CHAIN MAIL REINFORCED, 1250-1325
The special points which distinguish this period are:--
1. The introduction of Banded Mail.
2. The use of Ailettes.
3. The invention of the Conical Heaume borne by the shoulders.
4. The reinforcement of the Chain Mail by Plate.
5. The development of the Crest.
[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Sir John d’Aubernoun, 1277. Stoke d’Aubernoun
Church, Guildford, Surrey.]
One of the most remarkable brasses in existence is that of Sir John
d’Aubernoun, in Stoke d’Aubernoun Church, near Guildford, Surrey (Fig.
113). It is the earliest known example of this form of monumental
effigy either in the British Isles or on the Continent, and dates
from about the year 1277, the fifth of Edward I. It is to be noted
that it is unique among the brasses of this reign by reason of the
knight being represented with straight lower limbs, the remainder all
having the cross-legged position. Although the figure is somewhat
disproportionate, and the partial covering up of the lower parts
of the legs by the surcoat is unfortunate, yet as a work of art,
and especially as an example of technique and patience on the part
of the engraver, it is unrivalled. Every separate link of the mail
is faithfully represented. The reinforcement of the chain mail by
secondary defences is here exemplified in its primitive stage, a
pair of genouillières only appearing, which from their ornamental
appearance are presumably of cuir-bouilli, or of plate covered with
cuir-bouilli. The reason for the introduction of this defence was not
alone the protection afforded: the intolerable drag of chain mail
upon the knee or elbow when flexed prevented freedom of action in
either joint; but by the termination of the mail at the upper part
of the genouillière to which it was affixed, and the continuation of
it below, an advantage was gained which was fully appreciated. The
coif-de-mailles upon the head descends to the shoulders on either side
and covers part of the surcoat, while the hauberk has sleeves which
are prolonged to cover the hand with mail gauntlets, not divided for
the fingers. The mail chausses are continued like the sleeves of the
hauberk, in order to protect the feet as well as the legs. Over the
mail appears a loose surcoat reaching to below the knees and confined
at the waist by a cord, from below which it opens in front and
falls on either side in many folds, being also divided at the back
to facilitate riding. It does not bear any ornament or design, but
apparently is of rich material, and has a fringed border. The sword is
long and straight, with short quillons drooping towards the blade; the
grip is slightly swelling, and the circular pommel is enriched with a
design. The method of suspending the sword is peculiar to the period:
it grips the scabbard in two places, between which a small strap runs
as a guide; the weapon thus hangs diagonally across the left front
of the figure. The guige bearing the shield is enriched with roses
alternating with the mystical cross (signifying good fortune and long
life) termed the Fylfot, Gammadion, or Svastika, in which each arm of
a Greek cross is continued at right angles; it passes over the right
shoulder, and supports a small, flat, heater-shaped shield, upon which
the arms appear (_azure_, a chevron, _or_). The spurs are the usual
short ones of the pryck variety affixed by ornamental straps. The lance
passes under the right arm, and displays a small fringed pennon charged
with the same armorial insignia as the shield; it is shortened to
permit of its introduction, and shows no grip for the hand. This is the
only example of a brass in which the lance is introduced.
[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Sir Roger de Trumpington, 1289. Trumpington
Church, Cambridge.]
Another celebrated brass exemplifying in a remarkable degree the
military equipment of the period is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington,
1289, in Trumpington Church, near Cambridge (Fig. 114). This well-known
monumental effigy is one of five brasses which portray knights in the
cross-legged attitude, concerning which so much has been said and so
much written. The popular idea is, that the cross-legged position
denotes a pilgrimage, or else a participation in a Crusade, on the
part of the deceased, but this supposition is entirely negatived by
the existence of monuments to _bonâ-fide_ Crusaders, and to persons
known to have visited the Holy Land, who are represented with the lower
limbs not crossed. It is to be noted that this position is entirely
confined to England with the exception of one at Dublin, and the
generally accepted ideas are that these persons so represented were
benefactors to the Church and died in the odour of sanctity. But it
is perfectly admissible to suppose that, after all, this position was
entirely an idea of the artist or the engraver, preventing as it did
the ungainly stiffness in the d’Aubernoun brass. There are two examples
of carved stone effigies both cross-armed and cross-legged--Sir Roger
de Kerdeston, 1337, at Reepham, and Sir Oliver d’Ingham, 1343, at
Ingham, Norfolk; but neither of these were Crusaders, while both were
benefactors to their respective churches.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Heaume of Sir William de Staunton, 1312.]
The armour shown in the Trumpington brass is similar in general outline
to the d’Aubernoun example, but is peculiar in manifesting nothing
of an ornamental character. Two or three additions to the equipment,
however, are shown which are important. The head rests upon the great
heaume, which is of large proportions and conical, adapted for resting
upon and being supported by the shoulders. At the apex is shown a
staple for affixing either the contoise or the heraldic crest (to be
alluded to later), and this feature is also shown upon the heaume of
Sir William de Staunton, 1312, at Staunton, Notts (Fig. 115). From the
lower part of the back of the heaume a chain depends which fastens to
a narrow cord tied tightly round the waist; by this arrangement the
knight was enabled to regain this most important part of his equipment
in the event of his being unhelmed. Later on this chain was affixed to
a staple riveted or welded to the plastron-de-fer, openings being made
in the hauberk and surcoat to permit of this.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.--From the seal of Henry de Beaumont, Earl of
Buchan, 1322.]
[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Crest of John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey
(_d._ 1344). (From his seal, 1329.)]
