, Austria and
Prussia." In February 1846, however, an insurrection broke out in
Cracow, apparently a ramification of a widely spread conspiracy
throughout Poland. The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were
unable to subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request,
the city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection
of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, made
this a pretext for extinguishing this independent state; and as the
outcome of a conference at Vienna (November 1846) the three courts,
contrary to the assurance previously given, and in opposition to the
expressed views of the British and French governments, decided to
extinguish the state of Cracow and to incorporate it with the dominions
of Austria.
CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT (1850- ), the pen-name of MARY NOAILLES
MURFREE, American author, who was born near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on
the 24th of January 1850, the great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree.
She was crippled in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in
Nashville and Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of
eastern Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with
whose life her writings deal. She contributed to _Appleton's Journal_,
and, first in 1878, to _The Atlantic Monthly_. No one, apparently,
suspected that the author of these stories was a woman, and her identity
was not disclosed until 1885, a year after the publication of her first
volume of short stories, _In the Tennessee Mountains_. She deals mainly
with the narrow, stern life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left
behind in the advance of civilization, live amid traditions and customs,
and speak a dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in
exquisite descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: _Where the
Battle was Fought_ (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic
southern life; _Down the Ravine_ (1885) and _The Story of Keedon Bluffs_
(1887) for young people; _The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains_
(1885), a novel; _In the Clouds_ (1886), a novel; _The Despot of
Broomsedge Cove_ (1888), a novel; _In the "Stranger-People's" Country_
(1891); _His Vanished Star_ (1894), a novel; _The Mystery of Witch-Face
Mountain and Other Stories_ (1895); _The Phantoms of the Footbridge and
Other Stories_ (1895); _The Young Mountaineers_ (1897), short stories;
_The Juggler_ (1897); _The Story of Old Fort Loudon_ (1899); _The
Bushwhackers and Other Stories_ (1899); _The Champion_ (1902); _A
Spectre of Power_ (1903); _The Frontiersman_ (1904); _The Storm Centre_
(1905); _The Amulet_ (1906); _The Windfall_ (1907); and _Fair
Mississippian_ (1908).
CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with "crate" and
"creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of
rocking, is scouted by the _New English Dictionary_), a child's bed of
wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed sides, slung upon pivots or mounted
on rockers. It is a very ancient piece of furniture, but the date when
it first assumed its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no
means clear. A miniature in an illuminated _Histoire de la belle
Helaine_ in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or
beginning of the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny
four-post bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an
oblong oak box without a lid--originally the rockers appear to have
been detachable--but, like all other household appliances, it has been
subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and adornment. It has been
panelled and carved, supported on Renaissance pillars, inlaid with
marqueterie or mounted in gilded bronze. The original simple shape
persisted for two or three centuries--even the hood made its appearance
very early. In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very
elaborate--indeed in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but
the richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for
purposes of state, being in fact miniature _lits de parade_. In modern
times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood being very
often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a carved or shaped
upright. About the middle of the 19th century iron cradles were
introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A number of undoubted historic
cradles have been preserved, together with many others with doubtful
attributions. Two alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to
have been used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria
and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle. That of
Henry IV. of France, now in the Chateau de Pau, is mounted upon a large
tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome ("Napoleon II.") was designed by
Prud'hon, and along with that of the comte de Chambord is preserved in
the Garde Meuble. In England a cradle is now often called a "bassinet"
(i.e. little basket), and the "cot" has to some extent taken its place.
By analogy, the word "cradle" is also applied to various sorts of
framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool used in engraving.
CRADOCK, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the Cape
province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m. by rail N.
by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one of the chief
centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also a large trade in
ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys a reputation as one of the
best health resorts in the province. It stands at an altitude of 2856
ft.; the climate is very dry, the average annual rainfall being 14.50
in. The mean maximum temperature is 77.6 deg. F. Three miles N. of the
town are sulphur baths (temp. 100 deg. F.) used for the treatment of
rheumatism. In the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras,
now protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning of the
19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock, governor of the Cape
1811-1813. The division has an area of 3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
18,803, of whom 41% are white.
CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf.
Ger. _Kraft_), a word confined in English only, of the Teutonic
languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power, and used as a
synonym of "art." It then means skill or ingenuity, especially in the
manual arts, hence its use in the expression "Arts and Crafts" (q.v.),
and it is thus applied to the trade or profession in which such skill is
displayed, to an association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade
gild, and in particular to Freemasons, "the craft"; the word appears
also in words such as "handicraft" or "craftsman." Skill applied to
outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning or trickery, and it
is this meaning which is implied in such combined words as
"priestcraft," "witchcraft" and the like. A more particular use of the
word is in the nautical sense of vessels of transport by water; this is
probably a colloquially shortened form either of "vessels of a
fisherman's, lighterman's &c., craft," i.e. "art," or of "vessels of a
heavier or lighter craft," i.e. burden or capacity; in both cases the
qualifying words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in
general.
CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. _creag_, Manx _creg_, and Welsh and
modern Scots _craig_), a steep rock. The word appears in many
place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also
connected with "carrick," a word of similar meaning, also found in
place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the strata in which a
shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression "crag and tail," to
a formation of hills, in which one side is precipitous and lofty and the
other slopes or "tails" gradually away, as in the Castle Rock in
Edinburgh.
CRAGGS, JAMES (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of Anthony
Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the 10th of June 1657.
After following various callings in London, Craggs, who was a person of
considerable financial ability, entered the service of the duchess of
Marlborough, and through her influence became in 1702 member of
parliament for Grampound, retaining his seat until 1713. He was in
business as an army clothier and held several official positions,
becoming joint postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his
opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of money.
Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the affairs of the South
Sea Company, but after his death an act of parliament confiscated all
the property which he had acquired since December 1719. He left an
enormous fortune when he died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible
that Craggs committed suicide.
His son, JAMES CRAGGS the younger (1686-1721), was born at Westminster
on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was spent abroad, where
he made the acquaintance of George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards
King George I. In 1713 he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in
1717 secretary-at-war, and in the following year one of the principal
secretaries of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but
not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the 16th of
February 1721. Among Craggs's friends were Pope, who wrote the epitaph
on his monument in Westminster Abbey, Addison and Gay.
CRAIG, JOHN (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about 1512, was the
son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was killed at Flodden in
1513. After an education at St Andrews, and acting as tutor to the
children of Lord Darcy, the English warden of the North, he became a
Dominican, but was soon in trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way
to England, but failing to obtain the preferment he desired at
Cambridge, he went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole,
who was himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the
novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he was busy
travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but a perusal of
Calvin's _Institutes_ revived his heretical tendencies, and he was
condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and statesman, Thomas
Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which broke out on the death of
Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559, when the mob burst open the prison
of the Inquisition. After various adventures he reached Vienna, where he
preached, and was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards
the emperor) Maximilian II.
In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained minister
of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox's colleague in the High Church. His
defence of church property and privilege against the predatory instincts
of the nobles and the pretensions of the state brought him into conflict
with Lethington and others; but he seems to have condoned, if he was not
privy to, Riccio's murder. At first he refused to publish the banns of
marriage between Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a
protest that he "abhorred and detested the marriage." He had been
associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization of the
church, but he wished to compromise between the two extreme parties.
From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north, whither he had been sent to
"illuminate those dark places in Mar, Buchan and Aberdeen." In 1579 he
was appointed chaplain to the young James VI., and returned to
Edinburgh. In 1581 episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of
a commission on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition
of the _Second Book of Discipline_ and the National Covenant of 1580,
and in 1581 compiled "Ane Shorte and Generale Confession" called the
"King's Confession," which was imposed on all parish ministers and
graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of 1638. He approved of
the Ruthven raid, and admonished James in terms which made him weep, but
produced no alteration in his conduct, and before long Craig was
denouncing the supremacy of Arran. But he was averse from the violence
of Melville, and was willing to admit the royal supremacy "as far as the
word of God allows." James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this
compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal
chaplains and some others. In 1592 was published Craig's _Catechism_. He
died on the 12th of December 1600.
See T. G. Law's Pref. to Craig's _Catechism_ (1885); Bain's _Cal.
Scottish State Papers_; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott's _Fasti Eccles._
Scot.; Knox's, Calderwood's and Grub's _Eccles. Histories_; McCrie's
_Life of Melville_; Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of Scots_; Bannatyne's
_Memorials_. (A. F. P.)
CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet, was born
about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of William Craig
of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but beyond the fact
that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray family nothing
regarding his birth is known with certainty. He was educated at St
Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in 1555. From St Andrews he went
to France, to study the canon and the civil law. He returned to Scotland
about 1561, and was admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was
appointed justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of
Argyll; and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials
of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of Edinburgh, and
in 1606 procurator for the church. He never became a lord of session, a
circumstance that was unquestionably due to his own choice. It is said
that he refused the honour of knighthood which the king wished to confer
on him in 1604, when he came to London as one of the Scottish
commissioners regarding the union between the kingdoms--the only
political object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with
James's commands he has always been styled and reputed a knight. Craig
was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of Lumphoy in Midlothian, by
whom he had four sons and three daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis
Craig (1569-1622), was raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other
descendants are several well-known names in the list of Scottish
lawyers. He died on the 26th of February 1608.
