THE CHAIN MAIL PERIOD, 1180-1250
[Illustration: FIG. 96.]
The essential differences between this period and the last are: (1)
the substitution of chain mail for the jazeraint, mascled, and scale
armour which had formerly been used; (2) the adoption of the pot-helm
or heaume as a secondary defence for the head in place of the conical
helmet, the coif-de-mailles, or the pot-de-fer under the mail; (3) the
introduction of the sleeveless surcoat and the crest.
[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Painted “Pot Helmet,” _c._ 1241.]
_The Heaume._--The term “heaume” may perhaps by some be deemed to be
hardly applicable to the head-defence when first introduced, inasmuch
as it was small in size, fitted closely to the head, and was in most
respects a helmet. But inasmuch as a second defence was worn underneath
it from its very inception, the word “heaume” is an appropriate
designation, as it infers a reinforcement to an existing protection
in the next few centuries during which it is constantly in evidence.
It may readily be divided into two distinct classes, namely, those in
which the plates composing it are riveted together so as to form one
piece, and secondly, those in which a movable ventail can be affixed.
Further subdivisions may be made if desired, such as flat-topped,
round-topped, and sugar-loaf. The word “heaume” or helm among the
northern nations simply meant a covering of any kind for the head, and
we have an example in the Anglo-Saxon wærhelm, of which examples have
been given in this work. Of the first heaumes the flat-topped, or
those with slightly curved crowns, were probably the earliest, of which
the woodcut No. 96 furnishes an example.
A helm which is preserved in the Musée d’Artillerie in Paris probably
exemplifies the transition between the Norman helmet and the barrel
heaume. The conical Norman crown is preserved, but instead of the
pendent neck and cheek guards and nasal, the head and face are entirely
covered by a cylinder of iron, which is complete but for a vertical
slit covered by a projecting nasal and two transverse occularia, one
on either side. In England very early examples may be seen upon the
monumental effigy of Hugh Fitz Eudo, in Kirkstead Chapel, Lincolnshire,
and in a slightly modified form in the carvings of the Presbytery
arcade of Worcester Cathedral, also in the groups of the Painted
Chamber, Westminster. Holes for breathing purposes are entirely absent,
the sole openings being a pair of horizontal occularia separated
by a perpendicular band. In this class may be included the painted
pot-heaume on a parchment MS. dating approximately from the year 1241,
which is shown coloured in green and white diagonal stripes, and is
now in the town library of Leipzic (Fig. 97). This flat-topped variety
appears to have been viewed with much favour, for we have many examples
of it in this period and in that immediately following. For instance,
the seal of Roger de Bigod, Earl of Norfolk (1231 to 1240) (Fig. 98),
exhibits a heaume which is flat-topped, furnished with two occularia,
and nine small square breathing holes on either side, strengthened with
cross pieces of iron. The seal of Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester
and Hertford, who died in 1262 (Fig. 99), shows a flat topped helmet
of cylindrical fashion, in which the occularium is formed by one
ornamental wavy slit of which the lower edge is slightly cusped. The
helmet of Hamelin, Earl of Surrey and Warenne, 1202 (Fig. 100), is of
the round-topped variety, and is remarkable for the narrow occularium
and the complete absence of any breathing holes. It is taken from the
Cott. MS., Julius, C. VII.
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--From the seal (1231-1240) of Roger le Bigod,
Earl of Norfolk.]
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--From the seal of Richard de Clare, Earl of
Gloucester and Hertford (_d._ 1262).]
It is difficult to see the protection against a lance or sword-thrust
afforded by the heaume of Hugh de Vere, Earl of Oxford, _d._ 1263 (Fig.
101), unless an interior plate was in use to reinforce the numerous
openings in the fore part. The peculiarity of the surcoat covering the
neck should be noticed, as it is uncommon at this period. From the
examples given it will be apparent that from the year 1180 to 1250, the
era under discussion, no heaume is represented with a movable visor,
and this may be taken as a distinguishing feature, inasmuch as they
appear shortly afterwards.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Helmet of Hamelin, Earl of Surrey and Warenne
(_d._ 1202). (From MS. Cott., Julius, C. vii.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--From the seal of Hugh de Vere, Earl of Oxford
(_d._ 1263).]
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Interlinked chain mail showing method of
construction.]
[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Sir John de Bitton, Bitton Church,
Somersetshire, 1227.]