_Ailettes._--This period might almost be termed the “ailette period,”
but for the fact that this extraordinary adjunct only prevailed during
a portion of the time. They were small shields or defences fastened
at right angles across the shoulders, designed to lessen the effect
of a sweeping cut from a sword or battle-axe, and were prototypes of
the passe-gardes of the late fifteenth century, and of the epaulettes
of the present day. The fact that a brass has necessarily a plane
surface prevents these being seen in their proper place; a perspective
representation would afford a vertical line only upon each shoulder,
and in order to display the surfaces and avoid any foreshortening,
the artist has turned them at right angles to their real positions.
The usual mode of their adjustment may be plainly perceived from a
representation of the seal of Henry de Beaumont, Earl of Buchan,
1322 (Fig. 116), where the stiff lower portion is bent upwards and
downwards to prevent a lateral fall; at the same time it is shaped
to the shoulder, and probably fixed tightly to the hauberk, or the
coif-de-mailles, by rings or rivets. Another example from a seal is
that of John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey, 1329 (Fig. 117). Here the
ailettes are apparently fastened only by one of the points and the half
of one of the sides, but undoubtedly the whole of it was concave to the
helmet; if so delineated by the artist the remote point would have been
invisible, and not proper for heraldic representation as required upon
a seal. Ailettes are rarely shown upon brasses and effigies; possibly
the Buslingthorpe, Chartham, Gorleston, and Clehongre examples are
the only ones in addition to the Trumpington. Upon seals they occur
fairly often, but not with any frequency until the commencement of the
fourteenth century. An early notice of ailettes occurs in the Roll
of Purchases for the great tournament held at Windsor in 1278, where
they are stated to have been made of leather covered with a kind of
cloth. Silk laces were supplied to fasten them, and it is remarkable,
to say the least, that the brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington, who
was one of the thirty-eight knights taking part in the tournament,
should furnish one of the earliest and best examples which has come
down to modern times. In the curious painted window at Tewkesbury
representing Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, who perished upon
the field of Bannockburn in 1314, we have the best illustration of
ailettes contributed by stained glass. Probably the windows were made
not long after the event, judging from the armour, which would be
designed of contemporary pattern. Hewitt engraves a figure of a knight
in Ash-by-Sandwich Church in which the ailettes appear as square
projections behind the shoulders. In illuminated MSS. of this period
the ailettes are very frequently shown, and are figured with combatants
in all positions, so that the nature of the defence can be very clearly
seen. They are also shown of all shapes and sizes. A lozenge-shaped
ailette is seen on the accompanying figure (No. 118) from Roy. MS. 14,
E. III., in which the same device appears as upon the shield, thus
proving that it is not a square one worn awry. At times one ailette
only seems to have been used, and that upon the left side; it appears
as a reinforcement to the shield in an illuminated MS. of Sir Launcelot
(Add. MS. 10,293), date 1316 (Fig. 119). Sometimes the ailettes are so
high and wide that they almost enclose the great heaume by forming a
circle round it, being fixed behind where they meet, and only allowing
a small opening in front for vision. The proper position is, as has
been stated, upon the shoulders and at right angles to them, but when
enlarged or of an inconvenient shape they were fixed upon the upper
part of the arm or behind the shoulder. For example, in Fig. 120, which
is taken from a MS. in the Bodleian Library, the ailettes are shown
of a circular form, which obviously would be awkward to fix upon the
shoulder, hence we see them upon the upper part of the arm.
[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Lozenge-shaped ailette (Roy. MS. 14, E.
III.), _c._ 1280.]
[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Soldier with one ailette (Roy. MS. 16, G. 6),
14th century.]
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Soldier with circular ailettes.]
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Knight (Roy. M.S. 2, A. 22), _c._ 1290.]
The use of ailettes is somewhat perplexing, and antiquarians have held
various theories respecting them. That they were not merely armorial is
proved by many showing no designs upon them whatever; that they were
not for the purpose of distinguishing leaders in a fray is negatived by
the fact that a knight’s cognisance was much better recognised from his
shield, surcoat, and crest; also, the ailettes appear in tournaments
where there would be no necessity for recognition. The only supposition
which appears to be defensible is that they were shields for the
neck and shoulders, but more especially for the latter, as the great
heaume protected the neck. In Germany they were called “tartschen,”
or shields. The defence afforded by a thick piece of leather, quilted
material, or steel in that position will be at once appreciated; so low
did they reach at times that they covered the junction of the arm with
the body at the back, and this is well exemplified in the Clehongre
effigy, dating from 1320, in which they are attached to the shoulders
by arming points, and are concave to the body. Occasionally for
tournaments and pageant purposes ailettes appear to have been made most
elaborately; thus we find in the inventory of Piers Gaveston in 1313 a
mention of a pair garnished and fretted with pearls.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Figures from martyrdom of Thomas à Beckett
(Harl. MS. 5102, Fo. 32), _c._ 1220.]
There is a singular figure of a knight in an attitude of devotion
illustrated in Roy. MS. 2, A. XXII., dating from about 1290, which has
been ably reproduced in Shaw’s “Dresses and Decorations of the Middle
Ages” (Fig. 121). Many little details of thirteenth-century armour are
delineated, affording a valuable acquisition to our knowledge. The mode
in which the coif-de-mailles is fastened up to the side of the head by
an arming point is well shown; the same method has been illustrated
in Fig. 122 on p. 107, where two continuous hauberks are seen looped
up in the same way. The palms of the hands are free from rings, in
order to afford a better grasp of a weapon; this was the usual mode
for constructing the mail gauntlet, and is also shown in Fig. 123. It
also permitted the gauntlet being slipped off the hand when required.
The gauntlets are continuous with the sleeves of the hauberk. Upon the
shoulders are singularly small ailettes, consisting merely of a cross
similar in design to those emblazoned upon the surcoat. The thighs
are defended by chaussons or haut-de-chausses of mail, apparently
with rings only upon the parts exposed. The chausses are of Bezanté
armour, formed of small discs, each with a stud in the centre; these
are sewn or riveted on to a pliable material, probably leather, which
is fastened together by a series of points down the back of the leg.