Except his poems, the only one of Craig's works which appeared during
his lifetime was his _Jus feudale_ (1603; ed. R. Burnet, 1655; Leipzig,
1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this treatise was to
assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but, instead of this, it
was an important factor in building up and solidifying the law of
Scotland into a separate system. Other works were _De unione regnorum
Britanniae tractatus, De jure successionis regni Angliae_ and _De
hominio disputatio_. Translations of the last two have been published,
and in 1910 an edition of the _De Unione_ appeared, with translation and
notes by C. S. Terry. Craig's first poem, an _Epithalamium_ in honour of
the marriage of Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most
of his poems have been reprinted in the _Delitiae poetarum Scotorum_.
See P. F. Tytler, _Life of Craig_ (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie's
edition of the _Jus feudale_.
CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867-1906), Anglo-American novelist and
dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name of "JOHN OLIVER HOBBES," was
born at Boston, U.S.A., on the 3rd of November 1867. She was the elder
daughter of John Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris.
When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, by whom she
had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the marriage proved an unhappy
one, and was dissolved on her petition in July 1895. She was brought up
as a Nonconformist, but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic
Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member. Her first
little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic _Some Emotions and a Moral_,
was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin's "Pseudonym Library," and was
followed by _The Sinner's Comedy_ (1892), _A Study in Temptations_
(1893), _A Bundle of Life_ (1894), _The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord
Wickenham_. _The Herb Moon_ (1896), a country love story, was followed
by _The School for Saints_ (1897), with a sequel, _Robert Orange_
(1900). Mrs Craigie had already written a one-act "proverb," _Journeys
end in Lovers Meeting_, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act
tragedy, "Osbern and Ursyne," printed in the _Anglo-Saxon Review_
(1899), when her successful piece, _The Ambassador_, was produced at the
St James's Theatre in 1898. _A Repentance_ (one act, 1899) and _The
Wisdom of the Wise_ (1900) were produced at the same theatre, and _The
Flute of Pan_ (1904) first at Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury
theatre; she was also part author of _The Bishop's Move_ (Garrick
Theatre, 1902). Later books are _The Serious Wooing_ (1901), _Love and
the Soul Hunters_ (1902), _Tales about Temperament_ (1902), _The
Vineyard_ (1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London
on the 13th of August 1906.
CRAIK, DINAH MARIA (1826-1887), English novelist, better known by her
maiden name of Mulock, and still better as "the author of _John Halifax,
Gentleman_," was the daughter of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious
enthusiast of Irish extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826
at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister
of a small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined to
obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with fiction for
children, advanced steadily until _John Halifax, Gentleman_ (1857),
placed her in the front rank of the women novelists of her day. _A Life
for a Life_ (1859), though inferior, maintained a high position, but she
afterwards wrote little of importance except some very charming tales
for children. Her most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above,
were _The Ogilvies_ (1849), _Olive_ (1850), _The Head of the Family_
(1851), _Agatha's Husband_ (1853). There is much passion and power in
these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized by
high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in _Avillion
and other Tales_ also exhibit a fine imagination. She published some
poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit, narratives of tours in
Ireland and Cornwall, and _A Woman's Thoughts about Women_. She married
Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864,
and died at Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.
CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866), English man of letters, the son of a
schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in 1798. He studied at
the university of St Andrews with the intention of entering the church,
but, altering his plans, became the editor of a local newspaper, and
went to London in 1824 to devote himself to literature. He became
connected with a short-lived literary paper called the _Verulam_; in
1831 he published his _Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties_ among
the works of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he
contributed a considerable number of biographical and historical
articles to the _Penny Cyclopaedia_; and he edited the _Pictorial
History of England_, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he
published his _History of Literature and Learning in England from the
Norman Conquest to the Present Time_, illustrated by extracts. Craik is
best known for his abridged version of this work, _The History of
English Literature and the English Language_ (1861), which passed
through several editions. In the next year appeared his _Spenser and his
Poetry_, an abstract of Spenser's poems, with historical and
biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his _Bacon, his
Writings and his Philosophy_, a work of a similar kind. The two
last-mentioned works appeared among _Knight's Weekly Volumes_. Two years
later Craik obtained the chair of history and English literature at
Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he held till his death, which
took place on the 25th of June 1866. He had married Miss Jeannette
Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik
(Mrs A. W. May), wrote over thirty novels, of which _Lost and Won_
(1859) was the best. Besides the works already noticed, Craik published
the _History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times_ (1844),
_Romance of the Peerage_ (1848-1850) and _The English of Shakespeare_
(1856).