Whatever doubts may exist respecting the presence of true chain mail in
the early Norman period in conjunction with mascled, scale, leather,
horn, and jazeraint work generally, no misconception can arise with
respect to the epoch under consideration, where, together with the
heaume and the plastron-de-fer, it formed the sole defence of the
knight. Chain mail has existed from very remote antiquity, but owing
to its nature is of such a perishable quality, exposing the maximum of
surface to atmospheric oxidation, that practically no examples have
come down to us of all the vast quantity fabricated in remote ages.
There are in the British Museum some aggregations of iron rust brought
from the excavations at Nineveh, which experts assert have once been
hauberks of chain mail of the true pattern (so far as interlocking is
concerned), and hence are credited with being the earliest examples in
existence. That the Romans used rings, together with discs and plates,
as defensive covering, backed by a substratum of a tough textile
fabric, is well known; but whether these rings were so interlinked
as to form a true chain mail has been much questioned. Discoveries
have, however, been made from time to time which tend to prove that
they were not unacquainted with it, and taking into consideration the
extent of territory they possessed, and the number of nations owning
their sway, it would be a matter for wonder if they were ignorant of
its existence. Sculptures may be referred to which appear to indicate
true chain mail, but so many conventional styles and methods were used
by artists to indicate defensive equipment, that it is difficult to
arrive at a definite settlement of the question. That this means of
protection originated in the East is undoubted, where its coolness
would be a great advantage; that it spread in some mysterious way to
the Teutonic nations of the West is also certain, and we must look
for its introduction there to an age long prior to the time of the
Crusades. It was imitated, however, by the unskilful western artificers
in such a manner that immense weight occurred and became an inseparable
condition, and in this manner during the early Crusades it came
into contact with the light chain mail, characteristic of Oriental
workmanship, covering the nomadic cavalry of the East. These horsemen
were enabled in consequence to move with a swiftness and freedom quite
impossible to the crusading knights, thus being forcibly reminiscent
of the ponderous Spanish galleons of the Armada, and the small but
handy English vessels. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the
cost of true chain mail was prohibitory to all but the very wealthy,
in spite of great quantities which fell to the lot of the victors in
Palestine. The manufacture varies under the conditions of time, place,
and requirements. Wire, or what answered for wire, was made in the
earlier periods of a very rough character, in the manufacture of which
the hammer evidently played an important part; but later on, when the
art of wire-drawing became known, the cross section of a link exhibits
as perfect a circle as it would if of modern construction. This wire
was wound tightly round an iron core of convenient size, cut off in
rings, and each ring separately treated by flattening the overlapping
ends, piercing them with a steel punch, and inserting a small rivet.
This rivet was either hammered to flatten it, or it was finished off
in a vice. The general method in almost every coat of mail was for one
ring to interlink with four others; a few variations occur, however,
such as rows of rings occasionally interlinking with other rows above
and below, the use of alternate double rings, &c. From the foregoing
it will readily be seen that the cost of production of chain mail
in labour alone must have been excessive. The strengthening of the
mail by insertion of leather straps was occasionally done, the straps
being carried through the links in horizontal rows, while vertical
rows of strapping in addition to the foregoing are not unknown. In
the metalwork, also, the resistance of mail could be considerably
augmented by enlarging the rivet joinings. Considering the intricate
nature of mail, it is no matter for wonderment that neither in the
centuries under consideration nor in those immediately following do
we find the common soldier clad in true chain mail, as every portion,
large or small, would be carefully retained by the knightly wearer. The
incised slab of Sir John de Bitton, in Bitton Church, Somersetshire,
1227 (Fig. 103), may be taken as an excellent example of this early
period preserved in a monumental effigy: the large shield covering the
greater part of the body has no guige, and is necessarily quite flat,
though doubtless convex in reality. The coif-demailles is separate
from the hauberk, and has a lappet overlying the upper part of the
gorget to protect the junction there. The length of the hauberk can
only be surmised, inasmuch as the lower border is not shown, but from
other examples we glean that it reached nearly to the knees. The mail
gloves are also distinct from the hauberk, and bands, laces, or straps
are used to protect the junctions with the sleeves: separate fingers
are not shown, but the gloves are precisely similar to the mitten
gauntlets of the end of the century. The chausses are of chain mail,
and continuous with the covering for the feet. The heaume is not shown;
it is probable that the flattish configuration of the upper part of the
head indicates that a pot-de-fer of some kind was worn under the coif,
as in Fig. 104. The sword is long and broad, the hilt having short,
straight quillons and a cylindrical grip, terminating in a circular
pommel. The spurs are of the short pryck form. It should be noticed
that the artist has drawn the figure too large for the slab, and has
consequently been compelled to encroach upon the bevelled edges.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Rich. Wellesburn de Montfort, _c._ 1270.