The chausses are prolonged to cover the feet, upon which are strapped
the usual short pryck spur. The heaume is very much ornamented, and
its general contour points to an earlier date than _c._ 1290, as does
also the absence of genouillières. The lance and its pennon are shown.
A leg protection of leather and highly ornamented was in use upon the
Continent at this period; its form and dimensions may be gleaned from
Fig. 125.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--From “Lives of the Two Offas,” by M. Paris
(Cott. MS., Nero, D. 1).]
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Circular ailettes. (MS. 211, Bod. Lib.)]
In a MS. in the Bodleian Library (No. 211) a knight or man-at-arms
is represented carrying a shield and wearing ailettes of a circular
pattern, which are fastened to his banded mail at the upper part of the
arm (Fig. 124). He wears a hemispherical steel cap and is clothed in
a voluminous surcoat. A similar example, but of later date, is shown
in Roy. MS. 20, D. 2, British Museum, where a figure habited in banded
mail and a conical pot-helm, with sword and shield, wears circular
ailettes in precisely the same manner as the previous example (Fig.
126).
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Leg defence (Italian), _c._ 1289. Relief in
Annunziata Convent.]
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Knight (Roy. MS. 2, D. 11), 13th century.]
THE BANNER, PENNON, AND PENNONÇEL
The knightly Banner of the period was either square or oblong; in
the latter case the height was invariably twice the width (see
Fig. 127). It was the distinctive mark of the Knight Banneret, and
always indicated superiority of command and importance, inasmuch
as it required a retinue of at least fifty men-at-arms with their
followers to adequately support the dignity. Thus it was a position of
distinction which could only be enjoyed by the rich, and the chronicles
of the mediæval period record instances of knights who, having
specially distinguished themselves on the field of battle, declined
the proffered honour of Knight Banneret on the score of insufficient
means. If, on the other hand, it were accepted, it was usual to convert
the pennon of the knight into a banner on the spot by simply cutting
off the tail or tails. The simple knight, or Knight Bachelor as he was
termed, carried a Pennon or Pavon, which was furnished with one or
more tails, as in Fig. 121, where it is represented with three; that
of Henri de Perci, first Earl of Northumberland, with two (see Fig.
128); and in the d’Aubernoun brass, where one is depicted. He became
eligible for knighthood at twenty-one, presuming that he had sufficient
private property to support the dignity, but had to distinguish himself
in the field or otherwise before the honour was conferred. It was not
absolutely necessary to be of gentle birth, as many examples may be
cited of knighthood being conferred upon those who could not claim such
descent. The contingent he led into battle under his pennon varied in
number according to his means. The Pennonçel or Pensil was a small,
narrow streamer to which the Esquire, or aspirant to knighthood, was
entitled. It was necessary for him to serve an apprenticeship in
arms, and he generally attended the castle of a neighbouring baron,
or the court of the king. Such was, briefly, the etiquette respecting
the three different flags of knighthood, quite apart from those of
the chief commanders and the great standards. There were, of course,
variations introduced. Pennons shown in Figs. 129 and 130 from the
Painted Chamber are triangular, and the banner in Fig. 130 is nearly
three times as high as it is wide. Before quitting this subject it may
be mentioned that knighthood was quite distinct from birth and social
position, and was simply a scheme of military rank, the aspirants
having absolutely equal opportunities for acquiring the dignity.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Banner of Knight Banneret.]
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Pennon of Henri de Perci, Earl of
Northumberland.]
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Pavon, Painted Chamber.]
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Early heaume and helmets with nasals. Painted
Chamber.]
_The Heaume._--During the first thirty years of this period, that
is until about 1280, the heaumes continued to be generally of the
flat-topped variety not reaching to the shoulders, but having the
addition of a movable visor. One, however, shown in Fig. 131 and dating
from _c._ 1250, differs considerably, and shows a heaume approaching
the dimensions and shape of a bascinet, while the visor is adapted
for raising or for removal. An earlier example without a visor is one
seen in a group from the Painted Chamber in conjunction with helmets
having a nasal (Fig. 130). In Fig. 132 we have an example of one of the
earliest and plainest of this variety, in which the ventaille could
be removed at pleasure from the two projecting studs on the heaume
which kept it in place. Fig. 133 is of the same type, but furnished
with a more elaborate visor, and with a crown surmounting it. Fig. 134
is from the seal of Richard Plantagenet, King of the Romans and Earl
of Cornwall, who died in 1272, and Fig. 135 from that of Robert de
Ferrars, Earl of Derby, died _c._ 1279; in both we trace the tendency
to alter the shape of the lower rim. The movable ventaille was not in
all cases directly detachable from the heaume, but swung outwards upon
a hinge on one side, similar to a wicket gate; as this hinge had a
pin running through it which could be withdrawn, the visor was wholly
removed if not required.
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Helmet, _c._ 1250.]
[Illustration: FIG. 132.]
[Illustration: FIG. 133.]
About 1270 the round-topped variety came into fashion, of which
examples are found until the end of the century and even after it. The
seal of Patrick Dunbar, 10th Earl of March, affords a good illustration
of the heaume with a circular crown; it is furnished with a movable
visor. Other examples are shown in groups in the Painted Chamber at
Westminster, and two very late specimens are represented in Figs. 116
and 117 on p. 102.
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--From the seal of Richard Plantagenet, Earl of
Cornwall, King of the Romans (_d._ 1272).]
[Illustration: FIG. 135.--From the seal of Robert de Ferrars, Earl of
Derby (_d._ before 1279).]