CRAIL (formerly KAREL), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland,
2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the county, and 11 m.
S.E. of St Andrews by the North British railway, but 2 m. nearer by
road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said to have been a town of some note as
early as the 9th century; and its castle, of which there are hardly any
remains, was the residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was
constituted a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and had
its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in 1553, and by
Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to St Rufus, a few ruins
still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the patron saint of Crail, is an
edifice of great antiquity. Many of the ordinary houses are massive and
quaint. The public buildings include a library and reading-room and town
hall. The chief industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs,
shipping and brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It
unites with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and
Cupar in returning one member to parliament.
Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th century.
Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before her marriage to
James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th century it passed through
the hands of various proprietors and was ultimately shorn of much of its
original size and grandeur. The East Neuk is a term applied more
particularly to the country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all
of the peninsula east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to
Elie. For fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with
the haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.
CRAILSHEIM, or KRAILSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the Neckar, at the junction of
railways to Heilbronn and Furth. Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two
Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town
hall, with a tower 225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include
extensive tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in
cattle and agricultural produce.
Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully withstood a
siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities (1379-1380), a
feat which is annually celebrated, passed later into the possession of
the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to
Bavaria and 1810 to Wurttemberg.
CRAIOVA, or KRAJOVA, the capital of the department of Doljiu, Rumania,
situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and on the main Walachian
railway from Verciorova to Bucharest. Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch
railway to Calafat facilitates the export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova
is the chief commercial town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands
are very rich in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain
extensive forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close
by is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the army.
The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen, pottery, glue
and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters of the First Army
Corps, there are military and commercial academies, an appeal court and
a chamber of commerce, besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman
Catholic, and Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.
Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova, was formerly
the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient _bans_ or military governors
were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries of Walachia, and the
district is still styled the banat of Craiova. Among the holders of this
office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601), and several members of the
celebrated BASSARAB family (q.v.). The bans had the right of coining
money stamped with their own effigies, and hence arose the name of
_bani_ (centimes). The Rumanian franc, or _leu_ ("lion"), so called from
the image it bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the
scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan of the
Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between Turks and Russians.
CRAMBO, an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt (_Sports and
Pastimes_), was played as early as the 14th century under the name of
the _ABC of Aristotle_. In the days of the Stuarts it was very popular,
and is frequently mentioned in the writings of the time. Thus Congreve's
_Love for Love_, i. 1, contains the passage, "Get the Maids to Crambo in
an Evening, and learn the knack of Rhiming." Crambo, or capping the
rhyme, is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the
others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual word they
guess but its meaning. Thus one says "I know a word that rhymes with
_bird_." A second asks "Is it ridiculous?" "No, it is not absurd." "Is
it a part of speech?" "No, it is not a word." This proceeds until the
right word is guessed.
In _Dumb Crambo_ the guessers, instead of naming the word, express its
meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as a clue.
CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1771-1858), English musician, of German
extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of February 1771. He was
the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799). a famous London violinist and
musical conductor, one of a numerous family who were identified with the
progress of music during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was
brought to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part
of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he studied the
pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became known as a professional
pianist both in London and on the continent; he enjoyed a world-wide
reputation, and was particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in
London on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing
Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder in 1824 of
the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co. He wrote a number of
sonatas, &c., for pianoforte, and other compositions; but his _Etudes_
is the work by which he lives as a composer. These "studies" have
appeared in numerous editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple
pieces in the training of pianists.
CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY (1793-1848), English classical scholar and
geographer, was born at Mitlodi in Switzerland. He was educated at
Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford. He resided in Oxford till 1844,
during which time he held many important offices, being public orator,
principal of New Inn Hall (which he rebuilt at his own expense), and
professor of modern history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of
Carlisle, which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of
August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: _A Dissertation
on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps_, published anonymously with H.
L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), "a scholar-like work of first-rate ability";
geographical and historical descriptions of _Ancient Italy_ (1826),
_Ancient Greece_ (1828), _Asia Minor_ (1832); _Travels of Nicander
Nucius of Corcyra_ [Greek traveller of the 16th century] _in England_
(1841); _Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum_ (1838-1844);
_Anecdota Graeca_ (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris,
1839-1841).