Hitchenden Church, Bucks.]
_The Surcoat_ is of the sleeveless variety, one of the distinguishing
features of this period, and reaches nearly to the heels, being, as
usual, split up in front and probably also behind, for convenience in
riding. It was introduced in order to guard the mail from rain, and
indirectly as some protection against the heat of the sun’s rays; but
the chief reason for its adoption was that it afforded a means for
recognising the wearer, whose features were now completely hidden by
the heaume, thus rendering it impossible in the hurly-burly of battle
to know friend from foe. Previous to this the nasal helmet, although
covering but part of the features, had at times led to confusion, even
as early as the battle of Hastings as previously stated. Thus heraldry,
which up to this time had only been in an incipient condition, suddenly
found itself of the highest importance, and developed in the course
of succeeding centuries into a science, the study of which was deemed
absolutely necessary for all pretending to the possession of gentle
blood. The surcoat had its inception in the long, flowing tunic
which during the last period dealt with had been worn underneath the
hauberk, as shown upon the two great seals of King Richard I., and the
suggestion would be natural to transfer the latter to the outermost
position, leaving to the padded gambeson alone the duty of supporting
the weight of the hauberk. The first English monarch to appear in this
military attire as an outer garment was King John, and he is shown
thus habited upon his great seal: while his rival, the Dauphin Louis,
who proved such an unwelcome visitor in the latter part of his reign,
is similarly represented upon the French seal, as may be seen in the
Harl. MS. 43, B. VII., date 1216, to which it is appended. To the
Cott. MS., XIX. 2, the seal of Alexander II. of Scotland, 1214-1249,
is attached, and this also shows the surcoat. It was of white material
or self-coloured, sometimes diapered, and generally bore heraldic
charges. The length varied, and both long and short surcoats are seen
of approximately the same date; the former reaching at times to the
heels and the latter to the hem of the hauberk. The material varied
with the means and taste of the wearer; the better descriptions were
of silk, richly embroidered with gold and sometimes decorated with
precious stones, cloth of gold of the richest quality being also used.
[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Taken from the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet,
Count of Anjou.]
_The Crest._--Although much uncertainty exists among exponents of
the art of heraldry upon the origin of the crest, yet a little
investigation leads to the conclusion that it need not be a matter
of speculation or conjecture. The first example of the nature of a
crest appears upon the cap of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, died 1150;
his monumental slab in the museum at Le Mans, which stood formerly in
the cathedral there, exhibits the figure of a lion (Fig. 105). The
helmet of Philip d’Alsace, Count of Flanders (_c._ 1181), shows a lion
painted upon the side of the same character as another appearing upon
his shield; but what is generally acknowledged to be the earliest
authenticated example of a crest fulfilling all the desired conditions
is that of Richard the Lion Heart, who upon his great seal shows a
fan-shaped ornament surmounting the heaume, and upon the base is
painted a lion passant (Fig. 106). One of the earliest instances of
the use of a crest on the Continent is that afforded by a MS. in the
Royal Library at Berlin, and belonging to the end of the twelfth
century (Fig. 107). In this case an actual figure, that of a red lion,
appears, and not paintings, as in the two examples previously cited.
It is possible that the adoption of a crest upon the helmet may have
been partly of a defensive character, for the effect of a sword-cut
would be very materially modified after passing through a stiff
erection of steel plate or of tough cuir-bouilli, while against the
mace and the pole-axe it would also afford some slight protection. In
support of this conjecture it may be noticed that crests at first were
ridged and serrated, somewhat after the style which distinguished the
pike-guards of the fifteenth century in their embryonic stage, as if
purposely designed to arrest the edge of a weapon. The many examples
which occur in an undecorated form preclude the thought that they were
invented in order to bear heraldic cognisances, although they were
quickly seized upon to fulfil the duty hitherto borne by the shield and
surcoat, namely, to afford means of identifying the wearer. Of course
the fan-shaped ornament under consideration may have simply been the
outcome of that instinct for personal adornment and decoration which
appears to be inherent in the human race, and which manifested itself
in the mediæval period much more than now; but when it is considered
that many of these fans are carried forward well over the face and at
the same time far backwards, the conclusion is almost compelled that
they originated in an endeavour to secure more protection for the top
of the head than the crown of the heaume afforded. The great crests of
a subsequent period were never used in actual combat, but were reserved
exclusively for tournament purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Heaume, Cœur de Lion.]