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Knight, showing mail over pot-de-fer, 1290.]
About the year 1280 the conical-topped heaume came into use, whose
general form is delineated in Fig. 137, and has already been noticed
in the Trumpington brass. It was of great weight, and either hung
at the saddle bow, or was carried by the squire, when not in use; it
rested upon the shoulders, and thus relieved the head of the greater
part of its weight. Two heaumes are here shown (Figs. 138, 139) from
Add. MS. 10,294 in the British Museum. One is of the plain and ordinary
pattern, but the second shows a movable visor which can either be
raised or removed entirely. It also illustrates a reinforcing plate
protecting the sides of the head. Inside it was thickly padded, and
representations of this feature may often be discerned upon monumental
effigies, where the heaume is used to support the head of the recumbent
knightly figure. To keep it in position laces were attached to the
lower edge at the back; these are clearly seen in Fig. 121, p. 106.
[Illustration: FIG. 137.]
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Heaume. (Add. MS. 10,294.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Heaume. (Add. MS. 10,294.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Heaume of Henri de Perci, _c._ 1300.]
The development of the crest during this period did not make much
headway, but a few examples from seals and MSS. will show that there
was a certain amount of progress. The heaume of Baron Henri de Perci,
_c._ 1300 (Fig. 140), exhibits a highly ornamented crest with the
distinctive feature of two streamers affixed to its base, the contoise
or mantling in its incipient form. The comb is deeply serrated, and
ornamented with gadroons springing from the centre. Upon the seal of
Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, 1301 (Fig. 141), the conical heaume is
shown, not reaching, however, to the shoulders, with a small, plain
comb upon its summit, differing in that respect from the crests of
Richard Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel (Fig. 142), and Humphrey Bohun,
Earl of Hereford (Fig. 143), which both date from the same year. A
singularly plain heaume, considering the distinction of the wearer,
is that of Edward, Prince of Wales, 1305, as delineated upon his seal
(Fig. 144). The crest of John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey, 1329, shown
in Fig. 117 on p. 102, displays a startling development upon the
preceding examples, and exhibits a high order of decorative design in
crests at this early period.
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--From the seal of Henry de Lacy, Earl of
Lincoln, 1301.]
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--From the seal of Richard Fitzalan, Earl of
Arundel, 1301.]
[Illustration: FIG. 143.--From the seal of Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of
Hereford, 1301.]
[Illustration: FIG. 144.--From the seal of Edward of Carnarvon, Prince
of Wales, 1305.]
[Illustration: PLATE XI
Sir Robert de Bures, 1302. Acton Church, Suffolk]
At Acton in Suffolk is a monumental brass to Sir Robert de Bures,
dating from the year 1302, which holds the proud position of being the
finest early brass in existence, and which may also fairly claim to
be the finest military brass extant. The details of equipment differ
but little from the d’Aubernoun and Trumpington brasses, but the guige
of the shield, by being partially hidden under the tippet of the
coif-de-mailles, indicates that the coif was entirely separate from
the hauberk, and was not continuous, as might be imagined from the
early brasses. The genouillières are very elaborate, and probably of
cuir-bouilli; above them and beneath the skirt of the hauberk are
seen the padded and quilted trews covering the chausses from the knee
upwards. This garment, whose surface was usually of silk, baudekyn, or
other costly material, is shown in the brass to be richly embroidered
with fleur-de-lys and an ornament resembling in shape the Greek lyre,
disposed alternately in lozenges formed by the reticulations of the
silken cords, and a similar decoration appears upon the grip of the
sword (Plate XI.).
Sir Robert de Septvans, 1306, is another knight whose brass effigy
has the cross-legged position; it is in Chartham Church, Kent, and
affords an excellent illustration of the military accoutrement at the
termination of the reign of Edward I. (Fig. 146). The singular name of
Septvans (or Seven Fans) is derived from the heraldic cognisance of the
family, and is shown upon the figure as seven fans of the shape used
for winnowing wheat at that period. The coif-de-mailles is thrown back
in this effigy, and rests upon the shoulders in folds; the ailettes are
square or oblong, and the sleeves of the hauberk are thrown back off
the hands and are shown depending from the wrist. Beneath the hauberk
the quilted undergarment called the haqueton appears; the trews are of
similar material, and apparently are continued under the genouillières,
probably to avoid chafing. The latter are of plate, and a stud is shown
which fastens them to a strap behind the knee. The sword-hilt and
scabbard are enriched with a highly effective diaper design.
[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Knight in banded mail, 1310. Croft, Lincs.]
Between the years 1306 and 1320 there are no brasses in existence
exhibiting the full military equipment of the time, the example at
Croft, 1310, being only a half-brass and singularly devoid of detail
(Fig. 145). Two brasses, however, dating from 1320, afford us an
opportunity of seeing the marked development in defences which had
been adopted in the interval. The Bacon brass in Gorleston Church,
Suffolk, has been much mutilated, but sufficient is retained to make
it of interest. The coif-de-mailles, hauberk, surcoat, sword-belt,
shield, and guige show no differences, but in the plate defences a
great advance has been made. The back of the upper arms from shoulder
to elbow, and the front of the lower arms from the bend of the elbow
to the wrist, are protected by plates of steel, fastened by steel
straps round the limbs; these are respectively the Demi-Brassarts
and Demi-Vambraces. Upon the elbows are the Coudières, and upon
the knees Genouillières of plate, while the shins are defended by
Demi-Jambarts, all being fixed over the chain mail to fulfil the office
of reinforcements. At the shoulder and elbow bends, roundels of plate
appear, and over the shoulder are ailettes marked with the Cross of St.