CRAMER, KARL VON (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had a very remarkable
career, rising gradually from a mere workman in a factory at Doos near
Nuremberg to the post of manager, and finally becoming part proprietor
of the establishment. Leaving business in 1870 he devoted his time
entirely to politics. From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian
second chamber, at first representing the district of Erlangen-Furth,
and afterwards Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of 1866
as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from 1871 to 1874 to
the first German _Reichstag_. He sat in these bodies as a member of the
Progressive party (_Fortschrittspartei_), and in Bavaria was one of the
leaders of the Liberal (_Freisinnige_) party. His eloquence had a great
hold upon the masses. As a parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and
thoroughly understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the
reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on account of
his great services in connexion with the Bavarian National Exhibition of
Nuremberg, the order of the crown of Bavaria was conferred upon him,
carrying with it the honour of nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the
31st of December 1902.
CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828- ), American shipbuilder, was born in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of May 1828, of German descent,
his family name having been Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children
of William Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in
1830 established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia. The
son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school, after which he
was employed in his father's shipyards and made himself master of every
detail of ship construction. He showed especial aptitude as a naval
architect and designer, and after becoming his father's partner in 1849
it was to that branch of the work that he devoted himself. His
inventive capacity and resourcefulness, together with the complete
success of his innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high
rank as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that
industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf boats for the
landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil War he designed and
built several ironclads for the United States navy, notably the "New
Ironsides" in 1862, and the light-draught monitors used in the Carolina
sounds; and after 1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own
designs many of the most powerful ships in the "new" navy, including the
cruisers "Columbia," "Minneapolis" and "Brooklyn," and the battleships
"Indiana," "Iowa," "Massachusetts," "Alabama" and "Maine." In every
progressive step in ocean shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail
to steam, and from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part.
His fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships for
several foreign navies, among others the "Retvizan" and the "Variag" for
the Russian government. He also constructed a number of freight and
passenger steamships for several trans-Atlantic lines.
See A. C. Buel, _Memoirs of C. H. Cramp_ (Philadelphia, 1906).
CRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most frequently
occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain internal organs.
This disorder belongs to the class of diseases known as local spasms, of
which other varieties exist in such affections as spasmodic asthma and
colic. The cause of these painful seizures resides in the nervous
system, and operates either directly from the great nerve centres, or,
as is generally the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example,
when attacks are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.
In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this disorder comes
on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient being aroused by an
agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the leg or back of the thigh,
accompanied in many instances with a sensation of sickness or faintness
from the intensity of the suffering. During the paroxysm the muscular
fibres affected can often be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The
attack in general lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs,
the spasmodic contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the
other hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes or
even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a rheumatic or
gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common enough apart from
this, and are often induced by some peculiar posture which a limb has
assumed during sleep. Exposure of the limbs to cold will also bring on
cramp, and to this is probably to be ascribed its frequent occurrence in
swimmers. Cramp of the extremities is also well known as one of the most
distressing accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent
occurrence in the process of parturition, just before delivery.
This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely removed
by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part with the hand,
or by anything which makes an impression on the nerves, such as warm
applications. Even a sudden and vigorous movement of the limb will often
succeed in terminating the attack.
What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually occurs as a
symptom in connexion with some form of gastric disorder, such as
aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease of the mucous membrane
of the stomach.
The disease known as _Writer's Cramp_, or _Scrivener's Palsy_, is a
spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance of
acts, the result of education and long usage, and which does not occur
when the same muscles are employed in acts of a different kind. This
disorder owes its name to the relative frequency with which it is met in
persons who write much, although it is by no means confined to them, but
is liable to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was
termed by Dr Duchenne _Functional Spasm_.
The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing difficulty
experienced in conducting the movements required for executing the work
in hand. Taking, for example, the case of writers, there is a feeling
that the pen cannot be moved with the same freedom as before, and the
handwriting is more or less altered in consequence. At an early stage of
the disease the difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by
persevering efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in,
the muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm,
are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is rendered
impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being cramped, move in a
disorderly manner and the pen cannot be grasped, while in other rare
instances a kind of paralysis affects the muscles of the fingers, and
they are powerless to make the movements necessary for holding the pen.
It is to be noted that it is only in the act of writing that these
phenomena present themselves, and that for all other movements the
fingers and arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are
observed and the same remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ in the case of
musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and many
mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed, although actually a
rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles in the body which is
specially called into action in any particular occupation is exempt from
liability to this functional spasm.