[Illustration: FIG. 107.--“Pot Helmet,” from the _Eneit_ of Heinrich
von Veldeke.]
_The Shield_ during this period was cut off as a rule in a straight
line at the top, and was convex, so as to partially enclose the figure
(see Fig. 108). It gradually decreased in size, until towards the close
it became the small, well-known “heater-shaped” shield which remained
in vogue for such a lengthy period. It was invariably decorated with
the armorial bearings of the wearer, which in the early part of
the chain mail period were mostly fanciful or devotional and of a
transitory character, but became hereditary as it progressed. The only
weapon of importance introduced was the arbalest, which will be dealt
with in the next period.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.--From the seal (1315) of John de Bretagne,
Earl of Richmond.]
The equipment of the ordinary rank and file of the chain mail period
did not vary in any essential features from that which preceded it.
In Fig. 88 we have two foot soldiers from Harl. MS. Y6, one of whom
wears the Norman helmet, now truncated, with a nasal, which apparently
is very long and wide. A similar helmet, but minus the nasal, defends
his companion. The usual hauberk of chain mail or a cheaper substitute
covers the body, and the legs are undefended. The mode of wearing
the stockings and the cross bar below the leaf-shaped head of one
spear tends to the belief that the illuminator was of Saxon blood
or depicting others of that descent. The shields are suspended by
guiges in both cases, and the fanciful decorations illustrate the
assertions previously made in this chapter. In woodcut No. 109 a very
characteristic group of soldiery of about the year 1220 is shown,
taken from Harl. MS. 4751. The heavily-armed arbalestier in pot-helm
and mail is one of a force defending a castle, and has discharged a
quarrel which transfixes an archer of the attacking party. Before
him, and apparently without any defensive equipment other than a
chapelle-de-fer, is a foot soldier with a military pick in his right
hand and a sword of short dimensions in the left. An arbalestier is
probably shown in the third position from the front, and an archer
fourth, while the fifth is unmistakably a slinger. As was generally
the rule, no protective covering was allowed the slingers--the one
in question has not even a hat--who from the nature of their weapon
were perforce compelled to be always in open order when in action and
at a distance from the enemy, and presumably suffered less than the
closely-packed bodies of men-at-arms, billmen, and even archers. His
sling appears to be in no way different to the Saxon weapon shown in
Fig. 70. The last man is clad in a coif and hauberk of mail, and is
armed with an axe. At this period a weapon appears in the illuminated
MSS. which is apparently of recent introduction, namely the Staff Sling
or Fustibal. It is generally shown in besieging operations pitted
against the defenders on the walls, or in naval warfare as in Fig.
110. The action of the sling is readily seen, the loop at the end
allowing the bag to disengage itself automatically at the psychological
moment, and to discharge the stone. In this case it seems to be charged
with some combustible material to be hurled on board an opposing ship.
The slinger is as usual bareheaded and devoid of bodily defences. With
him is an archer also discharging combustibles affixed to the end of an
arrow. He is habited in a sleeveless leather hauberk strengthened with
round plates, presumably of metal; a coif of mail or leather covers his
head. The third figure carries a sword, spear, and pole-axe, possibly
his own, and also the close-quarter weapons of the projectile throwers.
[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Soldiers, _c._ 1220. (Harl. MS., 4751.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Staff-sling, &c. (MS. by Matthew Paris.)]
The equipment of a man-at-arms at the close of this period is well
shown in Fig. 111, from Auct. D. 4, 17, in the Bodleian Library. It
dates from about 1250, and illustrates the defensive properties of
leather in combination with iron. The steel chapelle-de-fer covers
a chain mail coif which may be part of a continuous hauberk, as the
arms and hands are covered with mail of the same description. Bands
of leather round the throat afford the protection of a gorget: they
are affixed to a hauberk composed of leather scales of large size and
leaf-like shape showing the midrib, while a belt round the waist and
pendent leaves on the skirt complete a most effective means of bodily
defence. The legs are enclosed in soft leather chausses protected by
metal studs, upon which is a cross-gartering of leather thongs. The
only weapon shown is an axe of formidable proportions. A spearman of
_c._ 1280 is shown in Add. MS., 11639, representing Goliath of Gath, in
which a chapelle-de-fer is a feature (Fig. 112).
[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Armour of cuir-bouilli, _c._ 1250.]
[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Chapelle-de-fer, _c._ 1280. Figure of Goliath
from Add. MS., 11639.]