George. The shield is small and heater-shaped, and is furnished with
a narrow guige. In the Fitzralph brass, 1320, Pebmarsh Church, Essex
(Fig. 147), the general arrangement is similar to the Gorleston brass,
but no ailettes are shown, and the shield is large and concave to the
body. Upon the feet are Sollerets consisting of five lames of plate
riveted together and kept in place by two straps passing under each
foot. The swords of both figures show straight quillons not drooping
to the blade as formerly. The pryck spur is still in vogue, and from
the roundels the small projecting spikes should be noticed. The five
cross-legged brasses thus described and illustrated are all that now
remain to us, and of these five only one, that of Trumpington, so far
as is known, represents a knight who followed the banner of the Holy
Cross to Palestine.
[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Sir Robert de Septvans, 1306. Chartham
Church, Kent.]
[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Sir -- de Fitzralph, _c._ 1320. Pebmarsh
Church, Essex.]
[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Figures from “Massacre of the Innocents”
(Add. MS. 17,687), _c._ 1290.]
The defensive equipment of the ordinary foot soldier of this period
is well delineated in Fig. 148, which is taken from Add. MS. 17,687
in the British Museum, a German illumination dating from _c._ 1290.
The subject is the Massacre of the Innocents, a favourite theme for
illustrations in those times: the central figure is holding in the air
a child (not shown except the foot) preparatory to dashing it upon the
ground, while the soldier to the right has the decapitated head of a
child, also not reproduced, in his left hand. The coif-de-mailles are
in all three examples peculiar in being continued as a pectoral; in two
cases they are constructed of banded mail, and in the third of studded
jazeraint. Two hauberks are shown, one of banded mail and the other of
jazeraint. The central figure has genouillières of leather which, like
those of his companions upon his left, are apparently continuous round
the joint: the strips of pendent leather from them have been sewn over
the shins and calves, while studded strips over chausses of the same
material cover the lower limbs of his comrade. The third figure has
simple chausses of banded mail with no reinforcement: long swords with
characteristic pommels are worn, and the whole group is a most striking
example of the lack of uniformity at the period. Also see Figs. 149 and
150.
[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Soldier (Sloan MS. 346), _c._ 1280.]
[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Swordsman of the chain mail reinforced
period.]
_Archers._--From the time of the Norman Conquest the practice of
archery assumed an importance which did not fall to its lot before
in England. The Saxons had not paid particular attention to this arm
from a military standpoint, only using it in sport, and the success
of the Normans at Hastings was due in a great measure to the skill
and superior numbers of their archers. The latter are shown on the
tapestry both in hauberks and without, and one is seen on horseback.
The bow appears to be of the simplest form of construction, and the
arrow decidedly not the cloth-yard shaft of a later age. It became a
custom from a very early date for the archer to bear a stake sharpened
at both ends which the front ranks drove firmly into the ground with
the second and uppermost point sloping from them, while the rear ranks
filled up the intermediate spaces with theirs. When protected thus
in front and on both flanks it was found that the archers of England
could defy the charge of the heaviest cavalry. Already in the twelfth
century the English began to develop that prowess in archery which
subsequently made them renowned throughout the Continent of Europe. At
the siege of Messina by Cœur de Lion we are told by Richard of Devizes
that the Sicilians were obliged to leave their walls unmanned “because
no one could look abroad but he would have an arrow in his eye before
he could shut it,” while Richard himself did not disdain the use of
the weapon, but used it personally with deadly effect when besieging
Nottingham Castle, defended by the adherents of his brother John. Among
the enactments of Henry I. of England it was provided that if any one
practising with arrows or with darts should by accident slay another it
was not to be visited against him as a crime.
[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Archer, _c._ 1250.]
[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Archer, 1330. (Roy. MS. 16, C. 6.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Archers. (Roy. MS. 20, D. 1.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Archer, &c., from Painted Chamber.]
It was during the period now under consideration, 1250 to 1325, that
the archer first stepped into prominent notice, and that the efficacy
of his weapon, the most deadly that the art of man devised until the
introduction of gunpowder, came to be fully recognised. During the
Norman period the infantry as a rule were armed with the bow, but
the other weapons they bore were considered of equal if not greater
usefulness and importance in battle, owing probably to the undeveloped
condition of the weapon. With the advent, however, of the long-bow
proper, and the invention of the arbalest, the deadly effect of the
arrow and the quarrel began to be fully recognised and accepted, and
changes consequently occurred in the art of warfare occasioned by the
adoption of these weapons. The bow was not at first considered to be of
exceptional efficiency in the open field, but to be especially valuable
in sieges, and the defence of mountain passes and strongholds. When
this idea was proved to be erroneous we find from various Statutes
of Arms that a number of the military tenants were ordered to be
provided with the long-bow and arrows. The Statute of Westminster, for
instance, especially mentions the bow. Their equipment was considerably
augmented also with respect to body armour, for in Fig. 109 on p. 94
we see the bowman of _c._ 1220 defended only by his chapelle-de-fer,
whereas in Figs. 153, 155, taken from Roy. MS. 20, D 1, dating from the
end of the century, when the conical heaume had been generally adopted,
the archers are depicted with the same headgear and the body defended
by a hauberk of banded mail. Whether arrows were ever furnished with
the small cross-pieces as shown is conjectural; they are, however,
often shown in MSS. having a foreign origin. In Fig. 154 the archer is
seen clad in a coif-de-mailles and hauberk. The arrow-head is usually
barbed as shown, but whether the three-barbed arrow of Spain, shown in
the Spanish Codex, Add. MS. 11,695, written in 1109, was ever adopted
in England is very doubtful. The fourteenth century showed the fullest
development of the bow, as we shall find, and during that period the
archer attained the height of his importance, but by his equipment at
this early period we may conclude that he was taking an important place
in the military force of the nation.