The exact pathology of writer's cramp has not been worked out, but it is
now generally accepted that the disease is not a local one of muscles or
nerves, but that it is an affection of the central nervous system. The
complaint never occurs under thirty years of age, and is more frequent
in males than females. Occasionally there is an inherited tendency to
the disease, but more usually there is a history of alcoholism in the
parents, or some neuropathic heredity. In its treatment the first
requisite is absolute cessation from the employment which caused it.
Usually, however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery
takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are
regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity, then
Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in performing
the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the wrist.
CRAMP-RINGS, rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and
"falling-sickness" or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one was
presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his return from
Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained to the king. At his
death it passed into the keeping of the abbot of Westminster, by whom it
was used medically and was known as St Edward's Ring. From that time the
belief grew that the successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that
the rings blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the
successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday formally to
bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held; prayers and psalms
were said; and water "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost" was
poured over the rings, which were always of gold or silver, and made
from the metal that the king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The
ceremony survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the
curative powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even
to the present day.
For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, _The Literary
Museum_ (London, 1792); see also _Notes and Queries_, vol. vii., 1853;
vol. ix., 1878.
CRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), German painter, was born at Cronach in upper
Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from his father. It has not
been possible to trace his descent or the name of his parents. We are
not informed as to the school in which he was taught, and it is a mere
guess that he took lessons from the south German masters to whom Mathew
Grunewald owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and
Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in which
Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of Cranach's children,
Cranach signalized his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th
century. He then drew upon himself the attention of the elector of
Saxony, who attached him to his person in 1504. The records of
Wittenberg confirm Gunderam's statement to this extent that Cranach's
name appears for the first time in the public accounts on the 24th of
June 1504, when he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as
_pictor ducalis_. The only clue to Cranach's settlement previous to his
Wittenberg appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a
house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the daughter
of a burgher of that city.
Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture dated
1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to that date we are
altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this obscurity is the light
thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find him active in several branches
of his profession,--sometimes a mere house-painter, more frequently
producing portraits and altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of
copper-plates, and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early
in the days of his official employment he startled his master's
courtiers by the realism with which he painted still life, game and
antlers on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his
pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the duke
fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to the
hunting field, where he sketched "his grace" running the stag, or Duke
John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted several altar-pieces
for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in competition with Durer, Burgkmair
and others; the duke and his brother John were portrayed in various
attitudes and a number of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were
published. Great honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the
Netherlands, and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy
who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his works with
the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave him the winged
snake as a motto, and this motto or _Kleinod_, as it was called,
superseded the initials on all his pictures after that date. Somewhat
later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at
Wittenberg, and a printer's patent with exclusive privileges as to
copyright in Bibles. The presses of Cranach were used by Luther. His
chemist's shop was open for centuries, and only perished by fire in
1871. Relations of friendship united the painter with the Reformers at a
very early period; yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first
acquaintance with Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer's
correspondence dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in 1521,
Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his "Gevatterin," the
artist's wife. His first engraved portrait by Cranach represents an
Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520. Five years later the friar dropped
the cowl, and Cranach was present as "one of the council" at the
betrothal festival of Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short
intervals of the electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no
change in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a
favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he twice
(1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg. But 1547
witnessed a remarkable change in these relations. John Frederick was
taken prisoner at the battle of Muhlberg, and Wittenberg was subjected
to stress of siege. As Cranach wrote from his house at the corner of the
market-place to the grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Konigsberg to
tell him of John Frederick's capture, he showed his attachment by
saying, "I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been robbed of
our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a true prince to
us, but God will help him out of prison, for the Kaiser is bold enough
to revive the Papacy, which God will certainly not allow." During the
siege Charles bethought him of Cranach, whom he remembered from his
childhood and summoned him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came,
reminded his majesty of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his
knees for kind treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when
all the dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands
from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles's bidding came to take the
likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked Cranach to visit the
Swabian capital; and here for a few months he was numbered amongst the
household of the captive elector, whom he afterwards accompanied home in
1552. He died on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in
which he lived still stands in the market-place.
The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the "Rest of the Virgin 365
during the Flight into Egypt," marked with the initials L.C., and the
date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil. The
scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses the
habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of Thuringia.
There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time; and this would
point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose stag hunts are
otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach's art in its prime was doubtless
influenced by causes which but slightly affected the art of the
Italians, but weighed with potent consequence on that of the Netherlands
and Germany. The business of booksellers who sold woodcuts and
engravings at fairs and markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving
which arose out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular
edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates became the
occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted in Italy to
productions of the brush were here monopolized for designs on wood or on
copper. We have thus to account for the comparative unproductiveness as
painters of Durer and Holbein, and at the same time to explain the
shallowness apparent in many of the later works of Cranach; but we
attribute to the same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect
effective colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint.
Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white appears to
have affected his sight, and caused those curious transitions of pallid
light into inky grey which often characterize his studies of flesh;
whilst the mere outlining of form in black became a natural substitute
for modelling and chiaroscuro. There are, no doubt, some few pictures by
Cranach in which the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled
surface, but they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not
greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he showed some
freshness in the delineation of incident, though he not unfrequently
bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates and woodcuts are certainly the
best outcome of his art; and the earlier they are in date the more
conspicuous is their power. Striking evidence of this is the "St
Christopher" of 1506, or the plate of "Elector Frederick praying before
the Madonna" (1509). It is curious to watch the changes which mark the
development of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the
Reformation. At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut
(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before a
crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine, a series of
martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517 he illustrates
occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also gives expression to some
of the thoughts of the Reformers. In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where
a dying man offers "his soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly
goods to his relations," the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven,
and salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good works.
Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial delineation.
Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist and a prophet at the
foot of a tree. To the left God produces the tables of the law, Adam and
Eve partake of the forbidden fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft,
and punishment supervenes in the shape of death and the realm of Satan.
To the right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize
redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the Baptist, who
points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour. There are two examples
of this composition in the galleries of Gotha and Prague, both of them
dated 1529. One of the latest pictures with which the name of Cranach is
connected is the altarpiece which Cranach's son completed in 1555, and
which is now in the _Stadtkirche_ (city church) at Weimar. It represents
Christ in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the
right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John the
Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream falls on
the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book the words, "The
blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin." Cranach sometimes composed
gospel subjects with feeling and dignity. "The Woman taken in Adultery"
at Munich is a favourable specimen of his skill, and various repetitions
of Christ receiving little children show the kindliness of his
disposition. But he was not exclusively a religious painter. He was
equally successful, and often comically naave, in mythological scenes,
as where Cupid, who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he
has been stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules
sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids. Humour and
pathos are combined at times with strong effect in pictures such as the
"Jealousy" (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530), where women and children are
huddled into telling groups as they watch the strife of men wildly
fighting around them. Very realistic must have been a lost canvas of
1545, in which hares were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546,
possibly under Italian influence, Cranach composed the "Fons Juventutis"
of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which hags are
seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received as they issue
from it with all the charms of youth by knights and pages.
Cranach's chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and we are
indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features of all the
German Reformers and their princely adherents. But he sometimes
condescended to depict such noted followers of the papacy as Albert of
Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz, Anthony Granvelle and the duke
of Alva. A dozen likenesses of Frederick III. and his brother John are
found to bear the date of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach's
readiness, and a proof that he possessed ample material for mechanical
reproduction, that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for "sixty
pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother" in one day. Amongst
existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of Albert, elector
of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John, elector of Saxony, at
Dresden.
Cranach had three sons, all artists:--John Lucas, who died at Bologna in
1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and Lucas, born in 1515, who
died in 1586.
See Heller, _Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs_ (2nd ed., Bamberg, 1844);
Chr. Schuchard, _Lukas Cranachs des alteren Leben und Werke_ (3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, _Cranach der altere_ (Gorlitz, 1879);
M. B. Lindau, _Lucas Cranach_ (1883); Lippmann, _Lukas Cranach,
Sammlung, &c._ (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most notable
woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, _Verzeichnis der Dresdener
Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899_ (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig, _Tafelbilder
Cranach's des altern und seiner Werkstatt_ (Leipzig, 1900); Muther,
_Lukas Cranach_ (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, _L. Cranach der altere_
(Leipzig, 1902). (J. A. C.)
CRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus _Oxycoccus_, (natural order
Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus _Vaccinium. O.
palustris_ (or _Vaccinium Oxycoccus_), the common cranberry plant, is
found in marshy land in northern and central Europe and North America.
Its stems are wiry, creeping and of varying length; the leaves are
evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous below, revolute at the
margin, ovate, lanceolate or elliptical in shape, and not more than half
an inch long; the flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and
stalked, and have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments,
and anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August and
September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of currants, are
crimson in colour and often spotted, and have an acid and astringent
taste. The American species, _O. macrocarpus_, is found wild from Maine
to the Carolinas. It attains a greater size than _O. palustris_, and
bears bigger and finer berries, which are of three principal sorts, the
_cherry_ or round, the _bugle_ or oblong, and the _pear_ or bell-shaped,
and vary in hue from light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red
and white. _O. erythrocarpus_ is a species indigenous in the mountains
from Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour of
its berry.
Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the
cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or
vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf, and
having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs renewal
every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous existence of the
plants, and serves both to keep the underlying soil cool and damp, and
to check the growth of grass and weeds. The ground must be thoroughly
drained, and should be provided with a supply of water and a dam for
flooding the plants during winter to protect them from frost, and
occasionally at other seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of
spring water should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be
improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted dung,
and by supplying them with less moisture than they obtain in their
natural habitats. Propagation is effected by means of cuttings, of which
the wood should be wiry in texture, and the leaves of a greenish-brown
colour. In America, where, in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts,
the cultivation of the cranberry commenced early in the last century,
wide tracts of waste land have been utilized for that purpose--low,
easily flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from $10
to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or $300 worth of
the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50 and 400 bushels an acre,
but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels, is estimated to be the average
production when the plants have begun to bear well. The approximate
cranberry crop of the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from
410,000 to 1,000,000 bushels.
Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise they do not
keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those which are most
esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New Jersey in October, at
the close of the blackberry and whortleberry season, and often lasts
until the coming in of cold weather. From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be
collected by good workers. New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore
are the leading American markets for cranberries, whence they are
exported to the West Indies, England and France in great quantities.
England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk with abundance
of the common cranberry, which it now largely imports from Sweden and
Russia. The fruit is much used for pies and tarts, and also for making
an acid summer beverage. The cowberry, or red whortleberry, _Vaccinium
Vitis-Idaea_, is sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the
Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of _Astroloma
humifusum_ and _Lissanthe sapida_, plants of the order _Epacridaceae_.
For literature of the subject see the _Proceedings of the American
Cranberry Growers' Association_ (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good
article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of
American Horticulture_ (1900).
CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, 1ST EARL OF (1814-1906), British
statesman, was born at Bradford on the 1st of October 1814, the son of
John Hardy, and belonged to a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active
political life in 1847, eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and
nine years after his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate
for Bradford, but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for
Leominster, and in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he
became president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby's new
administration. When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction
with Mr Disraeli's Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at the home
office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in 1878 Lord
Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation of Lord Derby,
Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became within a month afterwards)
succeeded him at the India office. At the same time he had assumed the
additional family surname of Gathorne, which had been that of his
mother. In Lord Salisbury's administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord
Cranbrook was president of the council, and upon his retirement from
public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in 1892 he
was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of October 1906, being
succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously
known as Lord Medway (b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament
as a conservative for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.
See _Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts
from his correspondence_, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy
(1910).
CRANBROOK, a market-town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent,
England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway from Paddock Wood. Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook,
a feeder of the river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well
wooded. It has a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St
Dunstan, which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part
of the 18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of
the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an
extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present
condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from the
14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal seats of the
broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the old factories still
exist. The town has a grammar school of Elizabethan foundation, which
now ranks as one of the smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are
the ruins of the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built
in the time of Edward VI.
CRANDALL, PRUDENCE (1803-1889), American school-teacher, was born, of
Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of September
1803. She was educated in the Friends' school at Providence, R. I.,
taught school at Plainfield, Conn., and in 1831 established a private
academy for girls at Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By
admitting a negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on
the advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871), she
opened a school for "young ladies and little misses of colour." For this
she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury but throughout
Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted and socially ostracized;
measures were taken in the Canterbury town-meeting to break up the
school, and finally in May 1833 the state legislature passed the
notorious Connecticut "Black Law," prohibiting the establishment of
schools for non-resident negroes in any city or township of Connecticut,
without the consent of the local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to
submit, was arrested, tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose
verdict, however, was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals
in July 1834. Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she
was finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon afterward
she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk Falls, Kansas, on
the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut Black Law was repealed in
1838. Miss Crandall's attempt to educate negro girls at Canterbury
attracted the attention of the whole country; and the episode is of
considerable significance as showing the attitude of a New England
community toward the negro at that time.
See J. C. Kimball's _Connecticut Canterbury Tale_ (Hartford, Conn.,
1889), and Samuel J. May's _Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery
Conflict_ (Boston, 1869).
CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900), American writer, was born at Newark, New
Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was educated at Lafayette
College and Syracuse University. His first story, _Maggie, a Girl of the
Streets_, was published in 1891, but his greatest success was made with
_The Red Badge of Courage_ (1896), a brilliant and highly realistic,
though of course imaginary, description of the experiences of a private
in the Civil War. He was also the author of various other stories, and
acted as a war correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the
Spanish American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in
Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died at
Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900.