[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Mounted archer (Roy. MS. 20, D. 1.), _c._
1290.]
[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Military equipment, _c._ 1280.]
[Illustration: PLATE XII*
Foot Armour of Philip II., made by Desiderius Colman
_A. F. Calvert_]
_Arbalestiers._--The arbalest or cross-bow was known apparently as
early as the fourth century, and is mentioned in manuscripts of the
tenth; it appears, however, to have been chiefly used for sport that
time. It was not before the close of the twelfth century that it was
recognised as a military weapon, or is illustrated in manuscripts. In
the beginning of the twelfth century there appears to have been an
effort made for its introduction, but at a council held under Pope
Innocent II. in 1139, it was placed under an interdict as a barbarous
weapon and unfit for Christian warfare, and this condemnation was
subsequently confirmed by Innocent III. In the meantime, however,
Richard I. of England and Philip Augustus of France had sanctioned its
use during the Crusade in which they had taken part, Richard being the
first to advocate its use, and Philip acquiescing and subsequently
adopting his example. The cross-bow thus introduced into England at
the end of the twelfth century practically became obsolete at the
termination of the thirteenth, when the long-bow almost succeeded in
extirpating its rival. This, however, was by no means the case upon
the Continent, where it was the leading arm until the introduction
of the arquebus, and throughout the thirteenth century cross-bowmen
became integral units of every English army, sometimes being mounted.
The King’s Bodyguard, founded by Richard I., was formed partly of
arbalestiers. In the copious records left by Matthew Paris, who died
in 1259, the cross-bowman is continually mentioned. His particular
post was in the forefront of the battle and upon the wings, where the
heavy quarrels discharged from his weapon were supposed to check the
advance of the enemy’s cavalry; and scarcely a battle is recorded
in that part of the thirteenth century where the arbalestier is not
credited with performing most conspicuous service. In the battle near
Damietta in 1237 a hundred Templars and three hundred cross-bowmen
are said to have fallen, and the Emperor Frederick in 1239, writing
to Henry III. of England, mentions the very prominent part played in
a campaign by the arbalestiers. In the contest with Louis IX., Henry
III. had seven hundred cross-bowmen in his force, while the French had
a vastly greater number. In King John’s time the pay for a cross-bowman
on foot was threepence per day, while if mounted he was paid sevenpence
halfpenny or fifteenpence, according as to whether he possessed one or
two horses. Notwithstanding the conspicuous successes of these troops
they occupied an invidious position in other countries than our
own; for the knights and men-at-arms, if they perceived the day being
won by the prowess of the cross-bowmen, did not hesitate to charge
through their ranks in order to share in the glory. This occurred
many times upon the Continent, though happily no record exists of its
happening in England.
[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Arbalestier, _c._ 1250.]
[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Archer and arbalestier, 13th century.]
Like the bowman of his time the arbalestier was clad occasionally in
heavy armour. In the annexed Fig. 158 of an archer and a cross-bowman,
from Add. MS. 15,268 and dating from the close of the thirteenth
century, the armour of the latter appears to be of the tegulated
or the scale variety, though it is quite possible that it may be
intended for banded mail. Upon his head he wears a leather skull-cap
strengthened apparently by iron bands, under which appears a linen or
soft leather coif. A representation of a similar skull-cap of leather
(Fig. 159), ornamented with a strengthening device in iron which is
prolonged into a nasal, is shown upon one of the figures in the Painted
Chamber, Westminster. The pile of the cross-bow bolt is shown to be
quite distinct from the barbed head of the arrow. In Fig. 109, p. 94,
the cross-bowman is represented as heavily armed in a pot-helm and
hauberk of mail. The supersession of the cross-bow in England by the
long-bow was due to natural causes. It was found that as the long-bow
underwent improvements it outclassed the cross-bow in more ways than
one. A powerful and skilful bowman could discharge half-a-dozen or more
arrows during the time necessitated for winding up the cross-bow for
a second shot; also the distance covered by the arrow, together with
its penetrative force, were quite equal to that of the quarrel, and
is generally considered to have been superior. In consequence of this
rapidity of fire the English archer invariably beat down the attack
of Continental cross-bowmen, if equal in numbers, and, very often,
when they were in excess. Compactness of troops was a great point in
mediæval warfare, and the bowmen could stand closer together with their
bows vertical than their brethren of the cross-bow with their weapons
in the horizontal position. There is little doubt that the cross-bow
was the ideal weapon for the ordinary soldier of an ordinary race,
inasmuch as little intellect was required to direct the aim and little
strength was necessary if the usual mechanical means were used to
bend the bow. For the efficient use of the long-bow, on the contrary,
a keen judgment was an absolute necessity, and it was only a race of
considerable physical power that could put forth the strength and
maintain the exertion which the long-bow demanded. It is undoubtedly
a matter for national self-complacency to reflect upon the fact that
while the British gradually discarded the cross-bow and adopted the
long-bow almost entirely, the Continental nations proceeded in exactly
the opposite direction.
[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Nasal. Painted Chamber, Westminster.]
[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Arbalestier, 1330. (Roy. MS. 16, G 6.)]
_The Hand Cross-bow._--The cross-bow as at first introduced was of a
simple construction, and permitted of the bow being drawn by the hands
alone, without the aid of mechanical means. Such a bow is that shown in
Figs. 109, 157, 160, &c., which when required to be strung was simply
placed upon the ground, the left foot inserted in the iron loop at the
end of the stock, and the string drawn up with the right hand, until
it engaged in the notch. This is termed the hand cross-bow. The oldest
arbalest in the Wallace Collection dates from 1450, and is probably
of German construction. The stock is of wood inlaid with plaques of
polished stag-horn, which are beautifully carved in relief. The bow is
of great strength, partly enveloped in parchment and leather painted,
and the original cord remains.
_The Goat’s Foot, or Hind’s Foot, Cross-bow._--The apparatus to bend
this bow is essentially a double lever consisting of two pieces
articulated together. The smaller piece is divided into two distinct
parts, each of which terminates in a catch; one of these engages
with the bow-string and the other upon points on either side of the
stock. The longer arm of the lever was drawn back, and the catch with
the bow-string followed it until, being brought up sufficiently into
position, the string was caught by the notch and remained secure until
discharged. An arbalest is preserved in the Wallace Collection, dating
from 1520, the bow of which is built up of layers of cane, whalebone,
hide, and parchment, ornamented and painted; this bow was bent by the
goat’s-foot lever, a few examples of which are to be seen in the Museum.
_The Wheel and Ratchet Cross-bow._--This apparatus is affixed to the
bow stock behind the trigger by a stout cord which passes round the
stock and holds the mechanism firmly. It consists of a flat, circular,
iron case which contains in its outer periphery a small toothed wheel
which can be turned by a long handle. Passing through the circular
case and engaging with the small wheel is a straight ratchet with one
side cogged: this ratchet has a catch at the end remote from the case
which engages with the bow-string. By merely turning the handle and so
revolving the wheel the ratchet is wound through the case, thus drawing
back the string to its resting-place. The apparatus is then detached
and hung at the belt until wanted again.
In Plate XL., p. 366, taken at the Rotunda, Woolwich, an arbalestier
of _c._ 1450 may be discerned in the act of winding his cross-bow by
a one-handled moulinet, the head of the stock, which is very short,
resting on his knee and not on the ground. It takes a weight of 400
lbs. to bend this bow.
[Illustration: PLATE XIII*
Philip II., Armour by Wolf of Landshut, 1550
_A. F. Calvert_]
_Moulinet and Pulleys Cross-bow._--A piece of iron bent into the form
of a stirrup is affixed to the stock (adjacent to the bow in this
case), similar to that of the hand cross-bow, for the insertion of
the left foot, so as to gain the largest amount of steadiness and
purchase. At the butt end of the stock, against the archers body, a
system of fixed pulleys, having cords running over another system of
free pulleys, is firmly affixed by the insertion of the butt into a
socket. The free-pulley system has a catch attached to it which engages
with the cord of the bow: by winding up the fixed system with a small
windlass having a handle on either side, the free system approaches the
butt, bringing with it the string of the bow, which after a time is
duly caught in the notch provided for it. The tackle is then released
and hung at the belt until wanted. An excellent example of Moulinet
and Pulleys may be seen in the Wallace Collection, dating from 1490 to
1500; it is constructed of steel, and is in good preservation.
_The Cross-bow à Galet._--In this type the bow is bent by means of a
lever fixed to the stock, and was much used in the sixteenth century
for the discharge of stones, spherical balls of lead, &c. In order to
afford a good purchase for the lever, the stock between the bow and the
string-catch was very often curved downwards into a segment of a circle
and made of metal.
_The Barrelled Cross-bow_ was as a rule bent by hand, although a short
stick was occasionally used. A half-tube covered the groove through
which the quarrel travelled, thus leaving a passage for the string. It
did not carry to any remarkable distance, but in spite of this was in
much request during the seventeenth century.
[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Slinger with staff sling or fustibal, 13th
century.]
The missiles for cross-bows are termed quarrels, or bolts, and
generally terminated in a four-sided pyramidal head or pile, being
occasionally feathered with wood or brass. One kind was so feathered
as to cause the bolt to rotate upon its axis. The cross-bow did not
altogether disappear from the army. We find mention in 1572, in the
time of Queen Elizabeth, of cross-bowmen being part of a force of six
thousand men furnished by the queen to King Charles IX. The slinger of
this period is well delineated in Fig. 161. It will be perceived that
he carries no protection whatever in the shape of armour; his weapon is
the staff sling or fustibal.
_Banded Mail._--Toward the close of the thirteenth century a new
species of armour made its appearance, which is generally known by the
name of Banded Mail. It was in extensive use for about a century or
more, and appears upon the knight as well as upon the ordinary soldier.
Chain mail was apparently superseded by the banded mail, though not
entirely, as the former appears upon regal effigies and persons of the
aristocratic families, from which we may infer that the chain variety
was retained by those who could afford it and banded mail was used by
those whose means were limited.
As the structure of banded mail always presents difficulty to the
student, and many conjectures made at various times have as a rule
rendered the question more difficult still without solving it, it is
obviously not out of place in this work to deal comprehensively with
the subject and, it is hoped, to definitely decide the question. The
premises from which we may argue are as follows:--
[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Banded mail: knight of the De Sulney family
at Newton Solney, Derbyshire.]
1. From the time of the first Crusade, or approximately about that
time, chain mail proper was the flexible defensive covering for the
English knight, and various kinds of jazeraint armour, in which
leather, metal plates, padded material, &c., were indiscriminately
used, for the ordinary soldier. The chain mail was obviously too dear
for the average purse.
2. During the period mentioned above archery was in an incipient
condition, and bodily defences were adapted to withstand the weapons
in ordinary use, which, if we exclude the javelin, and, under
extraordinary circumstances, the lance, were hand and not missile
weapons.
3. The simultaneous adoption of banded mail, not only by the common
soldier, but also by a large proportion of the knightly forces, points
conclusively to the fact that chain mail was no longer considered an
adequate defence; in other words that the adoption of a new arm had
rendered it inefficient, and that another description of armour was
imperatively demanded to withstand its effects.
4. The use of leather as a means for bodily defence had been known
from the most ancient times, and in England had been freely used by
the Saxons, as we have seen. From the Conquest onwards it had steadily
advanced in favour, and culminated in importance in the first half of
the fourteenth century during the Studded and Splinted Armour Period,
not finally disappearing until the adoption of total plate defences
rendered its use obsolete. Its second rise into favour during the
seventeenth century is obviously not connected with this question,
except to emphasise the fact that leather has always been considered an
efficacious defence against sword-cuts, and also against missiles which
are not gifted with too great powers of penetration.
5. The fact that banded mail, whether seen upon the inside or the
outside, presents exactly the same appearance (see the Creke,
Northwode, and d’Aubernoun brasses) and is delineated in such manner in
illuminated manuscripts, and carved the same in monumental effigies,
precludes the supposition that rings of metal were sewn down or
otherwise affixed to a garment of leather, as had been the fashion with
Saxons and Normans. Unless, however, we suppose a total abandonment of
leather as a defence which had been growing in favour previously and
which culminated afterwards, we must conclude that leather in some form
was used in the construction of the mail.
6. The abandonment generally of chain mail and the adoption of banded
mail occurred synchronously with the extraordinary development of the
long-bow in the latter part of the thirteenth century.
7. Banded mail was of so flexible a character that folds are depicted
in garments constructed of this material; it was used for hauberks,
camails, chausses, sleeves, and, in short, for every purpose in which
its predecessor had been used.
8. It is represented in MSS. with a metallic surface. The colour is
always silver, white or grey of various shades, and gold. We have
therefore to devise a protection which shall be of greater service than
chain against arrows; which shall be comparatively cheap; in which
leather plays a more or less conspicuous part; which shall present the
same appearance when viewed upon both sides; shall be flexible; and
finally shall have a metallic surface or general appearance.
[Illustration: PLATE XIV
Suggested Construction of Banded Mail]
The accompanying diagram (Plate XIV.) is taken from a photograph
of a piece of banded mail constructed according to our idea of the
structure of the mediæval defence. The rings are iron washers, 1 in.
in diameter and 1/16 in. thick. Through the centre of the washers a
piece of leather exactly as wide as the apertures passes from end to
end. The washers are arranged like rouleaux of coin, each one just
covering the aperture through the centre of the one below. Between
each row of washers a thick piece of leather is placed, the raw edges
being visible on either side of the mail where they have been rounded
off with the knife. The section of this leather band would be similar
to that of a dumb-bell, the centres on each side of the leather being
hollowed so as to permit the edges of the rouleaux to approach each
other and almost touch, the thin centre only preventing them. To the
middle of this leather band the individual rings of the mail are sewn
of both the upper and lower rows. The best portion of this example is
that immediately to the right of the white band. The appearance of
both sides of this example of mail is precisely similar; it is very
flexible, and easily bends in any required direction. The weight,
however, would probably be prohibitory, even to a mediæval knight, and
in order to lighten it we may suggest that every alternate washer be
made of leather, or even that two washers of leather alternate with one
of metal. Against this it may be argued that banded mail is represented
with a metallic tint, but so also is chain mail, which must have
presented ordinarily a rusty-hued mass with simply an outer surface
of polished iron. The liability to rust of chain mail must have been
excessive, and the two outer and accessible surfaces were undoubtedly
the only portions usually polished. So well known is this fact that in
the pageants now prevalent brown string is knitted to represent chain
armour, the outer surface being subsequently covered with a metallic
medium. As a consequence the limners of banded mail would represent it
with a metallic surface even though it presented as brown or rusty an
aspect as chain mail. The washers used in the modern example would in
the mediæval period be flattened rings of metal, and the excessively
coarse and large banded mail would be oval rings and not circular. The
bands are at times represented by single lines, and the suggestion is
obvious that the lines simply represent the junction of the rouleaux
which have not the extra defence of the bands of leather, or else the
band is so narrow that one line is sufficient for its representation.
We will now deal with its efficiency for defence against arrows,
which appears to have been the chief reason for its being called into
existence. These missiles would strike either upon the rouleaux or upon
the bands, and would impinge either at a right angle to the plane of
the surface, or at any angle less than a right angle. An arrow striking
the rouleaux at right angles would endeavour to pass through (1) the
thickness of a metal or leather disc; (2) the leather running through
the discs; (3) the thickness of a metal or leather disc at the rear. If
it struck a metal disc, however, there would be a deflective tendency
either to right or left, according to the slant of the disc.
An arrow striking at an acute angle upon the rouleaux would glance off
if the discs slanted in its direction; if the discs sloped from it the
arrow might insert itself between two of them, penetrate the band of
leather running through the centres, and then endeavour to pass between
two discs at the back. So tightly, however, would these discs be
pressed together, by the leverage of the arrow-head itself in enlarging
the opening between them in the front, that it is questionable if
the inertia remaining in the arrow would enable it to overcome such
resistance, remembering that the discs are firmly fixed both at the top
and bottom to the leather bands. If an arrow struck upon one of the
bands it would have to penetrate at least half-an-inch of leather and
force apart the rouleaux firmly sewn, or affixed in other ways, to the
band on either side.
The specimen of banded mail constructed in accordance with the
foregoing method possesses in actual practice the resisting power
claimed for it; the apparent weak point is the penetrability between
the discs. If, however, the rings are firmly sewn to the lateral bands
the resistance to an arrow is almost if not quite equal to that of any
other part of the mail; the arrow becomes firmly fixed in the discs
without penetrating to the body. It is an unsettled question as to
whether or not complete armour of leather discs was ever introduced
into England: certain it is that the armour of William Longuespée,
first Earl of Salisbury, in Salisbury Cathedral was originally painted
brown, but that might signify, as we have said before, rusty chain mail
and not leather; whereas upon the few sculptured effigies in banded
mail preserved to us the colouring has altogether disappeared.